the rise and fall of the roman republic essay

Roman Republic: The rise and fall of ancient Rome's government

In theory, the Roman Republic was designed to represent both wealthy and poor citizens, but the reality was quite different.

Slow expansion

• Republic government
• Roman Republic decline

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The Roman Republic was a form of government in Rome that lasted from around 509 B.C. to 27 B.C. 

According to ancient Roman writers, the Roman Republic emerged in 509 B.C., after the last king of Rome was deposed. Modern-day historians often consider the official end of the Roman Republic to be 27 B.C., which was the year that Octavian — who had risen to become the ruler of Rome — was given the title "Augustus" (a title that means "revered one") by the Roman senate. 

The Roman Republic was a period of territorial expansion presided over by a government that was designed to represent both the wealthy and poor citizens of ancient Rome . While this system somewhat benefited Roman citizens, it often resulted in harsh treatment for anyone who was not a citizen of Rome. 

Surviving historical and archaeological remains indicate that it took centuries for Rome to conquer all of Italy. Progress was very slow with the conquest of even a single city, sometimes taking a century; for instance "the whole fifth century B.C. was taken up with battles against the wealthy and powerful Etruscan city of Veii," wrote Klaus Bringmann, who was a professor of Greek and Roman history at Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in his book " A History of the Roman Republic " (Polity Books, 2007). It wasn't until 396 B.C. that Veii "was conquered and destroyed," wrote Bringmann. Any celebratory attitude in Rome was undone when the Gauls sacked Rome in 390 B.C. 

Rome recovered, however, and in the fourth century B.C. the Roman military fought against both a people called the "Samnites" and a group of cities known as the "Latin League," wrote Bringmann, noting that at times Rome was allied with Carthage , a city against which it would later fight a series of wars. 

Rome gradually took over cities and territories in Italy, employing a variety of tactics, Bringmann noted. Sometimes Rome built a colony on newly conquered territory. Sometimes a city would join with Rome, its inhabitants granted full or limited Roman citizenship. At other times, a city would agree to form an alliance with Rome and promised to provide troops to Rome when requested. These tactics would gradually see Rome take control of much of the Italian mainland during the fourth and third centuries B.C. 

With these tactics, Rome built up a large force of soldiers who were either Roman citizens or citizens of cities allied with Rome. The Greek historian Polybius (ca. 200 B.C. — 118 B.C.) claimed that by 225 B.C. Rome could field a force of over 700,000 soldiers. "None of the great Mediterranean powers with whom Rome fought wars in the third or second centuries B.C. could match figures of this kind," Bringmann said. 

This large source of military manpower meant that Rome could readily replace soldiers who had been killed or wounded. This proved important during many conflicts. For instance, between 280 B.C. and 275 B.C., Rome fought a war against King Pyrrhus, who ruled a kingdom called "Epirus" that incorporated parts of modern-day Albania and northern Greece. During this war, Pyrrhus won several military victories during which both sides sustained heavy casualties. However, while the Romans could readily replace their losses, King Pyrrhus could not and ultimately his forces were whittled down and defeated during the war. The term "Pyrrhic victory" is used today to describe a victory that takes a heavy toll on the victor, a toll heavy enough that it may prevent them from winning a war. 

What was the Roman Republic?

The Roman Republic used a complex system that incorporated a senate, consuls, magistrates, tribunes, and at times a dictator and other public officials. This system changed over time, incorporating the interests of both the patricians (the families of Rome that were from a noble, elite, background) and the plebeians, Roman citizens who were not nobles and often came from poorer backgrounds. 

By 366 B.C., this system consisted of two consuls; a praetor, plebeian tribunes (who could hold a great deal of power); quaesters (who specialized in financial affairs); two aediles (who were in charge of public safety, grain supply, Rome's markets and public religious games); censors (who kept track of Rome's population); a senate; several magistrates; a plebeian assembly (or council); a centuriate assembly and at times a dictator who, with the approval of Rome's senate, could hold absolute power for six months during a military campaign, Bringmann said. By 321 B.C., the republic established a rule that required one consul to be from a patrician background and one from a plebeian background. 

For voting purposes, citizens were often divided into a system of centuries and tribes, a person's wealth or geographic location sometimes having a bearing on which century and tribe they belonged to, wrote Bringmann. As time went on, and Roman territory expanded, the republic system broke down and sometimes led to two or more strongmen fighting for control of Rome. 

The Punic Wars

Rome fought three wars against Carthage , a city in North Africa, that ended in Rome gaining control of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and parts of Spain and North Africa. The first war, which lasted from 264 B.C. to 241 B.C., saw battles in Sicily, Malta, Lipara, the coast of mainland Italy, North Africa and the Mediterranean Sea, wrote Bringmann, noting that Rome built up its navy during this lengthy war. During the final battle of the first war, Rome gained naval superiority, trapping a Carthaginian force in Sicily. Carthage ceded a sizable amount of territory, including Sicily, to Rome. 

The second Punic War occurred from 218 B.C. to 201 B.C., when the Carthaginian general Hannibal led an invasion force overland through the Alps into Italy, allying with the Celts . This force moved south through Italy, capturing several towns but taking sizable losses. Meanwhile, the Romans invaded North Africa, forcing Hannibal to retreat. The Romans succeeded in conquering Carthage, forcing the city to give its remaining territory, and cede its autonomy, to Rome, Bringmann wrote. 

During the third Punic War, fought from 149 B.C. to 146 B.C., a Roman force landed in North Africa and destroyed Carthage, wiping out the city. This destruction would lead to a myth that the Romans "salted the earth" after Carthage's destruction to make it harder for anyone living in the area to grow crops where Carthage once stood. 

While the myth is not true, and the Romans eventually built a new city where Carthage had stood, the wars left Rome as the most powerful state in the Mediterranean, putting it in a strong position to expand its power eastward into the Balkans, Greece and the Middle East. 

Key to Rome's victory was the fact that it had a much larger military force to draw on. Polybius claimed that during the second Punic war the Carthaginian general Hannibal invaded Italy with fewer than 20,000 men, while the Romans could draw on over 700,000 to counter this invasion force. 

Bringmann noted that during the Punic Wars, Carthage tried to augment its troops by hiring mercenaries — something that put a financial burden on Carthage as it had to come up with cash to pay a mercenary force.

Rome expanded in the Balkans and Greece between the second and third Punic Wars, gaining territory that it held either direct or indirect control over. The year 146 B.C. proved pivotal, as Rome not only destroyed Carthage but also Corinth, a city in Greece that had opposed Roman expansion into the eastern Mediterranean. 

"Rome had now annihilated its richest, oldest and most powerful rivals in the Mediterranean world," wrote Mary Beard, a professor of Classics at the University of Cambridge, in her book " SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome " (Liveright, 2016) 

With both Carthage and Corinth destroyed, Rome secured an immense territory that included Sicily, Sardinia, much of Iberia, parts of North Africa and a considerable amount of Greece. It also controlled territory in the Balkans. 

Roman governors often controlled the recently conquered territories, sometimes profiting personally from the territory they ruled, wrote Beard, noting that in 149 B.C. a permanent court was set up in Rome so that foreigners could seek redress against Roman governors who had taken property from them.

Private companies who bid on contracts sometimes collected taxes in the newly conquered territories, wrote Beard. The company would try to make a profit by keeping anything over the amount it bid on, providing an incentive for them to mistreat individuals, Beard wrote. 

End of the Roman Republic

In the period after 146 B.C., Rome's territory continued to grow, but the city's republic government crumbled. Strongmen such as Sulla, Pompey, Crassus, Julius Caesar , Mark Antony and Octavian vied for control of Rome. Civil wars and violent unrest occurred during this time. 

The Roman historian Sallust (lived 85 B.C. to 35 B.C.) believed that the increasing amount of wealth in Rome, generated partly through Rome's conquered territories, helped bring about the rise of these strongmen and the fall of the Roman Republic. "The lust for money first, then for power, grew upon them; these were, I may say, the root of all evils," wrote Sallust (translation by John Carew Rolfe). 

"Roman historians regretted the gradual destruction of peaceful politics. Violence was increasingly taken for granted as a political tool. Traditional restraints and conventions broke down, one by one, until swords, clubs and rioting more or less replaced the ballot box," Beard wrote in her book.

In the period after the destruction of Carthage and Corinth, tensions spiked between Rome's poorer and wealthier classes. On three occasions, Roman senators killed tribunes of the people after they pressed for land reform or the distribution of free food to Rome's poor, Beard wrote. In 121 B.C., after a tribune named Gaius Gracchus was killed, those who supported the senators and murdered him went on a killing spree. Roman historical records say that the "bodies of thousands of [Gaius Gracchus'] supporters clogged the river," wrote Beard.

Another problem the republic faced was that many communities in Italy had limited or no citizenship status, leaving them unrepresented in the republic government and more vulnerable to abuse. The "social war," fought between 91 B.C. and 88 B.C. saw a number of communities in Italy rebel against Roman rule. 

"It involved fighting throughout much of the peninsula, including at Pompeii where the marks of the battering by Roman artillery in 89 B.C. can be seen even now on the city walls," wrote Beard, noting that in the end Rome offered citizenship to people in Italy who had not taken up arms or who were prepared to lay them down. 

Taking advantage of the instability, a Roman consul named Lucius Cornelius Sulla marched on Rome with the forces under his command. Sulla wanted command of a military expedition against Pontus, a kingdom around the Black Sea. He got the command and four years later, after defeating Pontus, he marched on Rome and had himself appointed dictator, Beard wrote.

Sulla then "presided over a reign of terror and the first organized purge of political enemies in Roman history," Beard wrote. "The names of thousands of men, including about a third of all senators, were posted throughout Italy, a generous price on the heads for anyone cruel, greedy or desperate enough to kill them," Beard wrote. Sulla resigned in 79 B.C. and died the following year. 

In the wake of Sulla's death Rome found itself fighting wars in Spain, Thrace and, most seriously, in Italy itself where an escaped gladiator named Spartacus built up an army that may have numbered 40,000 people. It was made up of slaves who had escaped their Roman captors and freedmen who decided to join their cause. Spartacus defeated several Roman forces before being defeated himself in 71 B.C. 

The strongmen would keep rising up. In 66 B.C., Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (also called "Pompey") became leader of a Roman army that fought against Pontus, conquering the kingdom. Pompey also campaigned in Judea, conquering Jerusalem in 63 B.C. and returned to Rome in triumph in 60 B.C. 

Pompey formed a triumvirate with Julius Caesar (100 B.C. - 44 B.C.) and Marcus Licinius Crassus (115 B.C. — 53 B.C.) that governed Rome and its growing number of territories. Crassus was one of the richest, if not the richest, man in Rome and used his wealth to help build his political power. 

Caesar grew his power base by becoming commander of an army that conquered Gaul and campaigned in Britain between 58 B.C. and — 50 B.C. Crassus also tried his hand at being a military leader but was not so successful and was killed in 53 B.C. while campaigning in the Middle East against the Parthians. 

After the death of Crassus, tensions grew between Caesar and Pompey and in January 49 B.C. Caesar led his troops across the Rubicon river (the boundary of northern Italy) and marched on Rome. Some historical records say that when Caesar crossed the Rubicon he said words that are sometimes translated as "the die is cast." 

Pompey retreated to the east to gather reinforcements and faced Caesar in Greece, suffering a decisive defeat at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 B.C. Pompey fled to Egypt after this defeat, hoping to gain support from Egyptian pharaoh Ptolemy XIII, the teenage ruler of ancient Egypt ; however, the pharaoh decided to kill Pompey and give his head to Caesar. Caesar stayed in Egypt for a time, ordering that Cleopatra VII become co-ruler of Egypt. Ptolemy XIII tried to fight Caesar and Cleopatra, but he was killed in 47 B.C., either by Roman forces or by drowning while attempting to flee Rome’s army. 

Cleopatra and Caesar began a romance that resulted in her giving birth to a son, Caesarion. Whether the child was truly Caesar's is a matter of debate among historians. 

Though Pompey was dead, there were forces loyal to him and Roman senators (such as Cato the Younger) who refused to accept Caesar's rule; battles against these Pompey loyalists took place in North Africa and Spain. There were also battles against Pontus, the Black Sea kingdom that Pompey had defeated just a few decades earlier. After a successful battle against a force from Pontus, Caesar supposedly uttered words in Latin that are translated as "I came, I saw, I conquered" or "I came, saw and conquered." But no matter how much conquering Caesar did, there were still many in Rome who opposed the idea of one man having so much power. 

In 44 B.C., the Roman senate named Caesar "dictator for life." While Caesar had enough support from the senate to get the measure passed, many senators, led by Brutus and Cassius, were opposed to giving Caesar the title. On March 15 of that year, the Ides of March, a group of senators stabbed Caesar to death inside the senate. 

In the wake of Caesar's death, three major factions amassed power in Rome. One was led by Octavian, Caesar's great-nephew, who in Caesar's will was named as his adopted son and heir. The other was led by Mark Antony, one of Caesar's generals, while the other faction was led by Brutus and Cassius. 

Forces loyal to Octavian and Antony battled against each other in northern Italy and Gaul for a brief period, before the two men decided to form an alliance against Brutus and Cassius. The combined forces of Octavian and Antony marched east, facing off against Brutus and Cassius' force in Greece, decisively defeating the two in 42 B.C. at the Battle of Philippi. 

Octavian and Antony settled into an uneasy truce forming a triumvirate with a politician named Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Antony married Octavian's sister Octavia however it was an unhappy marriage with Anthony forming a romance with Cleopatra VII that led to Antony and Cleopatra having three children together. 

The truce broke down within a decade with the two finding themselves in a conflict that would pit Octavian, who controlled troops based in the western half of the Roman Republic, against the combined forces of Antony and Cleopatra, who together controlled both Egypt's troops and Rome's forces in the Middle East. In September of 31 B.C., Octavian's forces destroyed Antony and Cleopatra's naval forces at the Battle of Actium . Octavian's forces were able to land in Egypt and, after some fighting, were able to capture Alexandria. 

Both Antony and Cleopatra died by suicide in 30 B.C., not wishing to be held captive by Octavian's forces. Octavian's forces then took control of Egypt, turning it into a Roman province. 

After decades of nearly constant civil war, Octavian became the last strongman standing. In 27 B.C., the senate gave him the name "Augustus," a title that can be translated as "revered one," wrote Beard. Modern-day historians sometimes consider 27 B.C. to be the year that the Roman Republic fully came to an end. 

The decision by some modern day historians to mark 27 B.C. as the start of the Roman Empire is somewhat arbitrary. While the title “Augustus” cemented Octavian’s position as sole ruler, he had, for all practical purposes, assumed full control in 30 B.C. after the death of Antony and Cleopatra VII.  

• Kids can learn more about ancient Rome and the Roman Republic with this book published by Dinobibi .
• For adults, Klaus Bringmann wrote an in-depth book about the history of the Roman Republic.
• Check out this Smithsonian Magazine article, " Lessons in the Decline of Democracy From the Ruined Roman Republic ."

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Owen Jarus is a regular contributor to Live Science who writes about archaeology and humans' past. He has also written for The Independent (UK), The Canadian Press (CP) and The Associated Press (AP), among others. Owen has a bachelor of arts degree from the University of Toronto and a journalism degree from Ryerson University. 

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The Rise and Fall of the Roman Republic

7 h total length

Discover the Remarkable Story of the Roman Republic

The Roman Republic is one of the greatest examples of political and military achievement in human history. The story of how the ancient Romans rose from a small village in Italy to dominate the Mediterranean world highlights the virtues necessary to preserve a republic, while an examination of why Rome collapsed into tyranny reveals the perils of unprecedented success and the challenges common to free government.

In this free, twelve-lecture course, students will explore the fascinating history of the Roman Republic from its founding through the assassination of Julius Caesar. Topics covered in this course include:

• the geography and origins of ancient Rome;
• the genius of the Roman constitution;
• the Punic Wars and the rapid expansion of Rome throughout the Mediterranean;
• the political turmoil and domestic unrest caused by Rome’s success;
• the civil war between Marius and Sulla;
• Cicero’s attempts to defend the Republic; and
• the assassination of Julius Caesar and the collapse of the Republic.

This course especially examines the choices of Rome’s greatest figures—Romulus, Cincinnatus, Cato the Elder, Fabius Maximus, Scipio Africanus, the Gracchi brothers, Marius, Sulla, Cicero, Julius Caesar, and more—in order to learn from their great successes and failures. The result is one of the best moral and political educations available—a history that was well-known to America’s founding generation.

Join Professors Kenneth Calvert and Carl Young today and discover the timeless lessons of the Roman Republic today.

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Lessons in this course.

The Importance of Rome

Academics today are ignoring and wiping away our civilization’s history—a destructive act that robs us of the source of great wisdom. The proper study of ancient Rome reveals profound lessons in human achievement—especially in politics and military command.  

The Ancient World Before Rome

In the sixth-century BC, Rome did not appear well-positioned to dominate the Mediterranean. Rome’s rapid rise from a small village in the middle of the Italian Peninsula is particularly impressive when one considers the geography of the region and the primary powers of the ancient world. 

The Founding of Rome

The founding myths and early history of Rome were well-known and revered by the people of the Roman Republic. The history of Rome from Romulus’s founding of the city through Brutus’s overthrow of the monarchy provided moral exemplars that helped form the character of the Roman citizen. 

The Roman Constitution

Polybius argues that the Roman Republic’s constitution—its way of life—was the source of its greatness. By separating the powers of government into three parts—consuls, the Senate, and the people—the mixed constitution of Rome secured stability in peace and strength in war.  

Patricians and Plebeians

The ideal Roman in the early Republic was an exemplary farmer, warrior, and citizen—a model embodied by Cincinnatus. This character of the ideal Roman—and the delicate balance between patricians and plebeians—faced new challenges as Rome expanded and conquered the entire Italian Peninsula by 270 BC. 

The Punic Wars

In the First and Second Punic Wars, Rome defeated the only remaining contender for supremacy over the Mediterranean–Carthage. After Scipio defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama, Rome controlled the western and central parts of the Mediterranean. 

The Challenges of Expansion: Cato the Elder and the Gracchi

The new empire brought wealth, corruption, and foreign influence to Rome and increased the tensions between the populares and optimates . The attempts by Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus to meet these challenges and preserve the character of Rome ended in political violence that threatened the Republic. 

Civil War: Marius and Sulla

Gaius Marius rose to preeminence in Roman politics in the late second century BC and was elected consul an unprecedented seven times. His military and voting reforms significantly changed the institutions of Rome and brought him into a conflict with the optimates —and their leader, Sulla—that culminated in civil war.

The First Triumvirate: Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar

Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar amassed enormous military power and wealth amidst the political chaos of the late Republic. Their uneasy alliance—the First Triumvirate—collapsed into rivalries that sparked a civil war between Caesar and Pompey.  

Cicero’s Defense of the Republic

Cicero devoted his career to saving the Republic from dangerous demagogues and a corrupt oligarchy. While his political efforts failed to preserve the Republic, he remains one of the most important figures from classical antiquity for his timeless works on politics, philosophy, and oratory. 

Julius Caesar and the Collapse of the Roman Republic

Julius Caesar is one of the greatest military and political geniuses in history. However, his actions at the end of the Roman Republic are open to intense debate, as historians argue whether he was a reformer attempting to save a corrupt regime or a tyrant who brought about its collapse. 

Rome and the American Founding

The American Founders carefully studied the history of the Roman Republic and modeled themselves after its great heroes: Publius, Cincinnatus, Cato, and Cicero. But while they admired the virtues of the Roman Republic, they sought to learn from its mistakes and established their new nation on different principles. 

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The Rise And Fall Of Ancient Rome, A Nutshell History Of Rome

Are you looking for a quick overview of the history of Ancient Rome? The Roman civilization lasted from around 753 BC to 476 AD, encompassing the founding of Rome, the Roman Republic, and the Roman Empire.

While it’s tough to condense so much history into a short summary, I’ve done my best to provide a concise history of the rise and fall of the Roman Empire.

The history of Ancient Rome can be divided into three parts. Rome began as a monarchy, transitioned to a republic, and then became a vast and powerful empire until it came crashing down.

Along the way, you’ll encounter fascinating stories of myths, legends, rivalries, civil wars, and some truly outrageous emperors. There were both conquests and defeats, battles and butchery, brutality and debauchery. All in all, Ancient Rome was a fascinating period in history.

Ready to step back in time?

History of Ancient Rome

1. foundation myth of rome.

So how did Rome begin? Like all great empires, Rome needed a foundation, or creation, myth.

People like to know where they come from. It’s akin to the huge popularity of 23 & Me or other ancestry services.

Rome’s foundation myth was codified in the 1st century A.D. during the apex of the empire. The empire had stretched to cover half the known world. This led to the cliche phrase that “all roads lead to Rome.”

Once its society became this powerful, Rome needed an official origin story of who they were and where they came from. How did an ordinary town become a great power that dominated the world? What set them apart?

The Romans came up with a fairytale explanation, one which became canonical. Rome was a gift of the gods themselves.

Legend holds that Romans are descended from Venus and Mars, the gods of Love and War. They’re the perfect combination for a city with a push-and-pull history of peace and war, beauty and tumult.

Romans believed this was the true story of the birth of their nation. But the foundation myth has no real historical basis in fact.

It’s a mostly operatic myth involving gods, twins, wolves, murder, and other fascinating drama. But, as with any myth, there’s a kernel of truth. Let’s break it down.

Rome’s origin story begins in the great ancient city of Troy with the Roman author Virgil. In 19 B.C., Virgil published a famous work called the Aeneid .

The  Aeneid  is a Latin epic poem. It ties together the various strands of legend relating to the 8th century B.C. character of Aeneas and his family.

Aeneas & Ascanius

The poem tells the legendary story of the Trojan Aeneas , who fled Troy after it fell to Greece. Aeneas is the son of Anchises, a Trojan prince, and Venus, the goddess of love.

Looking for a place to create a new Troy, Aeneas and his family traveled to Italy. After scouting locations, Aeneas eventually settled in the Alban Hills just outside Rome.

He and his son Ascanius fought for dominance to establish their fiefdom. Ascanius becomes the first king of the Alban Hills.

He was followed by a series of successors, including one named Numitor. Numitor was deposed by his ambitious and treacherous brother Amulius.

Numitor had a daughter named Rhea Silvia. To prevent the birth of any potential claimants to the throne, Amulius forced Rhea to become a vestal virgin. The Vestal Virgins were the priestesses of the goddess Vesta and had the duty of protecting her hearth.

But Amulius’ plans were thwarted. Rhea was beloved by Mars, the Roman god of war.

Romulus and Remus

Despite being a virgin, Rhea gave birth to his twin sons Romulus and Remus around 771 B.C. They would go on to become the founders of Rome.

So, at bottom, the ancestry of Rome is based on love and war. Venus’ blood ran through the veins of Romulus and Remus via Aeneas. Mar’s blood ran through the veins of the twins via Rhea.

Naturally, Amulius was fearful that the newborn twins would one day seek revenge for their deposed grandfather.

So nasty uncle Amulius decided to rid himself of any potential threat. He put the twins in a basket and set them afloat on the Tiber River, a fate similar to Moses in the Bible.

The boys were meant to die. Instead, they came to shore on Tiber island. They were discovered by a ferocious beast, a she-wolf named Lupa. She suckled the boys as her own until they were discovered by a shepherd.

When Romulus and Remus were grown, it was time to go found their own city. The twins made their way to a future Rome.

The brothers wanted to found the city on different hills. Romulus liked Palatine Hill. Remus preferred Aventine Hill.

In ancient societies, the rule of primogeniture (or first born) governed. The first born inherits everything and takes control.

But it wasn’t clear who should prevail in the standoff. Since they born twins, Romulus and Remus didn’t know who had been born first.

So the twins went to their separate spots and waited for an augury, or sign from the gods, as to who was born first.

One day, around 754 B.C., Remus looked up and saw a flock of 6 birds. He ran to tell Romulus, jumping over the walls of Palatine Hill. But Romulus had simultaneously seen a flock of 12 vultures fly over his head.

A massive row ensued. It degenerated into a physical confrontation. Romulus slew Remus and won the fight. To honor his victory, the city of Rome was named Roma instead of Rema.

Despite the fratricide, Romulus was acclaimed and revered by Romans. Historians tried to whitewash the fratricide.

One justified the murder by the fact that Remus trespassed on the walls of Romulus. Remus was portrayed as interfering with the founding of Rome. Some pitched it as a blood sacrifice to the gods.

Rape of the Sabines

King Romulus decided to establish a utopian society on Palatine Hill . To recruit more citizens, he granted asylum to all. He established an army and tapped 100 senators to govern.

But there was one problem. There was a severe shortage of women in the new city of Roma.

Obviously, one can’t build a tribe, and succeed and prosper, without women. Like most ancient Romans, Romulus decided just to take what he wanted.

Romulus began asking the neighboring tribes where the most beautiful and fertile women lived. The answer was the Sabine Hills.

Romulus hatched a plot. He threw a big party and invited the neighboring tribes, including the Sabines. When the Sabines were sufficiently drunk, the Romans drew their swords and slew the Sabine men.

They then kidnapped the Sabine women and took them as their wives. In history, this is known as the Rape of the Sabine Women. It’s a scene memorialized often in art.

The Seven Kings of Rome

Romulus ruled as the first king of Rome. He was succeeded by a series of six other kings. Each king brought concepts that would come to characterize ancient Rome — religion, military organization, the Circus Maximus, and public fora.

The last of these seven kings was the villainous Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. He contributed the concept of tyranny. He was a cruel king, who abused his power and governed by fear during the years 535-509 B.C.

His son was no better. Sextus Tarquinius raped the most virtuous woman in Rome, Lucretia.

She protested, exacted an oath of vengeance, and then knifed herself in the heart. There was such a public outcry that the outraged populace overthrew Tarquinius in 509 B.C., driving him from Rome.

That was the death of the Roman monarchy. The next phase of the history of Rome had begun.

2. The Roman Republic

For the next 500 years or so, Rome was a republic governed by senators. The Republic was established in 509 B.C. and then voted out in 27 B.C. The Republic was more of an oligarchy than a real democracy.

The power of the monarch passed to two annually elected magistrates called consuls. They also served as commanders in chief of the army. The magistrates, though elected by the people, were drawn largely from the Senate, which was dominated by the patricians.

Patricians (or aristocrats) dominated political discourse. Eventually, in 37 B.C., the plebeians (or middle class) gained more power and could be consuls.

During its early years, the Roman Republic grew exponentially in both size and power through military conquest.

The conquests and exposure to new societies led directly to Rome’s cultural flourishing. In particular, Romans would eventually adopt much of Greek art, philosophy, and religion.

The late Republic was a period of turmoil. It was the turning point in Rome’s evolution from republic to empire.

In the final years of the Republic, the government was split between two factions called the “optimates” and the “populares.” During these culture wars, it became increasingly difficult for leaders to share power.

The optimates sought to uphold the oligarchy and keep power in the hands of the “best men,” i.e ., conservative patricians. The populares were on the side of the people. They used assemblies to win over the plebeians.

These two factions were reflected in two great leaders of the late republic, Gaius Marius (populare) and Lucius Cornelius Sulla (optimate). Both played roles in the collapse of the republic.

Marius was a legendary Roman general and statesman. With the Marian Reforms , he turned the Roman army into one of the most effective fighting and killing machines the world has ever seen. A power hungry Marius held the office of consul an unprecedented seven times. 

In 88 B.C., Sulla was elected consul. Sulla set off to do battle against King Mithridates of Pontus. After back stabbing by Marius, however, the Senate revoked Sulla’s command of the army and reinstated Marius in the prize role.

Sulla shocked everyone by doing the previously unthinkable. He challenged the Senate edict. In an unprecedented coup d’etat , Sulla marched on Rome, seized power, and temporarily exiled Marius.

This led to a bloody civil war between Sulla and Marius. Sulla eventually prevailed and the Senate decreed him dictator. Sulla’s constitutional “reforms” placed even more power in the hands of the elite.

Historians generally revile Sulla as a maniacal dictator. He ruthlessly engaged in bloody purges of his political enemies in an indiscriminate way not seen since Tarquinius Superbus, the evil king I spoke of above.

Sulla eventually retired and Senate rule was restored. But the damage was done. Sulla’s self-serving tenure threatened the foundations of the Roman constitution.

After that, Rome would vacillate between triumvirates and dictatorships. Sulla set the precedent for Caesar’s takeover.

3. Rise Of Julius Caesar, The Dawn Of Empire

Caesar was largely responsible for Rome’s transition from a republic to an empire. It’s a dramatic story, one of the most fascinating in the history of Ancient Rome.

Caesar’s rise to power began in adversity. He was born in 100 B.C. to a political family. He got a late start on politics.

His uncle was the infamous Marius, who was on the losing side of the social wars. Caesar himself was put on Sulla’s “black list” of enemies meant to be killed. But, somehow, Sulla spared his life.

Caesar rose through the ranks of the political system. In 63 B.C., Caesar was appointed to the role of aedile. Among other things, he was responsible for public spectacles and games. He embraced this task with ardor, helping to cement his fame and popularity.

In 60 B.C., Caesar formed a political alliance with Marcus Licinius Crassus and Pompey the Great. It was known as the First Triumvirate.

Crassus was the wealthiest man in Rome. Pompey was a great military leader. Caesar was the brains behind the extra-legal operation. Together, they were the unofficial rulers of Rome.

Of the three, Caesar was by far the most ambitious. But how to mark his path and gain the upper hand?

Romans admired achievement in battle. So Caesar decided to realize his ambitions through military conquest. He married his daughter off to Pompey. In return, he was given some legions.

Caesar advanced quickly, becoming general of the legendary 13th legion. He began the most successful military campaign in history. He defeated the great warrior Vercingetorix in Gaul and expanded the Roman Republic into Europe and Britain.

Caesar let everyone know about it too, writing lengthy memoirs of his battles. These victories and autobiographies made Caesar a living legend.

All of this made the power brokers in Rome nervous and agitated. Too much power and adulation in one person was a clear threat to the republic.

When Crassus died, the Senate declared Caesar an outlaw. The Senate claimed his military victories had been achieved without proper authorization of the Senate.

The Senate ordered Caesar to step down and disband his army. That would’ve meant the end of Caesar. He would either have been executed or exiled.

With his back against the wall, Caesar marched onward. In 49 B.C., he famously led his army across the Rubicon River to Rome, starting a civil war. Caesar said “the die is cast,” i.e. , there was no turning back.

The Senate asked Pompey to go to battle against Caesar. But Pompey’s legions were stationed in Spain. So Rome didn’t have time to organize a proper defense.

The Senate appointed Caesar dictator for life. Caesar was now master of Rome. He didn’t waste any time. Caesar’s first order of business was to chase Pompey to Egypt.

At the time, there was a civil war going on in Egypt between Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra. To win Caesar’s favor, Ptolemy captured Pompey and put him to death, giving his head to Caesar.

This course of action disgusted Caesar. No foreign entity should put to death a revered Roman general.

Originally, Caesar had decided to fight on the side of Ptolemy. But Ptolemy’s gross miscalculation gave an opportunity to a young Cleopatra.

Legend holds that she contrived to deliver herself, UPS style, in a carpet to Caesar’s chambers. It worked and Caesar changed his mind, backing Cleopatra.

Caesar fought on Cleopatra’s behalf, ultimately winning the war. Cleopatra was established as Queen of Egypt. Enmeshed in an affair, Caesar and Cleopatra had a son named Caesarion in 47 B.C. (His lineage was later disputed.)

Caesar returned to Rome in 46 B.C. He imagined that the Romans would love a boy who carried the blood of the two great empires in the world. But the Romans were horrified. They didn’t want someone with Egyptian blood ruling Rome.

So Caesar essentially ditched Cleopatra and Caesarion. He put them in a villa outside Rome and marginalized them, so as not to displease the public.

Caesar still needed to convince the people that they could live under one ruler, himself. He began by forgiving the debt of Roman citizens. He put on public spectacles.

Caesar and Mark Antony played psychological games. Antony would hold a crown above Caesar’s head. Caesar would wave it off, saying, no, he didn’t want to be king.

This went on and on. Eventually it was the crowd that was chanting “King Caesar.” Caesar effectively got the public used to the idea of monarchy.

As dictator, Caesar instituted social and political reforms. He began public building projects. But his rivals were envious of his power.

Caesar had tipped the balance of power away from the Senate. He was a threat to any form of democracy. Senators feared he would crown himself king. So they plotted the most famous political assassination in history, carried out in the name of liberty.

They called Caesar to a Senate meeting at the Theater of Pompey on March 15 44 B.C. A month earlier, a soothsayer had told Caesar to “beware the Ides of March.”

Caesar ignored the warning, thinking himself untouchable. Caesar attended the meeting unarmed and without body guards.

60 conspirators stabbed Caesar 23 times. Caesar effectively took the part of the murdered Remus centuries before.

Caesar reputedly died at the feet of a statue of Pompey. So, from the grave, Pompey had revenge on Caesar.

Among the mutinous senators were some of Caesar’s friends, including Brutus and Cassius. Some historians claim that Brutus was Caesar’s illegitimate son. Caesar had a long term affair with his mother Servillia.

According to Shakespeare, as he was dying, Caesar looked up and said “Et tu Brutus?” Caesar never actually said these words.

And Brutus was neither his closest friend nor his biggest betrayer, not by a long shot. The real mastermind behind the assassination was Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, a soldier who despised Caesar’s pardons.

What was the reaction to Caesar’s assassination? There was a collective shock in Rome. Should the citizens rejoice in the death of a tyrant or mourn a great leader?

Mark Antony made the first move in the game of chess. He brought the body of Caesar into the Roman Forum .

Antony gave a rousing funeral speech. You know the one made famous by Shakespeare — “Friends, Romans, and countrymen, lend me your ears.” Antony read what he claimed was the last will of Caesar, which left “everything” to the people of Rome.

Antony’s actions essentially defied Caesar and threw Romans into a frenzy. A few days later, Caesar’s body was cremated on the spot of Antony’s speech. It became a cult site.

Antony was hoping that the Romans would turn to him, as Caesar’s right hand man, to be the next leader. But that wasn’t in the cards. In Caesar’s actual will, he had named his 19 year old nephew Octavian as his heir.

4. The Second Triumpherate & Victory of Octavian

Octavian’s rise was anything but amicable. After Caesar’s death, and despite the recalcitrance of Antony, Octavian became a senator and then consul.

In 43 B.C., Octavian became part of a second power-sharing triumvirate with Antony and Marcus Lepidus. Octavian was by far the shrewdest of the lot.

In 42 B.C., Octavian had Julius Caesar officially deified. Octavian thereby became the son of a god.

The Second Triumvirate split up governance of the empire. Octavian remained in Italy, Antony was in Egypt, and Lepidus was in Africa.

The truce didn’t last long. As history shows, it’s not easy to share power and decisions by committee rarely work.

Ambition divided them. Bloody internal conflict ensued. Eventually, Lepidus was eliminated and forced to retire from public life.

Octavian was then locked in a struggle with Antony for control of the empire. Octavian ruled the western empire. Antony ruled the eastern empire.

Antony was also locked in a passionate relationship with Cleopatra at the time. They even had twins. Antony recognized Caesarion as the “King of Kings” and as the legitimate son of Caesar.

That was a bridge too far. Octavian realized the power couple was a threat to his authority. So another civil war began.

In 31 B.C., Octavian cleverly declared war on Antony’s lover, Cleopatra, not on Antony himself. Cleopatra was easy pickings. She was having an affair with Antony, who was married to Octavian’s sister Octavia.

When Antony divorced Octavia for Cleopatra, Octavian went into full attack mode. He turned Rome against Antony. Octavian and his right hand man, Marcus Agrippa, outmaneuvered the pair in a great naval battle, the Battle of Actium.

When trapped, Antony and Cleopatra fled. They later committed suicide to avoid capture. Caesarion was executed, ending the dream of a Roman-Egyptian Pharaoh. Octavian stole Cleopatra’s loot to pay and settle his army.

5. Augustus Becomes The First Emperor

Octavian adopted the name Augustus, which means first or revered one. In 27 B.C., Augustus was declared the first emperor of Rome. He would rule until 14 A.D.

Augustus is generally considered Rome’s greatest emperor. Augustus was a savvy politician who ushered in a lasting peace known as the Pax Romana. It was a peace won by bloody battles, so perhaps Augustus really brought a pacification not a peace.

Augustus revived Republican traditions. At least on the surface, he sought to placate the Senators and distance himself from any perceived despotism.

Augustus used the power of images to cement his reputation as a peaceful man who saved Rome from chaos. During Augustus’ reign, there was a constant production of coins, monuments, and statues in his image. He also created images of Aeneas and Romulus and Remus.

Augustus was also a brilliant administrator. He overhauled the creaking bureaucracy of the empire. Art and literature flourished.

With Agrippa’s help, Augustus spent massive sums on the architectural adornment of Rome. The historian Suetonius wrote that Augustus “could justly boast” that he had “found Rome a city of bricks and left it a city of marble.”

But Augustus had a bloody rise and was the ultimate opportunist. He ruthlessly took advantage of a fragile Rome to seize power. He was calculating and distasteful, probably like most emperors.

Augustus passed severe adultery laws, while he continually cheated on his wives. Sometimes the cheating wasn’t out of lust, but political machinations. He disowned and exiled his only daughter Julia. 

He died at age 76 in 14 A.D., most likely of natural causes. The historian Suetonius tried to claim that Augustus’ wife Livia murdered him. Her son Tiberius was slated to inherit the empire, after all.

But this is likely pure gossip. Though probably a heartless power hungry empress, there’s really no evidence that Livia did this deed.

At his death, Augustus’ final words were “Have I played the part well? Then applaud as I exit.”

6. Roman Empire

Augustus’ descendants were known as the Julio-Claudian emperors. They ruled for almost 100 years, ending with the reviled Emperor Nero.

Tiberius was Augustus’ adopted son and hair. He one of Rome’s greatest generals. But he was a lackluster and disinterested emperor. He hid out in his villa in Capri, with a harem of young boys and girls.

Caligula was the third of the Caesarian emperors, succeeding Tiberius. Caligula is known as one of the mad Roman emperors. His profligacy, and possible neuropsychopathic craziness, led to his murder.

After Caligula’s death, the Senate attempted and failed to restore the Republic.  Caligula’s paternal uncle, Claudius, became emperor by the instigation of the Praetorian Guards.

Claudius was an able administrator and builder of public works. His reign saw an expansion of the empire into England.

The last of the Caesarian emperors was Nero. This bad boy was an infamous and profligate ruler. Nero was rumored to have killed his mother and two wives.

Legend holds that Nero set the great fire of Rome so that he could rebuild the city to his liking. Post fire, Nero erected the  Golden House , his massive pleasure palace.

For his misdeeds and spendthrift ways that left an empty treasury, Nero was declared a public enemy. He committed suicide at age 30 in 68 A.D.

After Nero’s death, the Flavian Emperors — Vespasian, Titus, and and Domitian — reigned. Vespasian restored peace to Rome after the reign of Nero. The trio built the mighty Colosseum , the site of gladiatorial games.

The Roman Empire prospered and was at its zenith under Emperors Trajan and Hadrian. Trajan embarked on an ambitious public building program, creating landmarks that still stand today.

Hadrian was also an architect. He built the Pantheon , the Temple of Venus and Roma in the Roman Forum ,  Castle Sant’Angelo , and  Villa Adriani  in nearby Tivoli.

The wise Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius was the last of the “Five Good Emperors of Rome.” His reign marked the end of a period of internal tranquility and good government.

But he made the sentimental choice of his son Commodus as his heir and future emperor. Commodus was a paranoid megalomaniac. He thought he was Hercules and fought with gladiators in the Colosseum . He was quickly murdered off.

After Aurelius, the Empire started a downward spiral of decay. The last of the building emperors was Caracalla. He murdered his brother and left a legacy of brutality.

After Caracalla, his cousin Elagabalus inherited the title of emperor at age 14. Elagabalus was just a teenager and may have been transgender. His/her reign was marred by sex scandals, atrocities, and religious controversy.

By the 3rd century A.D., the idea that the man on the throne could be bonkers was set in stone. From then on, the military raised emperors to power. They would then be quickly assassinated by supporters of the next emperor.

Rome was built to last. But it didn’t. Why? It’s a complicated explanation, with all kinds of theories and centuries of speculation.

At bottom, there were multiple causes: barbarian incursions, military overspending, territorial over-expansion, political instability, social inequality, and over-dependence on slaves. These factors caused the Roman Empire to slowly crumble over time.

When Constantine came to power in 306 A.D., he accelerated the decline. He split the empire in two. Constantine ruled the eastern half from Constantinople, a city he named after himself.

Constantine also introduced Christianity. This further undercut the empire, weakening traditional Roman values.

Christianity shifted the focus from polytheism to monotheism. It substituted the divine right of emperors with the glory of a sole deity. The church gradually replaced the declining civil authority, and swiped the state’s money to buy land and build churches.

After Constantine, few emperors ruled the entire Roman Empire. It was simply too big and was under attack from every direction. Usually, there was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire ruling from Italy or Gaul and an emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire ruling from Constantinople.

Rome could no longer keep its grip on its far flung lands. Nor keep the barbarians at bay.

In the 5th century A.D., Rome was sacked twice: first by the Goths in 410 and then the Vandals in 455. The swarms of barbarians kept coming. The empire fell in 476 A.D.

After the western part of the Roman Empire fell, the eastern half continued to exist. It lived on as the Byzantine Empire for hundreds of years. Therefore, the “fall of Rome” really refers only to the fall of the western half of the Empire.

In 476 A.D., Romulus, the last of the Roman emperors in the west, was overthrown by the Germanic leader Odoacer. He became the first Barbarian to rule in Rome.

The glamor and glory of ancient Rome was replaced with the Dark Ages. But Rome rebounded from its medieval gloom. The city would go on to create some of the most spectacular art and architecture of the Renaissance.

READ : Guide To The Best Art In Italy

I hope you’ve enjoyed my nutshell history of the rise and fall of the Roman Empire. You may enjoy these other Rome travel guides and resources:

• 3 day itinerary for Rome
• 5 day itinerary for Rome
• Hidden gems in Rome
• Best museums in Rome
• Archaeological sites in Rome
• Guide to the Borghese Gallery
• Rome’s secret palace museums
• Guide to the Capitoline Museums
• Guide to Palatine Hill
• Guide to the Roman Forum
• Guide to the Colosseum

If you need an article on the history of Ancient Rome, pin it for later.

8 thoughts on “The Rise And Fall Of Ancient Rome, A Nutshell History Of Rome”

Leslie did a remarkable job of taking a very long history and condensing into a wonderful readable summary. The pictures were well chosen and brought life to the narrative

Great blog, Leslie. Summarizing the long and complicated history of Rome into a short and readable piece is a major feat in itself. I look forward to reading some of your other descriptions of locations, history and art throughout Europe. Much of Rome’s history is similar to our own, and right now we appear to be in about the a similar state as Rome was mid fifth century AD.

Thanks Alan. I never tire of Ancient Rome.

Thank you so much!

Glad you enjoyed it!

I love your writing. It really inspires the revolutionary spirit of Rome. The story of the history of early Rome can be fascinating. Thank you for this amazing article.

Thank you so much for your comment! 🙂

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Last Updated on July 6, 2023 by Leslie Livingston

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The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

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• World History Encyclopedia - Gibbon's Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire
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The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , historical work by Edward Gibbon , published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788. A continuous narrative from the 2nd century ce to the fall of Constantinople in 1453, it is distinguished by its rigorous scholarship, its historical perspective, and its incomparable literary style.

The Decline and Fall is divided into two parts, equal in bulk but different in treatment. The first half covers about 300 years to the end of the empire in the West, about 480 ce ; in the second half nearly 1,000 years are compressed. Gibbon viewed the Roman Empire as a single entity in undeviating decline from the ideals of political and intellectual freedom that characterized the classical literature he had read. For him, the material decay of Rome was the effect and symbol of moral decadence.

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Ancient Rome

By: History.com Editors

Updated: September 22, 2023 | Original: October 14, 2009

Beginning in the eighth century B.C., Ancient Rome grew from a small town on central Italy’s Tiber River into an empire that at its peak encompassed most of continental Europe, Britain, much of western Asia, northern Africa and the Mediterranean islands. Among the many legacies of Roman dominance are the widespread use of the Romance languages (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian) derived from Latin, the modern Western alphabet and calendar and the emergence of Christianity as a major world religion.

After 450 years as a republic, Rome became an empire in the wake of Julius Caesar’s rise and fall in the first century B.C. The long and triumphant reign of its first emperor, Augustus, began a golden age of peace and prosperity; by contrast, the Roman Empire’s decline and fall by the fifth century A.D. was one of the most dramatic implosions in the history of human civilization.

Origins of Rome

As legend has it, Rome was founded in 753 B.C. by Romulus and Remus, twin sons of Mars, the god of war. Left to drown in a basket on the Tiber by a king of nearby Alba Longa and rescued by a she-wolf, the twins lived to defeat that king and found their own city on the river’s banks in 753 B.C. After killing his brother, Romulus became the first king of Rome, which is named for him.

A line of Sabine, Latin and Etruscan (earlier Italian civilizations) kings followed in a non-hereditary succession. There are seven legendary kings of Rome: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Martius, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (Tarquin the Elder), Servius Tullius and Tarquinius Superbus, or Tarquin the Proud (534-510 B.C.). While they were referred to as “Rex,” or “King” in Latin, all the kings after Romulus were elected by the senate. 

Did you know? Four decades after Constantine made Christianity Rome's official religion, Emperor Julian—known as the Apostate—tried to revive the pagan cults and temples of the past, but the process was reversed after his death, and Julian was the last pagan emperor of Rome.

Rome’s era as a monarchy ended in 509 B.C. with the overthrow of its seventh king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, whom ancient historians portrayed as cruel and tyrannical, compared to his benevolent predecessors. A popular uprising was said to have arisen over the rape of a virtuous noblewoman, Lucretia, by the king’s son. Whatever the cause, Rome turned from a monarchy into a republic, a world derived from res publica , or “property of the people.”

Rome was built on seven hills, known as “the seven hills of Rome”—Esquiline Hill, Palatine Hill, Aventine Hill, Capitoline Hill, Quirinal Hill, Viminal Hill and Caelian Hill. 

The Early Republic

The power of the monarch passed to two annually elected magistrates called consuls. They also served as commanders in chief of the army. The magistrates, though elected by the people, were drawn largely from the Senate, which was dominated by the patricians, or the descendants of the original senators from the time of Romulus. Politics in the early republic was marked by the long struggle between patricians and plebeians (the common people), who eventually attained some political power through years of concessions from patricians, including their own political bodies, the tribunes, which could initiate or veto legislation.

In 450 B.C., the first Roman law code was inscribed on 12 bronze tablets–known as the Twelve Tables–and publicly displayed in the Roman Forum . These laws included issues of legal procedure, civil rights and property rights and provided the basis for all future Roman civil law. By around 300 B.C., real political power in Rome was centered in the Senate, which at the time included only members of patrician and wealthy plebeian families.

Military Expansion

During the early republic, the Roman state grew exponentially in both size and power. Though the Gauls sacked and burned Rome in 390 B.C., the Romans rebounded under the leadership of the military hero Camillus, eventually gaining control of the entire Italian peninsula by 264 B.C. Rome then fought a series of wars known as the Punic Wars with Carthage, a powerful city-state in northern Africa.

The first two Punic Wars ended with Rome in full control of Sicily, the western Mediterranean and much of Spain. In the Third Punic War (149–146 B.C.), the Romans captured and destroyed the city of Carthage and sold its surviving inhabitants into slavery, making a section of northern Africa a Roman province. At the same time, Rome also spread its influence east, defeating King Philip V of Macedonia in the Macedonian Wars and turning his kingdom into another Roman province.

Rome’s military conquests led directly to its cultural growth as a society, as the Romans benefited greatly from contact with such advanced cultures as the Greeks. The first Roman literature appeared around 240 B.C., with translations of Greek classics into Latin; Romans would eventually adopt much of Greek art, philosophy and religion.

Internal Struggles in the Late Republic

Rome’s complex political institutions began to crumble under the weight of the growing empire, ushering in an era of internal turmoil and violence. The gap between rich and poor widened as wealthy landowners drove small farmers from public land, while access to government was increasingly limited to the more privileged classes. Attempts to address these social problems, such as the reform movements of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus (in 133 B.C. and 123-22 B.C., respectively) ended in the reformers’ deaths at the hands of their opponents.

Gaius Marius, a commoner whose military prowess elevated him to the position of consul (for the first of six terms) in 107 B.C., was the first of a series of warlords who would dominate Rome during the late republic. By 91 B.C., Marius was struggling against attacks by his opponents, including his fellow general Sulla, who emerged as military dictator around 82 B.C. After Sulla retired, one of his former supporters, Pompey, briefly served as consul before waging successful military campaigns against pirates in the Mediterranean and the forces of Mithridates in Asia. During this same period, Marcus Tullius Cicero , elected consul in 63 B.C., famously defeated the conspiracy of the patrician Cataline and won a reputation as one of Rome’s greatest orators.

Julius Caesar’s Rise

When the victorious Pompey returned to Rome, he formed an uneasy alliance known as the First Triumvirate with the wealthy Marcus Licinius Crassus (who suppressed a slave rebellion led by Spartacus in 71 B.C.) and another rising star in Roman politics: Gaius Julius Caesar . After earning military glory in Spain, Caesar returned to Rome to vie for the consulship in 59 B.C. From his alliance with Pompey and Crassus, Caesar received the governorship of three wealthy provinces in Gaul beginning in 58 B.C.; he then set about conquering the rest of the region for Rome.

After Pompey’s wife Julia (Caesar’s daughter) died in 54 B.C. and Crassus was killed in battle against Parthia (present-day Iran) the following year, the triumvirate was broken. With old-style Roman politics in disorder, Pompey stepped in as sole consul in 53 B.C. Caesar’s military glory in Gaul and his increasing wealth had eclipsed Pompey’s, and the latter teamed with his Senate allies to steadily undermine Caesar. In 49 B.C., Caesar and one of his legions crossed the Rubicon, a river on the border between Italy from Cisalpine Gaul. Caesar’s invasion of Italy ignited a civil war from which he emerged as dictator of Rome for life in 45 B.C.

From Caesar to Augustus

Less than a year later, Julius Caesar was murdered on the ides of March (March 15, 44 B.C.) by a group of his enemies (led by the republican nobles Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius). Consul Mark Antony and Caesar’s great-nephew and adopted heir, Octavian, joined forces to crush Brutus and Cassius and divided power in Rome with ex-consul Lepidus in what was known as the Second Triumvirate. With Octavian leading the western provinces, Antony the east, and Lepidus Africa, tensions developed by 36 B.C. and the triumvirate soon dissolved. In 31 B.C., Octavian triumped over the forces of Antony and Queen Cleopatra of Egypt (also rumored to be the onetime lover of Julius Caesar) in the Battle of Actium. In the wake of this devastating defeat, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide.

By 29 B.C., Octavian was the sole leader of Rome and all its provinces. To avoid meeting Caesar’s fate, he made sure to make his position as absolute ruler acceptable to the public by apparently restoring the political institutions of the Roman republic while in reality retaining all real power for himself. In 27 B.C., Octavian assumed the title of Augustus , becoming the first emperor of Rome.

Age of the Roman Emperors

Augustus’ rule restored morale in Rome after a century of discord and corruption and ushered in the famous pax Romana –two full centuries of peace and prosperity. He instituted various social reforms, won numerous military victories and allowed Roman literature, art, architecture and religion to flourish. Augustus ruled for 56 years, supported by his great army and by a growing cult of devotion to the emperor. When he died, the Senate elevated Augustus to the status of a god, beginning a long-running tradition of deification for popular emperors.

Augustus’ dynasty included the unpopular Tiberius (A.D. 14-37), the bloodthirsty and unstable Caligula (37-41) and Claudius (41-54), who was best remembered for his army’s conquest of Britain. The line ended with Nero (54-68), whose excesses drained the Roman treasury and led to his downfall and eventual suicide.

Four emperors took the throne in the tumultuous year after Nero’s death; the fourth, Vespasian (69-79), and his successors, Titus and Domitian, were known as the Flavians; they attempted to temper the excesses of the Roman court, restore Senate authority and promote public welfare. Titus (79-81) earned his people’s devotion with his handling of recovery efforts after the infamous eruption of Vesuvius, which destroyed the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii .

The reign of Nerva (96-98), who was selected by the Senate to succeed Domitian, began another golden age in Roman history, during which four emperors–Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius–took the throne peacefully, succeeding one another by adoption, as opposed to hereditary succession. Trajan (98-117) expanded Rome’s borders to the greatest extent in history with victories over the kingdoms of Dacia (now northwestern Romania) and Parthia. His successor Hadrian (117-138) solidified the empire’s frontiers (famously building Hadrian's Wall in present-day England) and continued his predecessor’s work of establishing internal stability and instituting administrative reforms.

Under Antoninus Pius (138-161), Rome continued in peace and prosperity, but the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161–180) was dominated by conflict, including war against Parthia and Armenia and the invasion of Germanic tribes from the north. When Marcus fell ill and died near the battlefield at Vindobona (Vienna), he broke with the tradition of non-hereditary succession and named his 19-year-old son Commodus as his successor.

What Role Did Women Play in Ancient Rome?

Their lives and value were defined almost solely in relation to men: their fathers and husbands. But some women found ways to claim their own power.

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Coroner’s Report: Pompeii

The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D. obliterated the Roman city of Pompeii, burying it under tons of volcanic ash. While many of its resident fled to safety, what happened to those who dared to stay behind?

Decline and Disintegration

The decadence and incompetence of Commodus (180-192) brought the golden age of the Roman emperors to a disappointing end. His death at the hands of his own ministers sparked another period of civil war , from which Lucius Septimius Severus (193-211) emerged victorious. During the third century Rome suffered from a cycle of near-constant conflict. A total of 22 emperors took the throne, many of them meeting violent ends at the hands of the same soldiers who had propelled them to power. Meanwhile, threats from outside plagued the empire and depleted its riches, including continuing aggression from Germans and Parthians and raids by the Goths over the Aegean Sea.

The reign of Diocletian (284-305) temporarily restored peace and prosperity in Rome, but at a high cost to the unity of the empire. Diocletian divided power into the so-called tetrarchy (rule of four), sharing his title of Augustus (emperor) with Maximian. A pair of generals, Galerius and Constantius, were appointed as the assistants and chosen successors of Diocletian and Maximian; Diocletian and Galerius ruled the eastern Roman Empire, while Maximian and Constantius took power in the west.

The stability of this system suffered greatly after Diocletian and Maximian retired from office. Constantine (the son of Constantius) emerged from the ensuing power struggles as sole emperor of a reunified Rome in 324. He moved the Roman capital to the Greek city of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople . At the Council of Nicaea in 325, Constantine made Christianity (once an obscure Jewish sect) Rome’s official religion.

Roman unity under Constantine proved illusory, and 30 years after his death the eastern and western empires were again divided. Despite its continuing battle against Persian forces, the eastern Roman Empire–later known as the Byzantine Empire –would remain largely intact for centuries to come. An entirely different story played out in the west, where the empire was wracked by internal conflict as well as threats from abroad–particularly from the Germanic tribes now established within the empire’s frontiers like the Vandals (their sack of Rome originated the phrase “vandalism”)–and was steadily losing money due to constant warfare.

Rome eventually collapsed under the weight of its own bloated empire, losing its provinces one by one: Britain around 410; Spain and northern Africa by 430. Attila and his brutal Huns invaded Gaul and Italy around 450, further shaking the foundations of the empire. In September 476, a Germanic prince named Odovacar won control of the Roman army in Italy. After deposing the last western emperor, Romulus Augustus, Odovacar’s troops proclaimed him king of Italy, bringing an ignoble end to the long, tumultuous history of ancient Rome. The fall of the Roman Empire was complete.

Steps Leading to the Fall of Rome

• A.D. 285 First split
• A.D. 378 Battle of Adrianople
• A.D. 395 Final split
• A.D. 410 Visigoths sack Rome
• A.D. 439 Vandals capture Carthage
• A.D. 455 Vandals sack Rome
• A.D. 476 Western Roman Emperor deposed

Between 235 and 284, more than 20 Roman emperors take the throne in a chaotic period known as the Crisis of the Third Century . This period ends when Diocletian becomes emperor and divides the Roman Empire into eastern and western regions, each ruled by its own emperor. This divided rule lasts until 324 when Constantine the Great reunifies Rome. More

The Roman military suffers one of its worst defeats at the Battle of Adrianople . Led by Eastern Emperor Valens, Rome loses an estimated 10,000 troops while fighting against the Visigoths and other Germanic peoples. Valens dies in battle, and the defeat in the east paves the way for attacks in the west. More

After Valens’ death in the Battle of Adrianople, Theodosius I becomes the new eastern emperor. In 394, he defeats Eugenius, the proclaimed western emperor. Theodosius executes Eugenius and briefly reunifies the empire under his rule. However, his death in 395 divides the empire between his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius.

In 410, Visigoths successfully enter and sack the city of Rome . According to legend, this attack marks the first time an outside force has sacked Rome since 387 B.C., nearly 800 years before. More

Three decades after the Visigoths sack Rome, a different group of Germanic people called the Vandals capture Carthage, one of the largest cities in the Western Roman Empire. After capturing the ancient city, the Vandals declare it their new capital. This marks another significant victory for Germanic peoples against the Western Roman Empire. More

During the early 450s, the Western Roman Empire successfully fights off attempts by Attila the Hun and his forces to invade Roman territory. However, in 455 the Vandals invade and sack the city of Rome. This attack eventually helps turn the Vandals’ name into another word for people who destroy property. More

In 476, a Germanic soldier named Odoacer deposes the last western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus , and proclaims himself king of Italy. This marks the traditional end of the Western Roman Empire; but not the end of the Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire , which flourishes for another millennium.

Roman Architecture

Roman architecture and engineering innovations have had a lasting impact on the modern world. Roman aqueducts, first developed in 312 B.C., enabled the rise of cities by transporting water to urban areas, improving public health and sanitation. Some Roman aqueducts transported water up to 60 miles from its source and the Fountain of Trevi in Rome still relies on an updated version of an original Roman aqueduct.

Roman cement and concrete are part of the reason ancient buildings like the Colosseum and Roman Forum are still standing strong today. Roman arches, or segmented arches, improved upon earlier arches to build strong bridges and buildings, evenly distributing weight throughout the structure.

Roman roads, the most advanced roads in the ancient world, enabled the Roman Empire—which was over 1.7 million square miles at the pinnacle of its power—to stay connected. They included such modern-seeming innovations as mile markers and drainage. Over 50,000 miles of road were built by 200 B.C. and several are still in use today.

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The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire Essay

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Introduction

The Roman Empire exemplifies the lives of the people that lived during the era of Western civilization. Like other cultural affiliations, the Romans wanted to dominate Europe and other parts of the world thereby, new strategies were devised including investment in military and use of diplomatic relations to rise to power. However, differences in interests and power among few elites caused divisions that led to the fall of the empire. The purpose of this essay is to examine the rise and fall of the Roman Empire, including the influence of the Catholic Church and Kings in the secular and religious activities of the Europeans.

Strong military power and economic expansion were the major contributing reasons for the rise of the Roman Empire. After the difficult transition from monarchy to republican government embarked on a course of military expansion that led to the conquest of the Italian peninsula. The soldiers were committed to the course as they persisted even after the loss of an army or fleet. The Romans invested heavily in new armies and machinery that gave them leverage against their threats. Secondly, the Romans had a practical sense of economic and policy strategies that increased its power. By 264 B.C.E, they had established fortified towns at all strategic locations which provided adequate human and financial resources to help the colonies spur economically, giving Romans adequate power to make demands and expand territories. In addition, the Romans were excellent in diplomatic relations. They extended citizenship and autonomy to foreigners, increasing movements into the territory for a stronger empire.

The jostling for power by a number of powerful individuals and civil war contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire. Senate was the governing body of the Roman state. Notably, it comprised a select three hundred men drawn from the landed aristocracy and remained senators for life. As the empire grew, some elite families started to dominate senate and magistrate affairs, leading to a long-standing scramble for power. In the lecture on the problems that faced the Roman Empire, Santelli noted the nobles governed through intimidation and coercion, to maintain their hold over the magistrates and senate. The selfish interests of the few elite families fueled conflicts that resulted in civil wars. These wars disrupted the peace and military strength held by the state. Some powerful individuals, such as Pompey who took advantage of the internal troubles facing Rome to establish punitive reforms, such as putting equities back on the jury courts, and gain more power to control empire. Internal wrangles led to an increase in the number of invasions and civil wars. This caused a decline in population and economy, weakening the military power and the state’s ability to establish its authority against invaders.

The Influence of the Catholic Church and European Kings on the lives of Europeans

The Catholic Church and European kings exerted power and influence in both secular and religious lives of Europeans by using the bible and their power over the masses to make and impose new reforms. During the Carolingian times, the Catholic Church changed the attitude of the population on sexuality, family life, and childbearing. Marriage was a civil arrangement, and while wives were expected to remain faithful to their husbands, men could keep concubines, either slaves or free women. The church influenced this aspect of the European community by emphasizing monogamy and permanence. In 789, A Frankish church council stipulated that marriage was indissoluble and condemned divorce. Moreover, the church introduced and started to enforce clerical celibacy, and condemned all forms of procreation and homosexuality.

In addition, the Bishops used converted powerful men into Christianity and used the opportunity to change the secular and religious beliefs of the people. For example, Augustine, a monk from a monastery in Rome, visited Kent and persuaded King Ethelbert to become a Christian. Most of the king’s subjects became Christians and started following traditions of the Catholic Church, including pursuing celibacy and committing to a monogamous family. Pope Gregory emphasized persuasion rather than force or intimidation to convert the pagans. This approach made it for the Catholic Church to dominate the Europe and most of the temples were converted to churches. Similarly, pagan feasts were given new names and incorporated into the Christian calendar. For example, the community started the Christmas celebrations, which were held on December 25, the day the pagan celebration of the winter solstice was previously held.

The Catholic Church served as instrument of political power, influencing policies and the way of life other Europeans. Monasteries were major beneficiaries of grants from kings and gifts from people who wanted religious favors. These gifts increased the wealth of individual monasteries, giving them power to rule in the political space. Through these positions, the church influenced a change education and other social activities, including observance of justice, purity, devotion, charity, and other virtues that impacted their everyday security and religious activities.

The rise and fall of the Roman Empire and the early influence of the Catholic Church through the Middle Ages are critical in understanding Western civilization. The changes that happened in the society led to the development of art, culture, and enduring ideas that are prevalent in the current society. What is evident in these two discussions is the fact that powerful people and institutions have a great influence on the culture and the rise and fall of societies.

Works Cited

Santelli, Lecture notes.

Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western civilization . Cengage Learning, 2020.

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IvyPanda. (2023, June 28). The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-roman-empire/

"The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire." IvyPanda , 28 June 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-roman-empire/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire'. 28 June.

IvyPanda . 2023. "The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire." June 28, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-roman-empire/.

1. IvyPanda . "The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire." June 28, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-roman-empire/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire." June 28, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-roman-empire/.

History of Now

Lessons in the Decline of Democracy From the Ruined Roman Republic

A new book argues that violent rhetoric and disregard for political norms was the beginning of Rome’s end

Jason Daley

Correspondent

The U.S. Constitution owes a huge debt to ancient Rome. The Founding Fathers were well-versed in Greek and Roman History. Leaders like Thomas Jefferson and James Madison read the historian Polybius, who laid out one of the clearest descriptions of the Roman Republic’s constitution, where representatives of various factions and social classes checked the power of the elites and the power of the mob. It’s not surprising that in the United States’ nascent years, comparisons to ancient Rome were common . And to this day, Rome, whose 482-year-long Republic, bookended by several hundred years of monarchy and 1,500 years of imperial rule, is still the longest the world has seen.

Aspects of our modern politics reminded University of California San Diego historian Edward Watts of the last century of the Roman Republic, roughly 130 B.C. to 27 B.C. That’s why he took a fresh look at the period in his new book Mortal Republic: How Rome Fell Into Tyranny . Watts chronicles the ways the republic, with a population once devoted to national service and personal honor, was torn to shreds by growing wealth inequality, partisan gridlock, political violence and pandering politicians, and argues that the people of Rome chose to let their democracy die by not protecting their political institutions, eventually turning to the perceived stability of an emperor instead of facing the continued violence of an unstable and degraded republic. Political messaging during the 2018 midterm elections hinged on many of these exact topics.

Though he does not directly compare and contrast Rome with the United States, Watts says that what took place in Rome is a lesson for all modern republics. “Above all else, the Roman Republic teaches the citizens of its modern descendants the incredible dangers that come along with condoning political obstruction and courting political violence,” he writes. “Roman history could not more clearly show that, when citizens look away as their leaders engage in these corrosive behaviors, their republic is in mortal danger.”

Mortal Republic: How Rome Fell into Tyranny

In Mortal Republic , prize-winning historian Edward J. Watts offers a new history of the fall of the Roman Republic that explains why Rome exchanged freedom for autocracy.

Historians are cautious when trying to apply lessons from one unique culture to another, and the differences between the modern United States and Rome are immense. Rome was an Iron-Age city-state with a government-sponsored religion that at times made decisions by looking at the entrails of sheep. Romans had a rigid class system, relied on slave labor and had a tolerance for everyday violence that is genuinely horrifying. Then again, other aspects of the Roman Republic feel rather familiar.

The Roman people’s strong sense of patriotism was unique in the Mediterranean world. Like the United States after World War II, Rome, after winning the Second Punic War in 201 B.C. (the one with Hannibal and the elephants), became the world’s hegemon, which lead to a massive increase in their military spending, a baby boom, and gave rise to a class of super-wealthy elites that were able to use their money to influence politics and push their own agendas. Those similarities make comparisons worthwhile, even if the togas, gladiator battles and appetite for dormice seem completely foreign.

Cullen Murphy, whose 2005 book Are We Rome? makes a more head-on comparison between the fall of the Roman Empire and the U.S., argues that the changes in politics and society in Rome stemmed from one source: its growing complexity. Rome, during the Republic and Empire, had increasing and evolving responsibilities around the Mediterranean which its government constantly struggled to manage. Those challenges forced changes throughout the economy and society, sometimes for the better and sometimes for the worse. In general terms, he sees many of the same struggles in recent U.S. history.

“I think the U.S. is experiencing this same situation—we’ve never quite recovered from our victory in World War II, which left us with the world on our shoulders; and the implications of that responsibility have skewed things in every part of our society and economy, and put our old political (and other) structures under enormous strain,” he says. “New sources of power and new forms of administration and management fill the gap—and create unease and sometimes also injustice, and at the same time create vast new sectors of wealth.”

Those types of social and economic changes also rattled the Roman Republic, leading to the moment in 130 B.C. when politics turned violent. The introduction of a secret ballot meant Roman politicians and political factions couldn’t keep tabs on (or bribe) individual voters. Instead, politicians had to build political brands that appealed to the masses, leading to something akin to modern American campaigning with big promises and populist language aimed at the poor and middle class.

Reforms to the military also meant that service was no longer reserved for the elite, who for centuries used their privilege to demonstrate their loyalty to Rome. For poorer soldiers, however, service became a path to riches. They began to count on the loot, bonuses and gifts of land they received from their often-wealthy commanders meaning that over time the loyalty of the Roman legions shifted from the empire to their generals. These changes set the stage for a new type of politics, one where whipping up the resentments of the lower classes and threatening political enemies with semi-private armies became the norm.

These trends first came to a head in 134 B.C. when Tiberius Gracchus, an elected tribune of the people, proposed a land reform bill that would benefit poorer and middle-class Romans. The way Gracchus went about his reform, however, was an affront to the norms and traditions of the Republic. He brought his law before the Plebeian Assembly without the thumbs-up of the Senate. When his fellow tribune Marcus Octavius threatened to veto the bill, which was his right, Gracchus manipulated the rules to have him stripped of his office. There were other incidents as well, but the most concerning aspect of Gracchus was his fiery, populist language, which whipped his supporters to the edge of political violence. As his power grew, Gracchus began moving through the streets surrounded by a mob of frenzied supporters, a kind of personal militia not seen in Rome before.

Rumors spread that Gracchus was angling to become a king or dictator, and some in the Senate felt they needed to act. When Gracchus stood for a second term as tribune, which was not illegal but broke another norm, a group of Senators and their supporters beat Gracchus and 300 of his followers to death.

It was just the beginning. Over the next century, Tiberius’s brother Gaius Gracchus would come into conflict with the Senate after a similar populist confrontation. The commander Sulla would march legions loyal to him on Rome itself and battle his political rival Marius, the first time Roman troops fought one another. He would then execute and punish his political enemies. In the following generation Pompey and Caesar would settle their political scores using Roman legions, Octavian and Marc Antony would field an army against the Senate before finally battling one another bringing almost 500 years of the Republic to a bloody (and confusing) conclusion.

Watts argues that while the Senate ordered his murder, it was Tiberius Gracchus who let the genie out of the bottle. “What he has to bear responsibility for is he starts using this really aggressive and threatening language and threatening postures. He never resorts to violence, but there’s always this implicit threat. ‘If not for me, things would get out of control.’ And that is different, that was never done before. What he introduces is this political tool of intimidation and threats of violence. Later thinkers say once it’s there, even if others choose not to use it, it’s there forever.”

While life in Rome, with gladiator battles, crucifixions and endless war was violent, for centuries Romans took pride in their republican system and political violence was taboo. “The Republic was free of political violence for the better part of 300 years. People who are politically engaged are not killing each other and they’re not threatening to kill each other. When they disagree with each other they use political means that were created by the republic for dealing with political conflict,” says Watts. “If you lose one of those conflicts, you don’t die and you don’t lose your property and you aren’t sent away. You just lose face and move on. In that sense, this is a remarkably successful system for encouraging compromise and encouraging consensus building and creating mechanisms whereby political conflicts will be decided peacefully.”

So what does the story of the Roman Republic mean for the United States? The comparison is not perfect. The U.S. has had its share of political violence over the centuries and has more or less recovered. Politicians used to regularly duel one another (See the Hamilton soundtrack, song 15), and in the run-up to the Civil War, the ultimate act of political violence, there was the raid on Harper’s Ferry, Bleeding Kansas, and the near murder of Charles Sumner in the Senate chamber. Joanne B. Freeman, author of Field of Blood , a history of violence in Congress before the Civil War, tells Anna Diamond at Smithsonian she found at least 70 incidents of fighting among legislators, including a mass brawl in the House, though they often tried to paper over the conflicts. “It’s all hidden between the lines in the Congressional record; it might say “the conversation became unpleasantly personal.” That meant duel challenges, shoving, pulling guns and knives.”

The better comparison, surprisingly, applies to post-WWII America. Despite periods where the U.S. political system and established political norms have been tested and stretched—the McCarthy hearings, Vietnam, Watergate, the Iraq War—partisan violence or attempts to subvert the system have been rare. But recent events, like changes to filibuster rules and other procedures in Congress as well as increasingly heated political rhetoric give Watts pause. “It is profoundly dangerous when a politician takes a step to undercut or ignore a political norm, it’s extremely dangerous whenever anyone introduces violent rhetoric or actual violence into a republican system that’s designed to promote compromise and consensus building.”

The solution to keeping a republic healthy, if Rome can truly be a guide, is for the citizens to reject any attempts to alter these norms he says. “I think the lesson I take away most profoundly from spending so much time with these materials is basically, yes, we do need to assign blame to politicians and individuals who take a shortsighted view of the health of a republic in order to try to pursue their own personal objectives or specific short-term political advantages.”

The example of the Roman Republic shows the result of not policing those norms and keeping violence in check is the potential loss of democracy. “No republic is eternal,” Watts writes. “It lives only as long as its citizens want it. And, in both the 21stcentury A.D. and the first century B.C., when a republic fails to work as intended, its citizens are capable of choosing the stability of autocratic rule over the chaos of a broken republic.”

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Jason Daley is a Madison, Wisconsin-based writer specializing in natural history, science, travel, and the environment. His work has appeared in Discover , Popular Science , Outside , Men’s Journal , and other magazines.

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The Rise and Fall of the Roman Republic (ANCW20019)

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The turbulent and exciting history of the Roman Republic roughly spanned some five centuries: from its humble beginnings around 500 BCE to the assassination of Julius Caesar on the Ides of March 44 BCE. The first part of this lecture series celebrating this formative period in world history discusses early Rome; the social, political and religious institutions of the Republic as they gradually emerged from 509 to 264 BCE; and the Roman conquest of Italy and its significance. The second part concerns the high point of the Roman Republic, approximately the period from 264 to 133 BCE, including discussions of the Punic Wars and the conquest of the Mediterranean, and its tremendous consequences for the Republic. The third and final part deals with the Republic’s troubled last century and surveys the ill-fated Gracchan reforms; the first full-fledged breakdown of the Republican system and the Sullan reaction; the social, economic and cultural life of this period; the rise of the great dynasts; and Caesar’s temerarious attempt to establish a New Order.

Intended learning outcomes

Students who successfully complete this subject should:

• acquire a broad insight into the varied and rich history of the Roman Republic
• have further developed their ability to write a coherent research essay
• have developed the skills to select and analyze relevant material from the ancient sources and synthesize the findings of this inquiry into a consistent and structured argument

Last updated: 6 August 2024