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• CORRESPONDENCE
• 23 July 2024

Monitor soil health using advanced technologies

• Asim Biswas 0

University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada.

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

The Critical Ground report released in June by Canada’s Standing Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry emphasized soil as a strategic resource (see go.nature.com/4cremge ). It underscores the urgent need for improved measurement, reporting and verification of soil health.

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Nature 631 , 740 (2024)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-02396-4

Competing Interests

The author declares no competing interests.

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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

ARS Research Labs Studying Soil

• U.S. Arid Land Agricultural Research Center
• U.S. Arid Land Agricultural Research Center: Water Management and Conservation Research
• Southwest Watershed Research
• Sustainable Agricultural Water Systems Research
• Crop Improvement and Protection Research
• Watershed Management Research
• Soil and Water Conservation Research
• Wheat Health, Genetics, and Quality Research
• Center for Agricultural Resources Research
• Center for Agricultural Resources Research: Soil Management and Sugarbeet Research
• Center for Grain and Animal Health Research: Hard Winter Wheat Genetics Research
• Northern Plains Agricultural Research Laboratory: Agricultural Systems Research
• Integrated Cropping Systems Research
• Conservation and Production Research Laboratory
• Conservation and Production Research Laboratory: Soil and Water Management Research
• Conservation and Production Research Laboratory: Livestock Nutrient Management Research
• Cropping Systems Research Laboratory
• Cropping Systems Research Laboratory: Wind Erosion and Water Conservation Research
• Grassland, Soil and Water Research Laboratory
• Global Change and Photosynthesis Research
• National Soil Erosion Research
• National Laboratory for Agriculture and The Environment: Soil, Water & Air Resources Research
• Soil Management Research
• Soil and Water Management Research
• U.S. Dairy Forage Research Center
• U.S. Dairy Forage Research Center: Environmentally Integrated Dairy Management Research
• Soil Dynamics Research
• Delta Water Management Research
• Sugarcane Production Research
• U.S. Horticultural Research Laboratory: Subtropical Plant Pathology Research
• Southeast Watershed Research
• National Sedimentation Laboratory
• National Sedimentation Laboratory: Water Quality and Ecology Research
• Crop Science Research Laboratory
• Crop Production Systems Research
• Plant Science Research
• New England Plant, Soil and Water Research Laboratory
• Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: Sustainable Agricultural Systems Laboratory
• Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: Hydrology and Remote Sensing Laboratory
• Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: Mycology and Nematology Genetic Diversity and Biology Laboratory
• Robert W. Holley Center for Agriculture & Health
• Robert W. Holley Center for Agriculture & Health: Plant, Soil and Nutrition Research
• Pasture Systems & Watershed Management Research

187 Research Projects Studying Soil

• Managing manure as a soil resource for improved biosecurity, nutrient availability, and soil sustainability (Agroecosystem Management Research)
• Soil response to agricultural intensification in the western corn belt (Agroecosystem Management Research)
• Development of improved soil sampling design using geophysical layers (Agroecosystem Management Research)
• Identifying and managing soilborne pathogens in high tunnel vegetable production (Application Technology Research)
• Coupling soilless containerized production systems and irrigation technology to address water, agrichemical, and weed management (Application Technology Research)
• Sod: solutions for organic farm diseases: suppressing soilborne pathogens in vegetable high tunnels (Application Technology Research)
• Experimentation, model development and on-farm application crop and soil process models for corn, potato...experiment stations (Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: Adaptive Cropping Systems Laboratory)
• Factors affect the transfer of bacterial pathogens to leafy greens from soils (Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: Environmental Microbial & Food Safety Laboratory)
• Microbial and physico-chemical technologies to control bacterial pathogens during hydroponic, aquaponic, and soil production of fresh produce (Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: Environmental Microbial & Food Safety Laboratory)
• Leveraging the national potato soil health project platform (Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: Genetic Improvement for Fruits & Vegetables Laboratory)
• Common scab pathogen population stability and soil factors associated with disease suppression (Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: Genetic Improvement for Fruits & Vegetables Laboratory)
• Calibration and validation of in situ soil moisture sensors at marena oklahoma (Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: Hydrology and Remote Sensing Laboratory)
• Root-zone soil moisture using p-band observations (Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: Hydrology and Remote Sensing Laboratory)
• Metrics, management, and monitoring: an investigation of rangeland and pasture soil health and its drivers (Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: Hydrology and Remote Sensing Laboratory)
• Using smap soil moisture products to improve streamflow forecasting in ungauged basins (Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: Hydrology and Remote Sensing Laboratory)
• Application of remote sensing and land data assimilation for high-resolution, root-zone soil moisture monitoring within almond orchards... (Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: Hydrology and Remote Sensing Laboratory)
• Farming for more than food: management impact on soil organic carbon and mineralogy (Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: Sustainable Agricultural Systems Laboratory)
• Soil, crop, and manure biochemistry and molecular ecology: bridging knowledge gaps in microbiome response to management and climate change (Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: Sustainable Agricultural Systems Laboratory)
• Long-term cropping systems impacts on soil carbon and nitrogen pools (Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: Sustainable Agricultural Systems Laboratory)
• Assessment of soil quality parameters in tropical soils and elemental composition in tropical crops subjected to abiotic stresses (Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: Sustainable Perennial Crops Laboratory)
• Metrics, management, and monitoring: an investigation in rangeland and pasture soil health and their drivers - fort collins (Center for Agricultural Resources Research: Rangeland Resources & Systems Research)
• Soil c cycling in irrigated agroecosystems (Center for Agricultural Resources Research: Soil Management and Sugarbeet Research)
• Agricultural management for long-term sustainability and soil health (Center for Agricultural Resources Research: Soil Management and Sugarbeet Research)
• Characterization of soil microbiome in diverse biochar-amended soils and ecosystems (Center for Agricultural Resources Research: Soil Management and Sugarbeet Research)
• Understanding soil and environmental effects on crop species and rangeland ecosystems under water limitation (Center for Agricultural Resources Research: Water Management and Systems Research)
• Long-term tillage influence soil nutrient dynamics and soil quality in dryland cropping system (Center for Agricultural Resources Research: Water Management and Systems Research)
• Long-term oil seed production influence soil quality and carbon content in dryland cropping system (Center for Agricultural Resources Research: Water Management and Systems Research)
• Improving soil quality and productivity of eroded crop land using animal beef manure (Center for Agricultural Resources Research: Water Management and Systems Research)
• Long-term tillage influence soil quality and carbon cycling in dryland cropping system (Center for Agricultural Resources Research: Water Management and Systems Research)
• Long-term cover crops influence soil quality and carbon content in cropping system (Center for Agricultural Resources Research: Water Management and Systems Research)
• Residue removal study and manure addition to maintain soil quality and sustainability (Center for Agricultural Resources Research: Water Management and Systems Research)
• Long-term beef manure influences soil quality, carbon dynamics, and corn productivity (Center for Agricultural Resources Research: Water Management and Systems Research)
• Effect of soil sulfur content on sorghum protein quality (Center for Grain and Animal Health Research: Grain Quality and Structure Research)
• Investigating naturally revegetated chat-contaminated soils-assisted revegetation (Coastal Plains Soil, Water and Plant Conservation Research)
• Use of locally effective microorganisms and other amendments for the improvement of soil health in mine-impacted remediated soils (Coastal Plains Soil, Water and Plant Conservation Research)
• Innovative manure treatment technologies and enhanced soil health for agricultural systems of the southeastern coastal plain (Coastal Plains Soil, Water and Plant Conservation Research)
• Strategies to manage feed nutrients, reduce gas emissions, and promote soil health for beef and dairy cattle production systems of the southern great plains (Conservation and Production Research Laboratory: Livestock Nutrient Management Research)
• Developing the perfect molecular markers and new germplasm for rapid incorporation of resistance to soil borne pathogens in soybean (Corn Insects and Crop Genetics Research)
• Healthy soils and bioproducts for improved nutrient-use efficiency and ecosystem services (Crop Genetics and Breeding Research)
• Row crop production under climate change – assessment of sustainable management practices for plant and soil health (Crop Genetics Research)
• Strategies and tools to improve soil resources, pest management, and climate resilience on organic and conventional vegetable and strawberry farms (Crop Improvement and Protection Research)
• Site-specific soil pest management in strawberry & vegetable cropping systems - economic analysis (Crop Improvement and Protection Research)
• Site-specific soil pest management in strawberry & vegetable cropping systems - fumigation and weed management (Crop Improvement and Protection Research)
• Site-specific soil pest management in strawberry & vegetable cropping systems - yield monitoring (Crop Improvement and Protection Research)
• Site-specific soil pest management in strawberry & vegetable cropping systems - remote sensing (Crop Improvement and Protection Research)
• Site-specific soil pest management in strawberry & vegetable cropping systems - santa maria (Crop Improvement and Protection Research)
• Site-specific soil pest management in strawberry & vegetable cropping systems - food origins yield quantification (Crop Improvement and Protection Research)
• Site-specific soil pest management in strawberry and vegetable cropping systems – oxnard trials (Crop Improvement and Protection Research)
• Site-specific soil pest management in strawberry & vegetable cropping systems – oxnard plot management (Crop Improvement and Protection Research)
• A metagenomics marker system for identification of all fusarium oxysporum taxa in field soils (Crop Improvement and Protection Research)
• Site-specific soil pest management in strawberry & vegetable cropping systems - characterization of plant health (Crop Improvement and Protection Research)
• Site-specific soil pest management in strawberry & vegetable cropping systems - modeling strawberry yield (Crop Improvement and Protection Research)
• Stimulation of potentially active soil microbes to provide maximum soil health (Crop Science Research Laboratory: Genetics and Sustainable Agriculture Research)
• Sensitivity and reproducibility of dynamic soil properties (Cropping Systems and Water Quality Research)
• Expansion and refinement of soil health assessment protocol and evaluation (shape) and revised technical note 450-03 (Cropping Systems and Water Quality Research)
• Regional soil health testing for shape tool (Cropping Systems and Water Quality Research)
• Developing strategies for resilient and sustainable crop, water, and soil management in semi-arid environments (Cropping Systems Research Laboratory: Wind Erosion and Water Conservation Research)
• Establishing a soil health framework for water-limited regions (Cropping Systems Research Laboratory: Wind Erosion and Water Conservation Research)
• Partitioning of anthropogenic radioisotopes on aeolian sediments and erosion-affected soils (Cropping Systems Research Laboratory: Wind Erosion and Water Conservation Research)
• Defining soil health for winegrape production (Crops Pathology and Genetics Research)
• Plant breeding partnership: modeling genetic variation of rice hydraulic response to changes in soil moisture (Dale Bumpers National Rice Research Center)
• Develop spatially explicit soil property maps for precision management for forage production for small farms (Dale Bumpers Small Farms Research Center)
• Development of the fpac soil carbon data management tools suites and systems that are integrated into and maintained on the usda ars partnerships (Dale Bumpers Small Farms Research Center)
• Microbial indicators of soil health and plant productivity for hawaii agroecosystems (Daniel K. Inouye U.s. Pacific Basin Agricultural Research Center: Tropical Crop and Commodity Protection Research)
• Exploring the link between soil and human health: protein, protein quality, and the nutraceutical amino acid ergothioneine (Eastern Regional Research Center: Sustainable Biofuels and Co-products Research)
• The soil health nexus: biochar use for improving soil health and limiting pfas movement in soils (Edward T. Schafer Agricultural Research Center: Food Animal Metabolism Research Unit)
• Pchi: field experiments to incorporate pulse crops in cropping systems and assess soil health and plant water use efficiency - phase 2 (Edward T. Schafer Agricultural Research Center: Small Grain and Food Crops Quality Research Unit)
• Pchi - minimizing water and nutrient footprint for sustainable pulses-wheat cropping systems and enhanced soil health (Edward T. Schafer Agricultural Research Center: Small Grain and Food Crops Quality Research Unit)
• Pchi: assessment of soil health and nitrogen economy in lentil and pea cropping systems (Edward T. Schafer Agricultural Research Center: Small Grain and Food Crops Quality Research Unit)
• Field experiments to incorporate pulse crops in cropping systems and assess soil health and plant water use efficiency (Edward T. Schafer Agricultural Research Center: Small Grain and Food Crops Quality Research Unit)
• Understanding how sunflower soil microbiome impacts resistance to sclerotinia stalk rot (Edward T. Schafer Agricultural Research Center: Sunflower Improvement Research Unit)
• Evaluating rotational cropping systems and their impact on soil microbiota, crop yield and ecosystem benefits in northern agro-ecosystems (Edward T. Schafer Agricultural Research Center: Weed and Insect Biology Research Unit)
• Connecting social and environmental characteristics to soil health on new england farms (Food Systems Research)
• Optimizing soil carbon sequestration in oregon seed production systems (Forage Seed and Cereal Research)
• Improved understanding of soilborne oomycete communities from florida citrus production areas (Foreign Disease-weed Science Research)
• Climate adaptation and sustainability in switchgrass: exploring plant-microbe-soil interactions across continental scale environmental gradients (Grassland, Soil and Water Research Laboratory)
• Rangeland ecohydrology and soil erosion course (Great Basin Rangelands Research)
• Soil erosion and ecosystem recovery after wildfire under a changing climate (Great Basin Rangelands Research)
• Soil, water, meadow and rangeland monitoring on the desatoya mountains project (Great Basin Rangelands Research)
• Identifying huckleberry pollinators and the impact of soil amendment treatments (Horticultural Crops Disease and Pest Management Research)
• Optimizing mineral nutrition in container-grown crops in soilless substrates (Horticultural Crops Production and Genetic Improvement Research)
• Quantifying soil health in the des moines lobe under a wide range of management scenarios using the oklahoma mobile kits (National Laboratory for Agriculture and The Environment: Agroecosystems Management Research)
• Agroecosystem sustainability in upper mississippi river basin: crop, soil, and water resources (National Laboratory for Agriculture and The Environment: Agroecosystems Management Research)
• Know your carbon landscape: data for consistent monitoring of soil carbon monitoring (National Laboratory for Agriculture and The Environment: Agroecosystems Management Research)
• Optimizing carbon management for enhancing soil and crop performances (National Laboratory for Agriculture and The Environment: Soil, Water & Air Resources Research)
• Mapping subsoil fragipan breakdown by ryegrass cover cropping (National Laboratory for Agriculture and The Environment: Soil, Water & Air Resources Research)
• Enhancing long-term agroecosystem sustainability of water and soil resource through science and technology (National Sedimentation Laboratory: Water Quality and Ecology Research)
• Enhancing long-term agroecosystem sustainability of water and soil resources through science and technology (National Sedimentation Laboratory: Water Quality and Ecology Research)
• Assessing conservation practice impacts on reducing soil loss from ephemeral gullies within ceap watersheds (National Sedimentation Laboratory: Watershed Physical Processes Research)
• Science and technologies for improving soil and water resources in agricultural watersheds (National Sedimentation Laboratory: Watershed Physical Processes Research)
• Acoustic and geophysical methods for multi-scale measurements of soil and water resources (National Sedimentation Laboratory: Watershed Physical Processes Research)
• Provide soil erosion-resistance data of lower american river site 4a to usace, sacramento district, for risk-based evaluation of bank erosion (National Sedimentation Laboratory: Watershed Physical Processes Research)
• Groundwater and soil water dynamics modeling to advance erosion prediction in agricultural fields (National Sedimentation Laboratory: Watershed Physical Processes Research)
• Characterization of existing soil conservation practices using remote sensing and machine learning (National Sedimentation Laboratory: Watershed Physical Processes Research)
• Improving understanding of soil processes for making more informed agricultural management decisions that increase agricultural sustainability in the central u.s. (National Soil Erosion Research)
• Northern great plains research laboratory and area iv soil conservation districts research farm agreement (Natural Resource Management Research)
• Influence of plant secondary metabolites on abiotic co2 efflux from soils (Natural Resource Management Research)
• Assessing soil microbiomes for soil health and agricultural productivity (Natural Resource Management Research)
• Determining impacts of soil moisture and weather variability on crp emergence and establishment (Natural Resource Management Research)
• Support of the soil and water conservation society international annual conference (Natural Resources and Sustainable Agricultural Systems)
• Enhancing soil health in potato production by applying soil amendments and manipulating post-fumigation microbiomes (New England Plant, Soil and Water Research Laboratory)
• Influence of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and rhizobium on soil health and plant growth (Northern Plains Agricultural Research Laboratory: Agricultural Systems Research)
• Sustainable soils for healthy communities and climate resilience in the semi-arid west (Northern Plains Agricultural Research Laboratory: Agricultural Systems Research)
• Rangeland resilience following wildfire: post-fire soil health (Northern Plains Agricultural Research Laboratory: Agricultural Systems Research)
• Consequences of uniformly managing irrigated fields with variable soil depths (Northwest Irrigation and Soils Research)
• U.s. dairy net zero initiative: improving dairy on-farm sustainability through improved soil health and manure management (Northwest Irrigation and Soils Research)
• Advancing soil health and agricultural performance to promote sustainable intensification and resilience of northwest dryland cropping systems (Northwest Sustainable Agroecosystems Research)
• Continuing a general framework for cooperation for research on crop and soil science projects (Northwest Sustainable Agroecosystems Research)
• Effects of grazing land management on soil organic carbon in the united states: a climate hubs-ltar science synthesis and translation collaboration (Oklahoma and Central Plains Agricultural Research Center (ocparc))
• Impacts of variable land management and climate on water and soil resources (Oklahoma and Central Plains Agricultural Research Center (ocparc): Agroclimate and Hydraulics Research)
• Evaluation of management impacts on water and soil quality using distributed hydrologic and transport models (Oklahoma and Central Plains Agricultural Research Center (ocparc): Agroclimate and Hydraulics Research)
• Adapting agricultural production systems and soil and water conservation practices to climate change and variability in southern great plains (Oklahoma and Central Plains Agricultural Research Center (ocparc): Agroclimate and Hydraulics Research)
• Increasing water productivity, nutrient efficiency and soil health in rainfed food systems of semi-aris southern great plains (Oklahoma and Central Plains Agricultural Research Center (ocparc): Livestock, Forage and Pasture Management Resaerch)
• Interseeding cover crops into corn to extend the grazing season and improve soil health (Pasture Systems & Watershed Management Research)
• Sampling for root-zone enrichment of soil organic matter (Plant Science Research)
• Analysis to support soil health and climate change research (Plant Science Research)
• Enhanced soil carbon farming as a climate solution (Plant Science Research)
• Quantifying soil organic carbon on cotton farms throughout the southeastern united states and texas (Plant Science Research)
• Using soil and water health assessment tools to identify best management strategies (Poultry Production and Product Safety Research)
• Advancing the state of soil information on u.s. tribal lands for improved food security (Poultry Production and Product Safety Research)
• Developing best management practices for poultry litter to improve agronomic value and reduce air, soil and water pollution (Poultry Production and Product Safety Research)
• Identifying drivers of soil carbon and nitrogen cycling in semi-arid agroecosystems (Range Management Research)
• Microbial interactions in the soybean cyst nematode suppressive soil microbiome (Robert W. Holley Center for Agriculture & Health: Emerging Pests and Pathogens Research)
• Biochemistry and physiology of crop adaptation to soil-based abiotic stresses (Robert W. Holley Center for Agriculture & Health: Plant, Soil and Nutrition Research)
• Quantifying dynamic soil properties for soil health in the central valley of california (San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center: Water Management Research)
• Improving soil and water productivity and quality in irrigated cropping systems (San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center: Water Management Research)
• Linking soil carbon building practices to almond nutritional quality (San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center: Water Management Research)
• Management practices to promote soil biological health with reduced irrigation inputs (San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center: Water Management Research)
• Enhancing vine productivity and soil health through sustainable wood mulching strategies (San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Sciences Center: Water Management Research)
• Soil health and crop productivity in pacific northwest dryland wheat production systems (Soil and Water Conservation Research)
• Improved process-based models for predicting nitrous oxide emissions from fertilized soils (Soil and Water Management Research)
• Developing aspirational practices through improved process understanding to protect soil and air resources and increase agricultural productivity in the upper midwest u.s. (Soil and Water Management Research)
• Soil health and water quality nexus in sustainable agroecosystems (Soil Drainage Research)
• Soil health assessment across the ohio edge-of-field network (Soil Drainage Research)
• Healthy soils, healthy waters: will soil health improvements mitigate nutrient loading to the great lakes? (Soil Drainage Research)
• Improving our understanding of the impact of management on greenhouse gas emissions of major mid-south crops-auburn-soil dynamics research unit (Soil Dynamics Research)
• American society of agronomy, crop science society of america, and soil science society of america (asa, cssa, sssa) (Southeast Watershed Research)
• Influence of soil microbiota and entomopathogenic nematodes on cotton defensive chemical production (Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center: Insect Control and Cotton Disease Research)
• Soil microbiome to control aflatoxin and field evaluation of transgenic corn (Southern Regional Research Center: Food and Feed Safety Research)
• Nitrous oxide, methane, and carbon dioxide soil flux from climate-smart sugarcane production systems in louisiana (Sugarcane Research)
• Post-harvest crop residue management affects sugarcane yield, soil health, and carbon sequestration (Sugarcane Research)
• Silicate rock (carbonlock) soil application effects on insect herbivory, carbon sequestration, and sugarcane growth (Sugarcane Research)
• Dissipation and activity of selected pesticides in sugarcane production soil of louisiana (Sugarcane Research)
• Water and soil resources in sustainable sugarcane production systems for temperate climates (Sugarcane Research)
• Determining subsurface hydraulic properties and water content using geophysical methods and limited soil/sediment datasets (Sustainable Agricultural Water Systems Research)
• Machine learning for unearthing environmental drivers of soil moisture dynamics and scaling to hillslope and remote sensing observations (Sustainable Agricultural Water Systems Research)
• Intensification of agroecosystems and its impact on soil health and water quality (Sustainable Water Management Research)
• Increasing water productivity, nutrient efficiency and soil health in rainfed food systems of semi-arid southern great plains (U.s. Arid Land Agricultural Research Center: Plant Physiology and Genetics Research)
• Roles of microplastics in reclaimed water - enhancing persistence and bioavailability of antimicrobials in agricultural soils (U.s. Arid Land Agricultural Research Center: Water Management and Conservation Research)
• Multi-site study of soil, sediments and water for pfass analysis in north carolina (U.s. Arid Land Agricultural Research Center: Water Management and Conservation Research)
• Identify the effective microalgae-based strategies to ensure food safety in reclaimed water irrigated soils (U.s. Arid Land Agricultural Research Center: Water Management and Conservation Research)
• Outreach and promotion of regenerative grazing practices to support soil health and economic resilience (U.s. Dairy Forage Research Center: Dairy Forage Research)
• Soil health collaborative: evaluating the social, economic, policy, and biophysical drivers and barriers to greater use of soil health practices (U.s. Dairy Forage Research Center: Dairy Forage Research)
• Comprehensive soil health: conservation & remediation practices for urban agriculture (U.s. Dairy Forage Research Center: Dairy Forage Research)
• Soil health collaborative: nutrient and pest management program outreach (U.s. Dairy Forage Research Center: Dairy Forage Research)
• Measuring field-scale changes in soil ecosystem services and crop production with the integration of conservation practices in dairy forage systems (U.s. Dairy Forage Research Center: Dairy Forage Research)
• Kentucky alfalfa nutrient survey: understanding the role of soil fertility (U.s. Dairy Forage Research Center: Dairy Forage Research)
• Evaluating, educating, and communicating the value of cover crop in wi crop rotations, for enhanced productivity, water, and soil quality protection (U.s. Dairy Forage Research Center: Dairy Forage Research)
• Native american soil health collaborative: strengthening soil health efforts among indigenous communities (U.s. Dairy Forage Research Center: Dairy Forage Research)
• Advancing hmong farmers in soil health practices through outreach and education (U.s. Dairy Forage Research Center: Dairy Forage Research)
• Supporting soil health practices through study of labor management on midwest diversified farms (U.s. Dairy Forage Research Center: Dairy Forage Research)
• The crop and soil module of the ruminant farm systems (rufas) model (U.s. Dairy Forage Research Center: Environmentally Integrated Dairy Management Research)
• Quantifying soil resources and carbon stocks at the uw marshfield agricultural research station (mars) (U.s. Dairy Forage Research Center: Environmentally Integrated Dairy Management Research)
• Anaerobic soil disinfestation for enhancing and advancing the sustainability of organic specialty crop production systems (asd-easy organic) (U.s. Horticultural Research Laboratory: Citrus and Other Subtropical Products Research)
• Soil amendment effects on tomato bacterial spot (U.s. Horticultural Research Laboratory: Citrus and Other Subtropical Products Research)
• Organic soil treatment methods for nematode control in california carrots (U.s. Horticultural Research Laboratory: Citrus and Other Subtropical Products Research)
• Utilizing nuclear magnetic resonance to determine the effect of anaerobic soil disinfestation on soil properties (U.s. Horticultural Research Laboratory: Citrus and Other Subtropical Products Research)
• Soil disinfestation treatments for organic carrot production (U.s. Horticultural Research Laboratory: Citrus and Other Subtropical Products Research)
• Anaerobic soil disinfestation for organic strawberry production (U.s. Horticultural Research Laboratory: Citrus and Other Subtropical Products Research)
• Impact of residue biochemical quality on soil disinfestation (U.s. Horticultural Research Laboratory: Citrus and Other Subtropical Products Research)
• Investigating soil microbiomes that increase suppression of verticillium dahliae and potato early dying disease (Vegetable Crops Research)
• Alternatives to soil fumigants for managing root-knot nematode damage in carrots (Vegetable Crops Research)
• Leveraging concentrated organic byproduct for nutrient use efficiency, and anaerobic soil disinfestation in organic vegetable production (Vegetable Research)
• Plant-soil feedbacks driving cheatgrass invasion (Western Regional Research Center: Invasive Species and Pollinator Health Research)
• Effect of irrigation regimes on the romaine lettuce and soil microbiomes, and their transmission, throughout the growth season (Western Regional Research Center: Produce Safety and Microbiology Research)
• Ecology and genomics of soilborne pathogens, beneficial microbes, and the microbiome of wheat, barley, and biofuel brassicas (Wheat Health, Genetics, and Quality Research)
• Winter peas in the wheat-fallow region of the pacific northwest: benefits to soil health and cropping systems (Wheat Health, Genetics, and Quality Research)
• Identification and management of soilborne pathogens of wheat and barley in idaho (Wheat Health, Genetics, and Quality Research)

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School of Integrative Plant Science

Research: Soil & Crop Sciences

The Section of Soil and Crop Sciences addresses the challenge of developing environmentally sustainable agricultural systems to produce food on regional, national, and international scales through three major program areas: Soil Science, Crop Science, and Environmental Information Systems.

Program Areas

Soil biogeochemistry.

Advance our understanding of biogeochemical cycles of carbon and nutrient elements in soil, providing important insight into regional and global element cycles which provide the basis for sustainable soil and land use management. Stabilization mechanisms of organic matter in soil nano-structures and the development of a biochar soil management technology that improves soil fertility, sequesters carbon and reduces off-site pollution. Research topics include: carbon sequestration in the context of climate change and black carbon dynamics; using synchrotron-based NEXAFS and FTIR for the micro- and nano-scale observation of biogeochemical cycles in soils; and the study of so-called Terra Preta de Indio (Amazonian Dark Earths), anthropogenic soils. Recent efforts include the combination of bio-energy and biochar applications to soil, which offer the opportunity to develop a carbon-negative energy technology which at the same time improves the environment.

Faculty Programs: Lehmann , Solomon

Soil Chemistry

Behavior of contaminants such as heavy metals at the soil-water interface in the environment, and soil health, as it is impacted by the contamination of soils by various waste materials, commercial fertilizers and manures. Protecting food crops from toxic metal contaminants, minimizing trace element deficiencies, and developing methods for testing and remediating contaminated soils. Use process-based measurements and state-of-the-art spectroscopic (e.g., XAS, FTIR, NMR), microscopic (e.g., TEM, SEM) and diffraction (e.g., XRD) methods to understand ecosystem element cycles and processes from the molecular to the field scale.

Faculty Programs: Martinez , McBride , Rutzke

Soil Fertility/Plant Nutrition

Assessment of nitrogen and phosphorus cycle processes in agricultural soils with respect to enhancing plant nutrient uptake. Specific research topics include: improve fertilizer N recovery by crops; the functions and dynamics of soil organic matter; appropriate practices for management of soil organic matter.

Faculty Programs: Lehmann

Soil Genesis/Classification/Pedology

Examination of the spatial distribution and variability of soil characteristics in urban and human influenced environments.

Faculty Programs: Russell-Anelli

Soil Ecology, Waste Management & Environmental Microbiology

Assessment of pathogens in composting systems; microbial diversity, and relationships between microbial diversity, environmental characteristics, and ecosystem processes; methods to assess soil biological quality, remediate degraded soils, and improve soil management practices.

Faculty Programs: Buckley , Thies , Bonhotal , Grantham

Soil Microbial Genomics & Evolutionary Biology

Examine the effects of agricultural management practices on soil ecology and soil microbial processes. Microbial diversity, and relationships between microbial diversity, environmental characteristics, and ecosystems processes; the development of soil health diagnostics; the impact of soil microbial diversity and community composition on agroecological function; and the use of environmental genomics to identify factors which impact bacterial population structure in soils at landscape and regional scales.

Faculty Programs: Buckley , Thies

Soil Physics/Environmental Biophysics

Examination of physical soil characteristics that contribute to soil fertility, soil quality, transport and exchange processes in soils. Research topics include: soil physical tests to determine soil health; examination of natural porous media; transport theories; the exchange processes in soils.

Faculty Programs: van Es

Crop Management: Grain, Seed, Forage and Bioenergy

Field experiments to develop management practices that improve forage quality, production, profitability and animal performance; best management practices for corn, soybeans, and other grain crops. Development of grass production and processing for a profitable and environmentally sound source of bioenergy. Evaluation of environmental, biotic, and management interactions that influence the growth, development, yield, and quality of crops. Management of crops for maximum economic returns and minimum soil erosion and nitrate losses with environmentally safe management practices.

Faculty Programs: Cherney , Ryan

Cropping Systems

Development of cover crops by identifying management strategies that maximize their benefits and minimize obstacles to their adoption. Diversifying crop rotations, exploring the impacts of conservation agriculture on soil health, and water management.

Faculty Programs: McDonald , Ryan , Hobbs

Crop Physiology and Molecular Biology

Mechanisms by which drought and other environmental stresses arrest sink-organ development (especially kernels and other storage organs), alter phytohormone levels and modify the expression of gene products involved in stress response and floral/seed set. Mechanisms used to detoxify heavy metals; genes involved in uptake, transport and sequestration of metals and interacting pathways.

Faculty Programs: Setter , Vatamaniuk

Weed Science

Integrated weed management involving ways that biotic and abiotic factors affect weed population and community dynamics, and seed dormancy. Invasive weed biology and biological control measures. Weed control recommendations, herbicide residues and resistant biotypes.

Faculty Programs: DiTommaso

Geospatial Sciences

Processes governing land-atmosphere interactions

Faculty Programs: Sun

Resource Inventory & Analysis

Inventory, spatial analysis, and digital map finishing capabilities for expediting the publication of modern soil surveys and environmental resource inventories in New York and northeastern USA.

Faculty Programs: Grantham , Hoskins

Environmental Modeling & Impact Assessment

Integration and analysis of resource inventory data for use in spatially-explicit models and risk assessments of environmental contamination in mixed use landscapes.

Faculty Programs: Woodbury

Space-Time Statistics

Examination of agronomic and environmental measurements at varying scales through the use of advanced statistical methods, including geostatistics and data mining.

Research Topics & Ideas: Environment

100+ Environmental Science Research Topics & Ideas

Finding and choosing a strong research topic is the critical first step when it comes to crafting a high-quality dissertation, thesis or research project. Here, we’ll explore a variety research ideas and topic thought-starters related to various environmental science disciplines, including ecology, oceanography, hydrology, geology, soil science, environmental chemistry, environmental economics, and environmental ethics.

NB – This is just the start…

The topic ideation and evaluation process has multiple steps . In this post, we’ll kickstart the process by sharing some research topic ideas within the environmental sciences. This is the starting point though. To develop a well-defined research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , along with a well-justified plan of action to fill that gap.

If you’re new to the oftentimes perplexing world of research, or if this is your first time undertaking a formal academic research project, be sure to check out our free dissertation mini-course. Also be sure to also sign up for our free webinar that explores how to develop a high-quality research topic from scratch.

Overview: Environmental Topics

• Ecology /ecological science
• Atmospheric science
• Oceanography
• Soil science
• Environmental chemistry
• Environmental economics
• Environmental ethics
• Examples  of dissertations and theses

Topics & Ideas: Ecological Science

• The impact of land-use change on species diversity and ecosystem functioning in agricultural landscapes
• The role of disturbances such as fire and drought in shaping arid ecosystems
• The impact of climate change on the distribution of migratory marine species
• Investigating the role of mutualistic plant-insect relationships in maintaining ecosystem stability
• The effects of invasive plant species on ecosystem structure and function
• The impact of habitat fragmentation caused by road construction on species diversity and population dynamics in the tropics
• The role of ecosystem services in urban areas and their economic value to a developing nation
• The effectiveness of different grassland restoration techniques in degraded ecosystems
• The impact of land-use change through agriculture and urbanisation on soil microbial communities in a temperate environment
• The role of microbial diversity in ecosystem health and nutrient cycling in an African savannah

Topics & Ideas: Atmospheric Science

• The impact of climate change on atmospheric circulation patterns above tropical rainforests
• The role of atmospheric aerosols in cloud formation and precipitation above cities with high pollution levels
• The impact of agricultural land-use change on global atmospheric composition
• Investigating the role of atmospheric convection in severe weather events in the tropics
• The impact of urbanisation on regional and global atmospheric ozone levels
• The impact of sea surface temperature on atmospheric circulation and tropical cyclones
• The impact of solar flares on the Earth’s atmospheric composition
• The impact of climate change on atmospheric turbulence and air transportation safety
• The impact of stratospheric ozone depletion on atmospheric circulation and climate change
• The role of atmospheric rivers in global water supply and sea-ice formation

Topics & Ideas: Oceanography

• The impact of ocean acidification on kelp forests and biogeochemical cycles
• The role of ocean currents in distributing heat and regulating desert rain
• The impact of carbon monoxide pollution on ocean chemistry and biogeochemical cycles
• Investigating the role of ocean mixing in regulating coastal climates
• The impact of sea level rise on the resource availability of low-income coastal communities
• The impact of ocean warming on the distribution and migration patterns of marine mammals
• The impact of ocean deoxygenation on biogeochemical cycles in the arctic
• The role of ocean-atmosphere interactions in regulating rainfall in arid regions
• The impact of ocean eddies on global ocean circulation and plankton distribution
• The role of ocean-ice interactions in regulating the Earth’s climate and sea level

Tops & Ideas: Hydrology

• The impact of agricultural land-use change on water resources and hydrologic cycles in temperate regions
• The impact of agricultural groundwater availability on irrigation practices in the global south
• The impact of rising sea-surface temperatures on global precipitation patterns and water availability
• Investigating the role of wetlands in regulating water resources for riparian forests
• The impact of tropical ranches on river and stream ecosystems and water quality
• The impact of urbanisation on regional and local hydrologic cycles and water resources for agriculture
• The role of snow cover and mountain hydrology in regulating regional agricultural water resources
• The impact of drought on food security in arid and semi-arid regions
• The role of groundwater recharge in sustaining water resources in arid and semi-arid environments
• The impact of sea level rise on coastal hydrology and the quality of water resources

Topics & Ideas: Geology

• The impact of tectonic activity on the East African rift valley
• The role of mineral deposits in shaping ancient human societies
• The impact of sea-level rise on coastal geomorphology and shoreline evolution
• Investigating the role of erosion in shaping the landscape and impacting desertification
• The impact of mining on soil stability and landslide potential
• The impact of volcanic activity on incoming solar radiation and climate
• The role of geothermal energy in decarbonising the energy mix of megacities
• The impact of Earth’s magnetic field on geological processes and solar wind
• The impact of plate tectonics on the evolution of mammals
• The role of the distribution of mineral resources in shaping human societies and economies, with emphasis on sustainability

Topics & Ideas: Soil Science

• The impact of dam building on soil quality and fertility
• The role of soil organic matter in regulating nutrient cycles in agricultural land
• The impact of climate change on soil erosion and soil organic carbon storage in peatlands
• Investigating the role of above-below-ground interactions in nutrient cycling and soil health
• The impact of deforestation on soil degradation and soil fertility
• The role of soil texture and structure in regulating water and nutrient availability in boreal forests
• The impact of sustainable land management practices on soil health and soil organic matter
• The impact of wetland modification on soil structure and function
• The role of soil-atmosphere exchange and carbon sequestration in regulating regional and global climate
• The impact of salinization on soil health and crop productivity in coastal communities

Topics & Ideas: Environmental Chemistry

• The impact of cobalt mining on water quality and the fate of contaminants in the environment
• The role of atmospheric chemistry in shaping air quality and climate change
• The impact of soil chemistry on nutrient availability and plant growth in wheat monoculture
• Investigating the fate and transport of heavy metal contaminants in the environment
• The impact of climate change on biochemical cycling in tropical rainforests
• The impact of various types of land-use change on biochemical cycling
• The role of soil microbes in mediating contaminant degradation in the environment
• The impact of chemical and oil spills on freshwater and soil chemistry
• The role of atmospheric nitrogen deposition in shaping water and soil chemistry
• The impact of over-irrigation on the cycling and fate of persistent organic pollutants in the environment

Topics & Ideas: Environmental Economics

• The impact of climate change on the economies of developing nations
• The role of market-based mechanisms in promoting sustainable use of forest resources
• The impact of environmental regulations on economic growth and competitiveness
• Investigating the economic benefits and costs of ecosystem services for African countries
• The impact of renewable energy policies on regional and global energy markets
• The role of water markets in promoting sustainable water use in southern Africa
• The impact of land-use change in rural areas on regional and global economies
• The impact of environmental disasters on local and national economies
• The role of green technologies and innovation in shaping the zero-carbon transition and the knock-on effects for local economies
• The impact of environmental and natural resource policies on income distribution and poverty of rural communities

Topics & Ideas: Environmental Ethics

• The ethical foundations of environmentalism and the environmental movement regarding renewable energy
• The role of values and ethics in shaping environmental policy and decision-making in the mining industry
• The impact of cultural and religious beliefs on environmental attitudes and behaviours in first world countries
• Investigating the ethics of biodiversity conservation and the protection of endangered species in palm oil plantations
• The ethical implications of sea-level rise for future generations and vulnerable coastal populations
• The role of ethical considerations in shaping sustainable use of natural forest resources
• The impact of environmental justice on marginalized communities and environmental policies in Asia
• The ethical implications of environmental risks and decision-making under uncertainty
• The role of ethics in shaping the transition to a low-carbon, sustainable future for the construction industry
• The impact of environmental values on consumer behaviour and the marketplace: a case study of the ‘bring your own shopping bag’ policy

Examples: Real Dissertation & Thesis Topics

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses to see how this all comes together.

Below, we’ve included a selection of research projects from various environmental science-related degree programs to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• The physiology of microorganisms in enhanced biological phosphorous removal (Saunders, 2014)
• The influence of the coastal front on heavy rainfall events along the east coast (Henson, 2019)
• Forage production and diversification for climate-smart tropical and temperate silvopastures (Dibala, 2019)
• Advancing spectral induced polarization for near surface geophysical characterization (Wang, 2021)
• Assessment of Chromophoric Dissolved Organic Matter and Thamnocephalus platyurus as Tools to Monitor Cyanobacterial Bloom Development and Toxicity (Hipsher, 2019)
• Evaluating the Removal of Microcystin Variants with Powdered Activated Carbon (Juang, 2020)
• The effect of hydrological restoration on nutrient concentrations, macroinvertebrate communities, and amphibian populations in Lake Erie coastal wetlands (Berg, 2019)
• Utilizing hydrologic soil grouping to estimate corn nitrogen rate recommendations (Bean, 2019)
• Fungal Function in House Dust and Dust from the International Space Station (Bope, 2021)
• Assessing Vulnerability and the Potential for Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) in Sudan’s Blue Nile Basin (Mohamed, 2022)
• A Microbial Water Quality Analysis of the Recreational Zones in the Los Angeles River of Elysian Valley, CA (Nguyen, 2019)
• Dry Season Water Quality Study on Three Recreational Sites in the San Gabriel Mountains (Vallejo, 2019)
• Wastewater Treatment Plan for Unix Packaging Adjustment of the Potential Hydrogen (PH) Evaluation of Enzymatic Activity After the Addition of Cycle Disgestase Enzyme (Miessi, 2020)
• Laying the Genetic Foundation for the Conservation of Longhorn Fairy Shrimp (Kyle, 2021).

Looking at these titles, you can probably pick up that the research topics here are quite specific and narrowly-focused , compared to the generic ones presented earlier. To create a top-notch research topic, you will need to be precise and target a specific context with specific variables of interest . In other words, you’ll need to identify a clear, well-justified research gap.

Need more help?

If you’re still feeling a bit unsure about how to find a research topic for your environmental science dissertation or research project, be sure to check out our private coaching services below, as well as our Research Topic Kickstarter .

Need a helping hand?

12 Comments

research topics on climate change and environment

Researched PhD topics on environmental chemistry involving dust and water

I wish to learn things in a more advanced but simple way and with the hopes that I am in the right place.

Thank so much for the research topics. It really helped

the guides were really helpful

Research topics on environmental geology

Thanks for the research topics….I need a research topic on Geography

hi I need research questions ideas

Implications of climate variability on wildlife conservation on the west coast of Cameroon

I want the research on environmental planning and management

I want a topic on environmental sustainability

It good coaching

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Global Trends and Networks in Soil Fertility Enhancement Techniques: a Bibliometric Analysis

• Published: 25 July 2024

Cite this article

• Zhuangzhuang Feng 1 , 2 ,
• Qingfeng Miao 1 , 2 ,
• Haibin Shi 1 , 2 ,
• Xianyue Li 1 , 2 ,
• Jianwen Yan 1 , 2 ,
• José Manuel Gonçalves 3 ,
• Dandan Yu 1 , 2 ,
• Yan Yan 1 , 2 &
• Weiying Feng 4  

26 Accesses

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With the escalating population, modernization and intensification of agriculture, secondary salinization of soil has emerged as a significant challenge. The development of technologies aimed at improving salinized land and enhancing soil fertility holds paramount importance in the agricultural development process. However, a notable gap exists in periodic summary and analysis research in this field. To address this gap, this review employs a visual bibliometric research method. Drawing from the literature on salinized land improvement and soil fertility enhancement, indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection from 1990 to 2022, we aim to gain insights into the development trends of research field. Utilizing the CiteSpace analysis software, we delve into the patterns and trends in salinized land improvement and soil fertility enhancement. The results reveal a steady rise in publication and citation volumes, with a literature publication growth rate of 122%. The upward trend reflects the increasing urgency and significance of this research area. Global population growth, coupled with water resource shortages, creates a pressing need for further advancements in agricultural soil restoration and improvement techniques. Soil degradation, which contributes to the depletion of soil organic carbon stocks, poses a significant threat to the sustainability of agricultural systems. As a result, achieving carbon sequestration, emission reduction, and soil fertility enhancement has become a shared objective among researchers. International cooperation and exchange play a pivotal role in driving scientific research in this field. Over the past few decades, the research focus has shifted from agricultural management and planting systems, conservation tillage, soil amendment application, and soil microbial diversity to ecological effects and climate change. Current research hotspots primarily concentrate on the impact of amendments on soil fertility, soil organic carbon stocks, soil physical and chemical properties, and biophysical processes in diverse agricultural and forestry systems. By understanding these trends and hotspots, we can gain valuable insights into the current state of research and identify potential areas for future exploration. This research can contribute to the development of more effective and sustainable soil fertility enhancement techniques, ultimately promoting agricultural sustainability and environmental preservation.

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Acknowledgements

The study was supported by the State Key Program of National Natural Science Foundation of China (2021YFD1900602-06).The National Natural Science Foundation of China (52269014, 52369008) and the Project of Science and Technology of Inner Mongolia Province(2022YFHH0044).

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Feng, Z., Miao, Q., Shi, H. et al. Global Trends and Networks in Soil Fertility Enhancement Techniques: a Bibliometric Analysis. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-024-01777-y

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The concept and future prospects of soil health

Johannes lehmann.

1 School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA

2 Cornell Atkinson Center for Sustainability, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA

3 Institute for Advanced Study, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany

Deborah A. Bossio

4 The Nature Conservancy, 4245 North Fairfax Drive, Suite 100, Arlington, VA, USA

Ingrid Kögel-Knabner

5 Chair of Soil Science, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany

Matthias C. Rillig

6 Institut für Biologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany

7 Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research (BBIB), Berlin, Germany

Soil health is the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals and humans, and connects agricultural and soil science to policy, stakeholder needs and sustainable supply chain management. Historically, soil assessments focused on crop production, but today soil health also includes the role of soil in water quality, climate change and human health. However, quantifying soil health is still dominated by chemical indicators, despite growing appreciation of the importance of soil biodiversity, due to limited functional knowledge and lack of effective methods. In this Perspective, the definition and history of soil health are described and compared to other soil concepts. We outline ecosystem services provided by soils, the indicators used to measure soil functionality, and their integration into informative soil health indices. Scientists should embrace soil health as an overarching principle that contributes to sustainability goals, rather than only a property to measure.

Soil health is essential to crop production, but is also key to many ecosystem services. In this Perspective, the definition, impact and quantification of soil health are examined, and the needs in soil health research are outlined.

Introduction

Soil is a complex system 1 at the intersection of the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere 2 that is critical to food production and key to sustainability through its support of important societal and ecosystem services 3 , 4 . It is in this context that the concept of soil health emerged in the early 2000s ( Box 1 ), and today has linkages to the emerging ‘One Health’ concept 5 , in which the health of humans, animals, and the environment are all connected.

History of the Soil Health Concept

The burgeoning broad public interest in the soil health concept is largely grounded in historical development. Even though the term ‘soil health’ has been more regularly used in the scientific and popular literature only since the early 2000s 107 , 108 , 109 , the analogy of the soil ecosystem to an organism reaches far into the past. Soil is frequently part of creation myths 110 and humans have always had deep spiritual connections with soil, as shown in songs 111 , fine and performing arts 112 , 113 .

Since the 1700s, scientists have introduced the notion of biological processes in the formation of soil 114 , and that soil ecosystems are endangered as much as any other ecosystem 115 provided a foundation for soil health. The 1979 Gaia concept 116 popularized the view of nature as a planetary-scale self-regulation system, explicitly including soil ecosystem concepts and going beyond soil services solely for humans. Appreciation for soil biological processes was largely enabled by significant advances in analytical capabilities since the 1980s, including global mapping of soil biodiversity 71 , 72 during the 2010s. The formulation of the UN’s Sustainability Development Goals in 2015 provided a need to align soil functions with sustainability 117 that makes soil health a suitable platform.

The soil health concept emerged from soil quality in the 1990s, 8 , 118 and initially met with considerable criticism 119 . More recently, policy makers have embraced the concept, exemplified by India distributing soil health cards to 100 million farmers 120 and major companies starting programs on soil health to manage their supply chains more sustainably 121 . Including carbon sequestration in soils as a main approach in the UNFCCC process to withdraw atmospheric carbon dioxide enhanced the political urgency to implement suitable soil health practices on a global scale 122 . The rapid adoption of the soil health concept after 2010 may partly be rooted in its flexibility and thereby the ability by different stakeholder to use it in their own way 123 .

The terminology, concept, and operationalization of soil health are still evolving ( Box 1 ). It is now defined by most agencies, such as the US Department of Agriculture, as “the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals, and humans.” ( https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/soils/health/ ) Several other related concepts exist, including soil fertility, soil quality, and soil security 6 ( Fig. 1 ), which also emphasize the role or functioning of soil in society, ecosystems and/or agriculture 4 . The narrowest of these terms is soil fertility, which refers to soil’s role in crop production 6 . Soil fertility is managed by farmers at the field scale for the purpose of cost-effective crop production and entirely focuses on growing food, fuel, and fibre for human use 7 .

The concepts vary by what relevant spatial scales, functions, ecosystem services, and stakeholders they capture (listed as nested concepts on the right of the figure). The concepts also differ in the view of soil rights and assessments. Soil health encompasses a broad range of ecosystem functions, services and actors, impacting a wide array of sustainability goals. The five functions listed here impact overall soil ecosystem services 3 , 4 , 6 .

Soil quality is the historic origin of the term soil health, and describes a soil’s ability to function for agriculture and its immediate environmental context. Soil quality therefore includes soil effects on water quality, plant and animal health within entire ecosystems 8 . Although the terms are often used synonymously, we argue that soil health is distinct from soil quality, as the scope of soil health extends beyond human health to broader sustainability goals that include planetary health, whereas the scope of soil quality usually focuses on ecosystem services with reference to humans 6 , 8 , 9 .

Soil security, introduced in 2012, is the most recent and broadest term of the four, and encompasses soil health, using the term soil ‘condition’ to describe the manageable properties of soil 10 . Soil security relates to the need for access to soil ecosystem services to be on the same level as other human rights 11 , and is therefore often used in a policy context, encompassing human culture, capital, and legal aspects of soil management. Importantly, soil security allows for productive conversation about soil as a common good, similar to water and air 12 , rather than only as private property (as in soil fertility and quality). We believe this view must be moved to the centre of the debate about the role of soils in sustainability and governance 13 .

Soil health encompasses scales, stakeholders, functions and assessment tools relevant to soil quality and fertility, and shares some of the policy dimension of soil security ( Fig. 1 ), going beyond a focus on only crop production or other explicitly human benefits. The multi-dimensionality of the soil health concept allows for soil management goals to be aligned with sustainability goals, and should provide the foundation to consider a large number of stakeholders, functions, and spatial and temporal scales. One of the most important achievements of the soil health framework (initially under the term soil quality 6 ) is the addition of an urgently needed biological perspective to soil management in order to address longer-term sustainability challenges for crop production. A biological perspective is also critical to expanding soil assessment and management to addressing concerns over biodiversity, water quality, climate, recreation, and human and planetary health beyond humans.

The historical uneasiness with which scientists have embraced the concept of soil health is due to challenges of defining soil health in a way that allows for a universal quantitative assessment that encompasses all of its ecosystem services, including human health. Reasons for this challenge include soil heterogeneity, the site-specific nature of soil management, and the varying ecosystem services that have sometimes conflicting or competing needs. Nevertheless, there has been widespread interest amongst researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders in the use of the soil health concept.

In this Perspective, we describe the relationship between soil health management and sustainable plant production, water quality, human health, and climate change mitigation. Biological, chemical and physical indicators and their integration into a comprehensive approach to soil health are outlined, and we argue for a greater inclusion of biological indicators in soil health assessments. Finally, we discuss recent technology developments that should be leveraged in measuring and monitoring soil health, and future directions for soil health research and management.

Soil health and ecosystem services

Soils provide multiple ecosystem services ( Fig. 2 ), and as such, soil health management in support of sustainability must consider three points: that enhancing many soil ecosystem services requires multi-functional management; that managing soil to improve one service can have positive (synergistic) or negative effects (tradeoffs) on another service; and that soil health management should sustain soil services over the long term. Here, we briefly highlight four main soil ecosystem services—sustainable plant production, water quality control, human health advancement, and climate change mitigation—that are considered during soil health management.

Soil health affects human and planetary health through crop production, quality, storage and transportation; food quality and taste; soil contamination, or through climate change, recreation, and culture. Immediacy of soil health effects on plants and soil biota facilitates assessment of causality (for example, soil nutrient availability affects crop production). Cascading effects (such as soil nutrient availability affecting human health indirectly through crop quality and food storage) require causalities to be demonstrated for which in some cases science still needs to be established.

Sustainable plant production

Plant production, the main goal of intensive agriculture, is an important focus of soil health management 14 , 15 , as it affects water use and quality, human health, animal health, climate and biodiversity ( Fig. 2 ). A foundation of soil health, though, is the recognition that managing nutrient availability alone, such as through the use of agrochemicals (mainly fertilizers), is not sufficient for optimizing plant growth 6 . Furthermore, there is increased recognition that some management practices used in intensive agriculture to increase total plant production are detrimental to soil health 16 . For example, rooting depth—critical in plant production—depends to a large extent on soil structure, which is determined in part by organic matter content 17 and soil preparation 18 . Tillage can negatively impact soil structure through soil compaction 19 , and the use solely of inorganic fertilizers (as opposed to organic rich fertilizers such as compost and manure, or the use of cover crops) is often not sufficient to restore or retain adequate levels of soil organic matter 20 . Focusing on soil health will therefore expand soil management from a reliance on inorganic fertilizers to employing organic amendments and crop residue return, reducing mechanical impact by tillage, increasing plant diversity in both time and space, or reducing erosion with contour ploughing (ploughing along elevation contours) or grass strips 15 , 17 , 18 .

In addition to managing physicochemical soil properties for plant production, soil health considers the interactions between plants and soil microbial communities around roots, which can promote or reduce plant growth 21 . Promoting a soil microbiome for high plant production requires management of microbial abundance and activity, community composition and specific functions 22 , 23 . For example, organic amendments (such as compost) can foster increased resilience to plant pathogens through promotion of beneficial microorganisms 23 . In many cases, higher organic matter contents through higher amendments or reduced tillage increase biodiversity that is expected to improve crop resilience 24 . However, there are exceptions to these trends, as for example reducing tillage may reduce crop yields in some instances 25 with follow-on reductions of soil organic carbon 26 .

Water quality

Soils can be a source and/or sink of pollutants 27 as rainwater and snowmelt moves through it ( Fig. 2 ). These pollutants include herbicides, pesticides, heavy metals, antibiotics, hormones, microplastics, pathogens, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) 28 . Moreover, nutrient pollution from agricultural fertilizer use is a global problem, leading to eutrophication and/or anoxia of waterways, promoting harmful algal blooms, and negatively impacting drinking water quality 29 . Thus, there is a trade-off between soil management to support crop growth and water quality, which requires careful consideration and multiple management strategies.

Managing soil health to promote good water quality includes retaining pollutants and others in the soil, buffering against them, and biotically transforming them. Increasing soil organic matter will retain heavy metals and organic toxins, some of which show nearly irreversible adsorption to organic matter 30 . Using buffer zones, such as vegetative filter strips near agricultural areas or constructed wetlands, can slow the migration of nitrate, phosphate or pesticide contamination to water 31 . Soil biota can transform organic pollutants, such as the common hydrocarbon toluene, to harmless compounds 32 . Therefore, both organic matter content and microbial activity, key properties of soil health, improve the quality of the water that is draining soil.

Soil health of urban soils have not yet received sufficient recognition 33 , but can contain an even wider range of contaminants than agricultural soils, and many urban soils have also been modified to an extent that water can drain either very quickly or not at all 34 . Soil health management in urban soils must therefore balance eliminating surface runoff against retaining water and pollutants by reduced drainage. A combination of managing physical retention with biological transformation of pollutants through high soil biodiversity 35 is the goal of bioretention 34 and constructed soils 36 to provide clean drinking water.

Human health

Human health depends to a great extent on soil health, including and going beyond the obvious connection between soil and human health through crop production ( Fig. 2 ): similarly important is the type of crop and its nutritional content 37 ; soils with greater micronutrient availability are related to lower malnutrition 38 and higher soil organic matter improves the nutritional value of crops 39 . In addition to these relatively well-known properties, nutritional value of crops can also depend on robust soil biodiversity 40 , which can enhance micronutrient bioavailability to crops 41 and suppress soil-borne plant disease 42 , as well as taste, food storage and preparation 43 .

Soils can also negatively impact human health. For examples, soil pollutants can contaminate produce through direct contact or dust, suspension, or rainsplash. Some compounds, such as arsenic 44 as with most inorganic pollutants, can also be taken up through the root system and accumulate in grain or fruit. In addition to abiotic contaminants, soils can contain pathogenic fungi that produce mycotoxins, contaminating plant products and causing acute and chronic diseases 45 in animals and humans. Furthermore, soils are also the source of parasitic worms (helminthiasis) that can live for years in the human gastrointestinal tract, cause malnutrition, and result in stunted development 46 .

Although soil hosts pathogens, it has also historically been the source of organisms that produce antibiotics used in the medical industry, such as streptomycin 47 . Most of the soil microbiome remains to be identified, and important discoveries for human medical applications may still be made 48 . Quantifying and managing soil biodiversity, part of the goals of soil health management, is needed to arrest extinction of microbial species 49 and preserving opportunities for future bioprospecting.

Climate change

Soil management can mitigate or exacerbate climate change and its effects on other soil ecosystem services such as water quality or plant production. 50 , 51 For example, climate change mitigation strategies, such as sequestering carbon in soil as organic matter, can benefit agriculture by improving crop productivity and resilience to drought and flooding 50 . Furthermore, increased soil organic matter contents can be achieved by increasing the use of organic fertilizers or soil amendments, as well as by reducing tillage 15 to increase aggregation and control microbial mineralization to carbon dioxide ( Table 1 ), which can also promote plant growth. However, there are trade-offs between managing soil health for climate change versus for food production. For instance, use of nitrogen fertilizers, which are commonly used to increase crop production, can lead to increased emissions of nitrous oxide, which is a powerful greenhouse gas 51 . These examples highlight the difficulty in balancing the various uses of soils, and why it is important to provide context and goals for soil health management.

Indicators included in more than 20% of soil health assessments are labelled as ‘>20%’. Those included in at least one but less than 20% of assessment methods are labelled as ‘<20%’. Those that are typically not included, but recommended to be included, are labelled as ‘proposed’. Those indicators less directly relevant for a certain ecosystem service are marked as ‘-‘, those that are more relevant with ‘+’.

B: biological; C: chemical; P: physical; N: nitrogen; OC: organic carbon; CEC: cation exchange capacity; EC: electrical conductivity; N org : organic nitrogen

Quantifying soil health

Quantification is important in managing soil health and soil ecosystem services, and the multi-functionality ( Fig. 2 ) and diversity of soil requires multiple indicators to be quantified and integrated into an index. Broadly, soil health indicators can be classified as physical, chemical, or biological 6 , although these categories are not always clearly delineated, as many properties are a reflection of multiple processes. For example, soil aggregation is the result of chemical parameters (such as organic matter content), mineral type, and/or biological activities 52 . Similarly, plant-available phosphate falls under chemical indicators, but is largely a result of biological processes of microbial mineralization and plant uptake. The present classification (chemical-physical-biological) is therefore in many respects less a reflection of causality (for example, as plant availability of phosphate is also a result of a biological process) than the object of inquiry (for instance, phosphate is a chemical indicator) that can be readily analysed.

To be used as a soil health indicator, a parameter should satisfy several criteria, which include being: relevant to soil health, its ecosystem functions and services ( Table 1 , Fig. 3 ); sensitive, by changing detectably and quickly without being reflective of merely short-term oscillations; practical, by being conducted cheaply and with a short turnaround; and informative for management 53 ( Fig. 4 ). Approximately half of the indicators currently used in more than 20% of 65 soil health analysis schemes (comprising a mixture of declaring to be soil quality or soil health schemes 6 ) satisfy all four criteria ( Fig. 4 ), but some important indicators do not. Total organic carbon, for example, satisfies three criteria, but typically does not change very quickly (is not sensitive), requiring additional indicators such as organic carbon fractions that are more sensitive 54 . Other indicators, such as soil texture or depth, do not readily change, cannot be easily managed (in other words, are not ‘informative’, Fig. 4 ), even though they are highly relevant for soil health 6 , 53 , 55 , and in many schemes still require time-intensive analyses or in-field measurements 56 . However, these unmanageable indicators provide context for soil health and can be understood as mapping a soil’s potential or capability 55 , without which the manageable attributes cannot be understood. Importantly, and problematically, none of the listed biological indicators are currently effective in allowing cheap, reliable and quick information to be obtained.

Four important roles of soil (plant production, water quality, human health, and climate mitigation) are listed at the top of the figure. Various management strategies, and their impacts on key soil properties and ecosystem services, are listed below.

Soil health indicators ideally are informative, sensitive, effective and relevant 6 , 53 . Some do not fulfill all criteria but are still relevant (such as TEXTURE or SOIL DEPTH that do not change readily and are not managed, therefore also called capability indicators 55 ). Bold black text denotes indicators that expand the utility of soil health quantification beyond crop production towards sustainability and planetary health; the white arrow outline encompasses indicators that should be further developed to be effective and practical. Note, diversity includes biota in soil, diversity of soil types in landscape, molecular/structural in soil organic matter and plants growing in soil, some of which may not be readily quantified through analytical or modeling approaches. C, carbon; CEC, cation exchange capacity; EC, electric conductivity; GHG, greenhouse gases; N, nitrogen; TOC, total organic carbon

Soil health assessments for plant production often include total organic carbon, plant-available nutrients, pH, CEC, EC, penetration resistance, N mineralization, and microbial biomass ( Table 1 ). A smaller number of these tests (less than 20%) include aggregation, water storage, and OC fractions. Managing soil health for climate change mitigation should include testing similar parameters, with a small portion of tests already examining soil nitrogen forms that should be adapted to provide information about potential greenhouse gas emissions including nitrous oxide. Soil health assessments relevant for water quality should include microbial biomass and activity, mobile nutrients, heavy metal toxins, and total organic carbon already part of many soil health testing schemes, yet should also encompass aggregation and infiltration that are only occasionally included. Many of these indicators should also be used in soil health assessment for human health.

In total, more than two thirds of soil health test frameworks currently include the traditional quantification of soil organic matter, pH, and plant-available phosphorus and potassium, and more than half include water storage and bulk density 6 . A third of tests also recommend measurements of soil respiration, microbial biomass or nitrogen mineralization to characterize biological properties, as well as structural stability 6 . Chemical indicators make up at least 40% of the indicators in 90% of the soil health assessment schemes ( Fig. 5 ), underscoring the continued importance of chemical properties in soil health quantification and the long-standing emphasis on plant production. Indeed, the most advanced analytical schemes currently, such as the Soil Management Assessment Framework, focus on indicators for sustainable crop production 57 – 60 . However, the EU Commission recently recommended inclusion of soil biodiversity as one of six indicators of soil health 61 .

a| Number of indicators and proportion of each type (biological, chemical or physical). Size of the circle represents the number of indicators in the assessment scheme. b| Year of each soil health assessment scheme. Only the last two digits of the year are shown (values in the 80’s and 90’s are from the 1980s and 1990s, values from 00 to 20 represent years 2000 onwards). Currently proposed soil health indices utilize mostly chemical and physical indicators. The proportion of biological indicators is typically lower than either chemical or physical indicators, which did not change over time as the methods were published, likely reflecting the historic focus of soil health indices on crop growth. The number of indicators in the proposed schemes does not relate to the proportion of biological indicators. A comprehensive soil health index may consider a balanced set of indicators that represent at least 20% biological, physical and chemical measurements (dashed red triangle). However, indices designed to quantify different services may require a different set of indicators: a soil health index for crops may require more chemical indicators (inside the yellow ‘Plant’ triangle), for water more physical (blue triangle), for biodiversity more biological (green triangle), and for climate more physical and biological indicators (orange triangle).

Biological indicators typically still constitute less than 20% of the indicators ( Fig. 4 ), even when the total number of indicators used by a particular scheme increases. Furthermore, the development of soil health assessment schemes over the last decade has not yet lead to an inclusion of a greater proportion of biological indicators, despite their declared importance for soil health management ( Fig. 4 ). One reason for the low representation of biological indices is, we posit, the lack of mechanistic understanding of how soil biota relate to soil functions (meeting the ‘relevant’ criteria, Fig. 4 ), how that understanding relates to management decisions (‘informative’) and the inability to easily quantify biological indicators (‘effective’). This lack of understanding is even the case for soil ecosystem services that would benefit from biological indicators, such as crop production 18 , 21 , 22 , 62 , water quality 27 , or biodiversity 49 . In a Swiss grassland soil, for example, a loss in soil biodiversity (microbes and fauna) was associated with lower plant diversity, a three-fold higher phosphorus leaching, and six-fold higher gaseous losses of nitrous oxide 35 . Advancing both the information about causality between biological indicators and soil health as well as those assessment tools that satisfy all four criteria is therefore critically needed and is the next frontier in soil health research.

A new generation of indicators

Each soil health goal requires a different set of parameters be monitored, compared to reference states when appropriate, and managed. For indicators included in more than 20% of already proposed methods, we recommend these be the minimum set of indicators for that management goal ( Table 1 ). Furthermore, we suggest additional measurements, especially biological assessments, be added for when assessing soil for each of the management goals. For example, we suggest that aggregation, infiltration, earthworm abundance, organic C and N fractions should be more widely adopted in soil health testing ( Table 1 ), and N-mineralizing enzyme activity be added for soil health assessments for plant production. We further propose several new indicators that are mainly geared towards non-agricultural soil services, such as human health and water quality, need to become part of routine soil health testing. These indicators include pathogens, parasites, biodiversity, bioavailable and mobile toxins (such as dioxin, PAH, and microplastics), and compound and pore-size diversity.

Importantly, development of soil health indicators related to the climate change functions of soils, such as greenhouse gas emissions and carbon sequestration, has largely been ignored. This neglect is largely due to GHG emissions depending on fluctuating conditions (such as moisture and temperature) 63 , so the magnitude of GHG fluxes for a given field or region cannot be assessed by one-time soil measurements. However, soil carbon fractions of both unprotected and mineral-protected organic matter 64 already allow assessment of soil organic matter vulnerability with respect to soil carbon sequestration, and are indispensable indicators for soil’s climate change function 65 . Such fractions capture changes in soil organic matter properties very sensitively, yet are less variable than mineralization or microbial biomass assays, allow unambiguous interpretation 66 , and can be quantified using rapid infrared technology 64 ( Table 1 ). In-field methods for measuring greenhouse gas emissions will need to provide integrated information about the highly temporally dynamic processes, requiring a new generation of sensors based on autonomous gas and solute detection powered by bioreactors 67 and a range of energy-harvesting technologies 68 in wireless networks 69 .

Diversity indicators, whether organismal (biological), molecular (chemical), or structural (physical), are not adequately included in or integrated into analytical frameworks of soil health. Biological diversity in particular has been recognized as important for soil and human health 40 , yet appropriate soil health indicators and practical quantification methods for soil biota diversity are lacking 6 . Similarly, molecular or soil structural diversity are not yet explored yet are important for soil organic carbon persistence and sequestration 70 . Next-generation sensor technology for plant and climate functions could provide the much-needed platform to monitor changes in soil health over time 67 , 68 , 69 . Recent global mapping of biodiversity 71 , 72 and similar efforts will potentially provide context and reference sites for biodiversity calibration. Rapid screening techniques using near- and mid-infrared 64 , 65 , beyond infrared energies, sound 73 , lab-on-a-chip technology 74 —technologies generally underdeveloped for soil 75 —should be adapted to make existing soil health analyses cheaper and faster. Further promising tools or techniques for observing biological properties including electrochemistry 76 and biosensors 77 are promising avenues that speak to the rapid emergence of new approaches. Similarly, passive samplers 78 can and should be used to quantify the small portion of organic toxins that is harmful to organisms, rather than assessments relying on total contents that are not sufficiently sensitive to changes in management or reflect the ecologically relevant fraction. Altogether, such technologies could expand the suite of assessed biological properties to include soil organic matter vulnerability 54 , 64 and microbial or faunal community or functional gene information 79 .

Advances in soil health monitoring over the coming decade should also include development of remote sensing techniques 80 . Remote sensing should not only include spatial information of soil properties, such as seen with successes measuring soil moisture using microwave 81 , but also assess soil management practices that can be related to soil functions via mathematical modelling, as is already in development for soil organic carbon monitoring 82 . Such rapid and large-scale soil health screening through remote sensing should be complemented by exploring the use of guided small-scale robotics 83 to assess soil hotspots and sensitive flowpaths (such as soil cracks and earthworm holes) that are typically undetected through remote or bulk assessments. Next-generation electronics should be applied to enable cheap and distributed sensor deployment, fast data transmission, storage and handling, and need to make use of the rapid development in the computing and smart-grid sector to develop internet-of-things sensor networks for soil health monitoring. Rapid screening and in situ and remote monitoring technologies discussed here would substantially advance our ability to measure and manage soil health, ultimately improving soil ecosystem services.

Soil health indices

As there is a multitude of soil health indicators, an appropriate desire exists by scientists and stakeholders to integrate them into one single test score or ‘soil health index’ (note the difference between ‘indicator’ and ‘index’). However, relatively few indices exist; in the 2020 database compiled on soil health, SoilHealthDB, which assessed over 500 studies on soil health and quality 14 , only five studies included a single soil health index. We discuss some of the challenges in creating integrated indices, and needs that must be overcome when developing and using them.

Creating a soil health index is difficult, as indicated by the relatively low number of published indices, because it requires quantitative transformation and weighting of multiple indicators, including categorical properties, in order to integrate them into a final single score. Indicator values are necessarily transformed using non-linear relationships, because a higher value does not always indicate better soil health 84 , 85 , 86 . A ‘high’ organic carbon value might indeed indicate a desirable property for many soil functions, but pH should be within an intermediate range, and the force needed to penetrate the soil should be relatively low. In the Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health, for example, these three categories are described as ‘More is better’, ‘Optimum curve’, and ‘Less is better’ 86 . In most existing frameworks, the conversion of measured values to scores are based on the distribution of the actual measurements within a reference dataset 85 . To determine the final soil health score, often all indicators are treated as equally important 84 , 85 . For instance, the Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health assigns values between 0-100 (where 100 is highest) to each indicator based on a comparison to reference values of all available data in the region 87 .

Although these indices can provide useful information on large scales 86 , regional comparisons are not appropriate in situations with bias resulting from inherent differences between soil types 88 and require careful calibration to regional conditions and needs 89 . In temperate arable soils in England and Wales, for example, an organic carbon value of 1.5% is considered a lower limit for soils with 40% clay, but would be considered high in soils that have less than 10% clay 90 . Therefore, identifying soil organic carbon as high or low in this region depends on clay contents, and soils should be compared to references with a similar clay content. Changes of soil health over time can generate more robust comparisons, which relates to the definition of soil health as a “continued capacity”. For example, the formation or maintenance of aggregates over time can indicate better soil health 84 , as particles are bound into aggregates mainly by microbial products from organic amendments 91 . However, aggregates can form even without organic matter, and the formation of aggregates differs between soils—within weeks and without organic amendments, aggregates formed in a kaolinitic Oxisol from Brazil, whereas no aggregates formed in an illitic Mollisol from the US 52 . Considering inherent differences between soils is particularly important when using biological indices. For example, bacterial diversity was as much affected by soil type, soil texture and pH, as by whether soils were located under forests or grasslands across a north-south gradient in Germany 92 . At the same sites, changes in bacterial diversity as a result of fertilization, mowing, and grazing in grasslands or of various silvicultural management in forests were only discernible within a given site.

Despite these caveats, appropriately comparing changes in soil health indicators and indices over time or to a suitable reference dataset, can be used to assess whether, for example, a reduction in tillage or addition of compost improve aggregation and total soil health scores 62 . Indeed, it is standard practice to identify whether a soil has high or low amounts of extractable nutrients or converting nutrient indicators into amounts of fertilizer for a certain crop while recognizing differences in texture, mineral types and even utilizes information from fertilizer responses for a specific soil 93 .

Development of a soil health index that includes all soil functions ( Figs 1 & 2 ) requires engagement of a broader set of stakeholders than an index focused on crop production. A comprehensive soil health framework will need to include and allow weighting trade-offs to lead to optimum overall function, as it must balance the sometimes competing functions of soil, for example, the need to minimize water pollution by fertilizers versus the need to optimize nutrient availability for crop growth 94 . Such trade-offs also mean that the effects of non-crop ecosystem services such as water quality, have to be valued against crop growth effects on human health, which has rarely been done in a quantitative way 95 even in comprehensive ecosystem services assessments 96 . For example, soil effects on human health need to be assessed as they affect humans both through production of nutritious food as well as through clean water, with unclear quantitative criteria whether water is more important than food or vice versa.

Holistic soil health indices should therefore include multi-criteria decision analysis 97 to quantify and prioritize sustainability outcomes of soil health management. Societal demands for different soil functions such as water quality and food production may vary by stakeholders and region; for example, in an analysis of societal demands in Europe water quality and food production was on average mentioned by the same groups, though densely populated countries such as The Netherlands and Belgium put more value on water quality and nutrient management than countries such as Romania or Finland 98 . Soil health data should be presented using interactive data visualizations 99 that reconfigure according to the desired focus. Such interactive tools will benefit researchers 100 as well as stakeholders 101 to prioritize soil functions and take decisions. Emerging data analysis tools such as machine learning 6 , deep learning, artificial neural networks 102 , or game theory 103 should be explored more fully in order to quantify the effect of soil health indicators as well as prioritize soil functions such as water quality or food production.

In parallel, new analytical and conceptual approaches need to be developed that capture systems characteristics of soil health, in order to operationalize both monitoring soil health itself but also understanding soil health effects on soil functions. Precision or digital agriculture 104 are expanding avenues to leverage for quantification of soil health with its multiple ecosystem functions and services. There must be greater engagement between soil science and engineering whereby both instrument and computational technology is jointly developed with stakeholders. For example, soil-engineering collaborations through co-labs 105 will need to advance scientific discovery of new detector technology as well as data analysis tools that can adapt complex data structures into simple apps for stakeholder use. Water science, medicine, psychology, philosophy and other fields need to engage for metrics and management to reflect the full range of soil health functions, including climate change, water quality, biodiversity, and human health. Fostering discussions at professional and trade meetings as well as cross-training of the next generation of scientists may help to promote mutual understanding and joint problem-solving.

Future perspectives

The soil health concept fills an important stakeholder need in sustainable development 61 by elevating the recognition for soil’s role in modern society and is developing into an attractive and actionable platform for farmers, land managers, municipalities and policy makers. The versatility of the concept allows many stakeholders to adopt soil health and to make it work for their context. By providing an illustrative link to broader sustainability goals that can motivate innovative soil management, soil health meets universal agreement in the eye of the public as a goal to work towards.

Scientists are converging on a definition of soil health, and are developing or refining methods to quantify its various facets, albeit mainly with respect to its crop productivity function and with inadequate consideration of biotic and abiotic diversity. Researchers should embrace soil health as an overarching principle to which to contribute knowledge, rather than as only a property to measure. In this way, soil health could become better established as a scientific field to which many disciplines can contribute, for example by listing their specific discipline’s research also under the keyword ‘soil health’. Making the soil health concept live up to its potential as a unifying concept that integrates soil functions requires engagement by all involved parties, and particularly a common understanding between stakeholders and scientists.

Because of soils’ broad environmental and societal functions, soil health should be legally recognized as a common good. The development of soil health quantification standards should be spearheaded by governmental or intergovernmental organizations such as the Global Soil Partnership. International standards have to be developed for suitable type of indicators, their methodological details 106 and their integration into indices. Such a comprehensive soil health index should then be referenced by local, regional or national jurisdictions and organizations to guide decisions that impact soil and its functions to benefit sustainability goals.

Acknowledgements

J.L. acknowledges the Hans Fischer Senior Fellowship of the Institute for Advanced Study (TU Munich) and a TNC-ACSF project (Cornell University), D.B. the support by the Craig and Susan McCaw Foundation, I.K.-K. the support by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) in the framework of the funding measure “Soil as a Sustainable Resource for the Bioeconomy - BonaRes”, project BonaRes Centre for Soil Research, (FKZ 031B0516A; BonaRes, Module A), and M.C.R. an ERC Advanced Grant (694368) and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) for the project ’Bridging in Biodiversity Science (BIBS)’ (01LC1501A). Sincere thanks to Else Bunemann-Konig for sharing raw data.

Author contributions

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

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Nature Reviews Earth & Environment thanks [Referee#1 name], [Referee#2 name] and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

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Trends in Soil Science

The following information provides information on trends facing soil science and environmental sciences. Many of the of the links go to third-party Websites. These links are provided solely as a convenience to users and not as an endorsement by SSSA of the contents on such third-party Websites.

• Bachelors Level Soil Science Training and Land Grant Universities (Brevik, 2019)
• Top-Ranked Priority Research Questions for Soil Science in the 21st Century
• 2009 SSSA Trends in Soil Science Education and Employment Survey Report (PDF) - Presented at the SSSA 2009 Annual Meeting
• A Soil Science Renaissance (PDF)
• Soils are Back on the Global Agenda (PDF)
• Where Have All the Soils Students Gone? (JNRLSE)
• Bureau of Labor Statistics - Information on Soil & Plant Scientists SOC 19-1013
• The Future of Soil Science (PDF)
• Whither Goes Soil Science in the US and Canada? (Abstract)
• Critical Needs for the Twenty First Century: The Role of the GeoSciences - a report from the American Geological Institute to the federal leadership (2009)

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Integrating active and passive microwave satellite data yields more precise global soil moisture mapping

by Liu Jia, Chinese Academy of Sciences

Researchers from the Aerospace Information Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, in partnership with international colleagues, made strides in mapping surface soil moisture across the globe. They combined data from two advanced satellite systems, the Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) and the Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT), providing more precise and reliable soil moisture data.

The study was published in Remote Sensing of Environment .

Soil moisture plays a key role in many applications, including drought monitoring, flood warning, and crop yield estimation. Accurate monitoring of soil moisture is essential for understanding and managing agricultural dynamics and water resource monitoring.

Traditionally, the researchers used either passive microwave measurements, which capture the natural emissions of the Earth's surface, or active microwave measurements, which involve bouncing signals off the surface and measuring the backscattering. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages.

In this study, the researchers developed a new method to map soil moisture. They integrated passive measurements from SMAP and active measurements from ASCAT, as well as various auxiliary data that are highly related to soil moisture. Also, the researchers tested four machine learning models—Random Forest (RF), Long-Short Term Memory, Support Vector Machine, and Cascaded Neural Network—to determine the best approach. The RF model proved to be the most effective one.

The new method was tested against in situ measurements from different soil moisture networks worldwide. The results showed that the integrated data achieved an unbiased root mean squared error of 0.042 m 3 /m 3 and a temporal correlation of 0.756.

This method reduced the errors and provided more reliable data compared to using SMAP or ASCAT data alone. Moreover, it greatly improved the temporal resolution of soil moisture retrievals, which is crucial for real-time monitoring and applications in hydrology and ecology.

This study offers a promising solution for generating highly accurate soil moisture data products on a global scale, which represents a major step forward in environmental monitoring .

Provided by Chinese Academy of Sciences

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