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Department of History and Tourism - Ten Days Research Methodology Course for M.Phil/Ph.D/PDF Research scholars in Social sciences sponsored by ICSSR

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What a Thesis Paper is and How to Write One

From choosing a topic and conducting research to crafting a strong argument, writing a thesis paper can be a rewarding experience.

It can also be a challenging experience. If you've never written a thesis paper before, you may not know where to start. You may not even be sure exactly what a thesis paper is. But don't worry; the right support and resources can help you navigate this writing process.

What is a Thesis Paper?

A thesis paper is a type of academic essay that you might write as a graduation requirement for certain bachelor's, master's or honors programs. Thesis papers present your own original research or analysis on a specific topic related to your field.

“In some ways, a thesis paper can look a lot like a novella,” said Shana Chartier , director of information literacy at Southern New Hampshire University (SNHU). “It’s too short to be a full-length novel, but with the standard size of 40-60 pages (for a bachelor’s) and 60-100 pages (for a master’s), it is a robust exploration of a topic, explaining one’s understanding of a topic based on personal research.”

Chartier has worked in academia for over 13 years and at SNHU for nearly eight. In her role as an instructor and director, Chartier has helped to guide students through the writing process, like editing and providing resources.

Chartier has written and published academic papers such as "Augmented Reality Gamifies the Library: A Ride Through the Technological Frontier" and "Going Beyond the One-Shot: Spiraling Information Literacy Across Four Years." Both of these academic papers required Chartier to have hands-on experience with the subject matter. Like a thesis paper, they also involved hypothesizing and doing original research to come to a conclusion.

“When writing a thesis paper, the importance of staying organized cannot be overstated,” said Chartier. “Mapping out each step of the way, making firm and soft deadlines... and having other pairs of eyes on your work to ensure academic accuracy and clean editing are crucial to writing a successful paper.”

How Do I Choose a Topic For My Thesis Paper?

What your thesis paper is for will determine some of the specific requirements and steps you might take, but the first step is usually the same: Choosing a topic.

“Choosing a topic can be daunting," said Rochelle Attari , a peer tutor at SNHU. "But if (you) stick with a subject (you're) interested in... choosing a topic is much more manageable.”

Similar to a thesis, Attari recently finished the capstone  for her bachelor’s in psychology . Her bachelor’s concentration is in forensics, and her capstone focused on the topic of using a combined therapy model for inmates who experience substance abuse issues to reduce recidivism.

“The hardest part was deciding what I wanted to focus on,” Attari said. “But once I nailed down my topic, each milestone was more straightforward.”

In her own writing experience, Attari said brainstorming was an important step when choosing her topic. She recommends writing down different ideas on a piece of paper and doing some preliminary research on what’s already been written on your topic.

By doing this exercise, you can narrow or broaden your ideas until you’ve found a topic you’re excited about. " Brainstorming is essential when writing a paper and is not a last-minute activity,” Attari said.

How Do I Structure My Thesis Paper?

Thesis papers tend to have a standard format with common sections as the building blocks.

While the structure Attari describes below will work for many theses, it’s important to double-check with your program to see if there are any specific requirements. Writing a thesis for a Master of Fine Arts, for example, might actually look more like a fiction novel.

According to Attari, a thesis paper is often structured with the following major sections:

Introduction

• Literature review
• Methods, results

Now, let’s take a closer look at what each different section should include.

Your introduction is your opportunity to present the topic of your thesis paper. In this section, you can explain why that topic is important. The introduction is also the place to include your thesis statement, which shows your stance in the paper.

Attari said that writing an introduction can be tricky, especially when you're trying to capture your reader’s attention and state your argument.

“I have found that starting with a statement of truth about a topic that pertains to an issue I am writing about typically does the trick,” Attari said. She demonstrated this advice in an example introduction she wrote for a paper on the effects of daylight in Alaska:

In the continental United States, we can always count on the sun rising and setting around the same time each day, but in Alaska, during certain times of the year, the sun rises and does not set for weeks. Research has shown that the sun provides vitamin D and is an essential part of our health, but little is known about how daylight twenty-four hours a day affects the circadian rhythm and sleep.

In the example Attari wrote, she introduces the topic and informs the reader what the paper will cover. Somewhere in her intro, she said she would also include her thesis statement, which might be:

Twenty-four hours of daylight over an extended period does not affect sleep patterns in humans and is not the cause of daytime fatigue in northern Alaska .

Literature Review

In the literature review, you'll look at what information is already out there about your topic. “This is where scholarly articles  about your topic are essential,” said Attari. “These articles will help you find the gap in research that you have identified and will also support your thesis statement."

Telling your reader what research has already been done will help them see how your research fits into the larger conversation. Most university libraries offer databases of scholarly/peer-reviewed articles that can be helpful in your search.

In the methods section of your thesis paper, you get to explain how you learned what you learned. This might include what experiment you conducted as a part of your independent research.

“For instance,” Attari said, “if you are a psychology major and have identified a gap in research on which therapies are effective for anxiety, your methods section would consist of the number of participants, the type of experiment and any other particulars you would use for that experiment.”

In this section, you'll explain the results of your study. For example, building on the psychology example Attari outlined, you might share self-reported anxiety levels for participants trying different kinds of therapies. To help you communicate your results clearly, you might include data, charts, tables or other visualizations.

The discussion section of your thesis paper is where you will analyze and interpret the results you presented in the previous section. This is where you can discuss what your findings really mean or compare them to the research you found in your literature review.

The discussion section is your chance to show why the data you collected matters and how it fits into bigger conversations in your field.

The conclusion of your thesis paper is your opportunity to sum up your argument and leave your reader thinking about why your research matters.

Attari breaks the conclusion down into simple parts. “You restate the original issue and thesis statement, explain the experiment's results and discuss possible next steps for further research,” she said.

Find Your Program

Resources to help write your thesis paper.

While your thesis paper may be based on your independent research, writing it doesn’t have to be a solitary process. Asking for help and using the resources that are available to you can make the process easier.

If you're writing a thesis paper, some resources Chartier encourages you to use are:

• Citation Handbooks: An online citation guide or handbook can help you ensure your citations are correct. APA , MLA and Chicago styles have all published their own guides.
• Citation Generators: There are many citation generator tools that help you to create citations. Some — like RefWorks — even let you directly import citations from library databases as you research.
• Your Library's Website: Many academic and public libraries allow patrons to access resources like databases or FAQs. Some FAQs at the SNHU library that might be helpful in your thesis writing process include “ How do I read a scholarly article? ” or “ What is a research question and how do I develop one? ”

It can also be helpful to check out what coaching or tutoring options are available through your school. At SNHU, for example, the Academic Support Center offers writing and grammar workshops , and students can access 24/7 tutoring and 1:1 sessions with peer tutors, like Attari.

"Students can even submit their papers and receive written feedback... like revisions and editing suggestions," she said.

If you are writing a thesis paper, there are many resources available to you. It's a long paper, but with the right mindset and support, you can successfully navigate the process.

“Pace yourself,” said Chartier. “This is a marathon, not a sprint. Setting smaller goals to get to the big finish line can make the process seem less daunting, and remember to be proud of yourself and celebrate your accomplishment once you’re done. Writing a thesis is no small task, and it’s important work for the scholarly community.”

A degree can change your life. Choose your program  from 200+ SNHU degrees that can take you where you want to go.

Meg Palmer ’18 is a writer and scholar by trade who loves reading, riding her bike and singing in a barbershop quartet. She earned her bachelor’s degree in English, language and literature at Southern New Hampshire University (SNHU) and her master’s degree in writing, rhetoric and discourse at DePaul University (’20). While attending SNHU, she served as the editor-in-chief of the campus student newspaper, The Penmen Press, where she deepened her passion for writing. Meg is an adjunct professor at Johnson and Wales University, where she teaches first year writing, honors composition, and public speaking. Connect with her on LinkedIn .

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Houston’s Freeways: Who was Displaced and Why?

Table of Contents

Edward M. Emmett

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Edward M. Emmett, “Houston’s Freeways: Who was Displaced and Why?” (Houston: Rice University’s Baker Institute for Public Policy, September 3, 2024), https://doi.org/10.25613/GQMK-R425 .

Introduction: Analyzing the Impact of Houston’s Freeways

The Interstate Highway System, along with other freeways and highways, has long been regarded as the circulatory system of the American economy. Its efficiency has been credited with contributing to the nation’s overall economic health and enhancing public mobility. Historically, freeways have been viewed positively for their role in promoting development and increasing property values. With few exceptions, the construction and expansion of major highways have been seen as signs of progress.

However, in recent years, there has been a growing movement to balance these positive perspectives with a realistic assessment of the harm done to communities of color and neighborhoods in general. Academics and policymakers are analyzing the impact of the Interstate Highway System and other major highways in terms of social and environmental injustice. In February 2023, Secretary of Transportation Pete Buttigieg announced the “Reconnecting Communities Pilot Program,” aimed at reconnecting communities that are cut off from opportunity and burdened by past transportation infrastructure decisions. [1]

Across the United States, numerous examples exist where low-income and minority neighborhoods were impacted by interstate highways and other major road projects. In some instances, researchers have discovered government documents suggesting a clear intent to route freeways through such neighborhoods. However, the motives behind such actions are unclear. What some perceive as urban renewal, others view as the deliberate destruction of vibrant cultural communities. Likewise, freeways built on the edge of minority neighborhoods have sparked debate about whether planners were preserving an existing community or walling it off from the rest of the city. Determining the mindset of highway planners from decades ago is difficult, if not impossible. However, it is possible to identify who was impacted by each major highway and why.

Rice University’s Baker Institute for Public Policy, in partnership with Rice’s Center for Research Computing’s Spatial Studies Lab, conducted research to determine exactly who was displaced by Houston area interstate highways and other major freeways to understand the rationale behind targeting certain homes and neighborhoods for removal. A key feature of this research is its integration of census data with historical documents and maps. Another important aspect is the focus on determining the timing of decisions regarding the alignment of rights-of-way for each freeway. The individuals displaced when a freeway was built are not necessarily the same as those who lived in the proposed path of the freeway when its location was decided, nor are they necessarily the same as the current residents near the freeway. For accurate assessments of the intent and impact of these plans, it is critical to focus on the dates of alignment decisions.

This research aims to serve as a model for similar studies in other urban areas. It will provide future policymakers with factual insights into historical highway development decisions, particularly as they contemplate rebuilding or replacing the 70-year-old Interstate Highway System and other highway projects. The findings of this project’s basic demographic research will provide the foundation for exploring further questions about the past, present, and future impacts of the Interstate Highway System and other urban freeways. Key questions include: What would have happened if these highways had not been constructed? Were there less disruptive alternative routes? How do today’s neighborhoods compare to those that existed during the planning and construction of the highways? What, if anything, should be done to repair the damage done to communities of color and other neighborhoods? As we consider the expansion and reconstruction of the interstate highways, how can we avoid repeating past mistakes while still providing an efficient highway system? And lastly, what other factors have affected the location of highways and the displacement of people and businesses?

Methodology: Determining Who Was Displaced by Major Highways

In recent years, the impact of the United States’ first round of freeway construction has become a topic of extensive study. [2] Traditionally, freeways were thought to enhance mobility and drive economic growth. However, more recent research has shifted focus toward the negative impacts of freeways on neighborhoods, particularly where residents and businesses, especially in minority communities, were displaced. Understanding exactly who was displaced and the reasons behind these displacements is essential as our society continues to grapple with the legacy of systemic racism and urban renewal in our cities. This is especially true for policymakers, as some organizations are urging them to address and correct perceived past injustices.

Records detailing the right-of-way clearances and the displacement of people and businesses due to freeway construction are often incomplete or entirely missing from archives. Federal statistics and records on these displacements only date back to 1991, and even these are often inadequately reported by state governments. [3] To study the decades of freeway development in Houston, it is necessary to reconstruct the historical record using a variety of archival sources.

To construct as accurate a historical record as possible, our project has built two interlinked databases: one composed of every building in the highways’ paths and the other composed of people who lived in these buildings. In Houston, neither the city nor the state has complete records of the structures — including homes, garages, stores, and apartments — claimed through eminent domain for highway right-of-way. While we found some maps of freeway right-of-way in the Texas Department of Transportation’s archives, much of the information appears to have been lost or destroyed. As a result, most displaced buildings and people had to be identified through a variety of other historical sources. See Figure 1 for a schematic of the research architecture developed at the start of the project. See Figure 2 for the major highways included in our research.

Because of the incomplete historical record, we began searching through the archives for two main types of data: maps and buildings, and people and demographic data. By merging these two streams of information into a searchable map, we aim to uncover some of the historical realities of highway displacement.

Figure 1 — A Schematic of the Research Architecture Developed at the Start of the Project

Figure 2 — Paths of the 209 Linear Miles of Freeways and Adjacent Right-of-Way Clearance in Harris County (1946–80)

Finding Cleared Buildings 

To identify buildings that were in the path of highway construction, our team utilized various historical geographic sources, including fire insurance adjustor maps from the Sanborn Fire Insurance company, right-of-way surveys conducted by the Texas Highway Department, Tax Assessor maps from Harris County, and aerial photography from the United States Department of Agriculture. No single set of maps provided a complete picture: Highway department maps only existed for later periods of construction, while fire insurance maps were restricted to older neighborhoods within the city’s core.

To complicate matters further, the Sanborn fire insurance maps — which were the most valuable historical resource for identifying structures claimed by right-of-way — existed in several different editions, each revised and changed up to a particular date. In several cases, our researchers had to use magnification and bright lights to see through paper corrections pasted over buildings that had been cleared (Figure 3). Despite these challenges, by combining and cross-referencing this diverse set of historical sources, the project’s geospatial database successfully documents almost every identifiable structure cleared for highway construction from 1946 through 1980.

Figure 3 — Example of Updated Map With Corrections Pasted Over Buildings of Interest 

All of these maps were then georeferenced, i.e., stretched and reshaped so that they accurately overlaid a digital projection of the city (Figure 4). Our team of researchers then individually traced each of the thousands of structures using geographic information system (GIS) software. These digitized building shapes were then linked to a tabular database filled with historical information from the map sources. For each structure, researchers recorded details such as the address, size, number of stories, and any other specific information provided by the source. This included whether the building was a dwelling or a store, any known names of the building, and, in some cases, the owner of the building (Figure 5). We also classified each structure into several broad categories: residences (houses, apartments, and garage apartments), nonhousing residential buildings (garages and sheds), and commercial, industrial, religious, and civic buildings.

Figure 4 — Examples of Fire Insurance Maps (Left) and Texas Highway Department Survey Maps (Right) 

Figure 5 — Example of a Partially Traced (in Blue) City Block of Cleared Buildings

As each structure cleared by the highways was traced from historical maps, it was assigned a unique identification number, connecting the information in our database to a digital representation of the building as it stood before it was cleared. In total, our project has uncovered 11,007 such structures, ranging from tiny outhouses, sheds, and garages to massive apartment buildings and factories, with all sizes of buildings in between. For a large portion of the buildings, multiple historical sources had to be cross-referenced to uncover these details. For example, on many maps, the historical addresses were missing. To address this, our researchers used microfiche archives of Houston city street directories or telephone company “white pages” to find the corresponding address of each building. Once all the cleared structures were georeferenced, described, and categorized, we focused on identifying residential buildings and other housing units.

Finding Displaced Residents

One of the project’s primary goals was to determine who was displaced by highway construction and the reasons behind their displacement. While the U.S. government has tracked data on displacement over the last three decades, there are no official statistics for the period covered by our study. [6] Almost all of Houston’s urban displacements from freeway construction took place between the late 1940s and early 1970s. Our research team obtained a temporary internship at the City Planning and Development Department and, with the help of city employees, reviewed the department’s entire archives, along with archived materials at the Houston History Research Center. However, detailed records from the City Planning Department and Houston Planning Commission for our research period were destroyed. [7] Even if these records still existed, it is unlikely that they would contain details of each displaced person. Therefore, to create as accurate a count as possible of displaced Houstonians, we had to assemble our database using numerous other sources, each contributing pieces to the overall picture.

Previous studies have examined whole census tract data to analyze the impact of highway construction, but we chose not to rely solely on this data. Many census tracts include a mix of different income levels and demographics, while the residences cleared by highways were typically concentrated in one part of a tract. A survey of historical maps, which we collected for our map of cleared buildings, revealed an unequal density of displacement throughout the city. In some areas, only a few buildings were cleared per mile, while in others, over a thousand buildings were removed in a single highway mile. Additionally, we found that along certain stretches of highways, large apartment complexes, duplexes, or houses often contained dozens of residents. Although our database and map of structures allowed us to make some use of this data, we sought to connect actual residents — not just summary statistics — to each building. To identify who was displaced by highway construction, we needed to determine who resided in each cleared building when the highway alignment was made.

Fortunately, the complete records of the 1950 U.S. census population schedules were released to the public in April 2022. [8] Census schedules include a range of information on residents such as addresses, names, ages, race, gender, occupations, and more. Combined with the previously released 1940 census schedules, this data allowed us to gather the most detailed decennial information for over a quarter of the households displaced in Harris County, as most major right-of-way alignments were completed during the 1940s and 1950s. To transform the thousands of pages of census schedules into usable data, we used optical character recognition to convert the handwritten census schedules of every census enumeration district that overlapped with highway right-of-way. [9] The result was the creation of a dataset containing information on over 720,000 Harris County residents across the two censuses, encompassing a total of 45,168,703 cells of data.

We used house numbers and street names as keys to join the census-based dataset with our dataset on buildings, identifying individuals who lived in the cleared structures. By using a structured query language “join” function to match our tables based on common street address information, we were able to extract the respondents in the census who lived in the houses and buildings within our cleared structures database (Figure 6).

Figure 6 — Graphic Representation of How Cleared Buildings are Linked With Displaced People

Overall, this methodology is highly accurate. The resulting database and map show the names and details of real individuals and where they lived in 1940 or 1950 within areas that would later become highway right-of-way. The project’s website provides links to scans of the original documents from which this information was sourced. This linked dataset not only shows the exact names of people, but it also includes the exact number of people living in each building and the relationships among the occupants (i.e., spouse, child, parent, lodger, etc.). This methodology is also useful for identifying residences in unexpected buildings, as several matches reveal people who lived in stores, garages, or other buildings identified on our mapping sources as nonresidential.

Determining who was displaced by a highway requires careful consideration of the timing of the displacement. In the development of freeways, the clearance of right-of-way and the removal of structures usually occurs years after the decision on the freeway’s route is finalized. The people living in a freeway right-of-way when clearance occurred might not be the same individuals who lived there when the alignment decision was made. Since the information about displacements caused by highways is necessary for analyzing the motives of those who designed the highway system, we decided the most critical date to consider is the date when the final alignment decision was made. The residents living in the affected neighborhoods at that time were the ones who were forced to deal with the reality of losing their homes.

Using that approach, we selected the census data corresponding to when the alignment decision was made. For example, if a highway’s alignment was finalized in the 1940s, as with the Gulf Freeway in 1943, then the 1940 census data is included in the dataset for that section of the city’s urban freeway network. Highway alignments decided after 1950 use data from the 1950 census. These results were then mapped on the project’s website,  roadsTaken (Figure 7).

Figure 7 — Example Portion of a Map Showing the Southwest Freeway at Montrose Boulevard

While the resulting database is highly detailed, it is important to note that it does not capture the residents living in right-of-way areas at the actual date of alignment by the city or the state. For example, if a freeway was first proposed in 1953, was aligned in 1956, and began clearances around 1957, as was the case for the Southwest Freeway, then the database only displays those who lived in these buildings in 1950. Unfortunately, the detailed records of the 1960 and 1970 censuses will not be released until 2032 and 2042, respectively. As a result, the further we move forward in time from our two available census years — 1940 and 1950 — the less likely it is that the matched census rolls accurately reflect the residents at the time of alignment. [10]

Although this method of linking addresses to census records has accurately identified over 9,000 people from the 1940 census and over 7,000 people from the 1950 census, there are still omissions and gaps. The methodology requires an accurate street address to establish a match, so if a street address is missing or incorrectly recorded, the building remains unpopulated in the dataset. A majority of the residential buildings remain unmatched with any residents. This could be because these buildings were not residences, were unoccupied, or were unfinished during the census. However, many omissions are caused by either errors in the address data in our structures database or errors in our census roll dataset.

These errors often stem from the optical character recognition process, which can misinterpret handwritten house numbers and street names. In some cases, the handwritten information is simply illegible. Other omissions occur when our historical maps lack addresses or when street names or house numbers change. Mistakes may have also occurred when our team of researchers entered the data or when census takers incorrectly or illegibly recorded street names or numbers. The greatest number of errors occurred in areas with unpaved roads or informal street names.

By linking the data and viewing the results on a map, our researchers were able to easily identify structures for which no residents were linked, which was useful for describing the geographic distribution of these errors. The project was able to identify and correct some errors by cross-referencing original sources on the interactive map, but fixing all omissions would require thousands of person-hours. Because of these omissions, the totals generated represent an undercount of the actual number of displaced people. However, considering the housing patterns of the years included, we believe the results are statistically accurate. [11]

Creating an Interactive Map for the Public and Scholars

Both linked databases — cleared buildings and displaced persons — were incorporated into an interactive map using ESRI’s ArcGIS Experience Builder. The map features a moveable timeline slider, allowing users to track when alignments were finalized, buildings were cleared, and highways were completed. We added other historical maps, geospatial data, and documents gathered in the research phase of the project to this temporal framework. Users can replace the default background map with U.S. Department of Agriculture aerial photographic collages, city planning and street maps, and historical freeway plans to observe the evolving built landscape of the city and how highway alignments shifted over time.

Historical photographs of highway construction can be overlayed onto “view cones” on our interactive website, showing the visible landscape depicted in the photographs. The map can also display census data, including data from more recent censuses, along with other historical geographic information such as pre-expressway highway designations, racial population distribution maps, Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC) “redlining” maps, routes of historical urban railways, and the city of Houston’s historical industrial districts. Additionally, important historical news articles detailing planning decisions, alignment changes, and public protests are available to view.

By archiving these diverse types of historical sources with temporal and geospatial metadata, we have made a vast amount of information available to scholars and the public in an organized and user-friendly format.

We invite scholars and the public to utilize the datasets we have created on the project’s website,  roadsTaken . [12]

Who Was Impacted by The Houston Freeway System?

This research project was designed to answer two questions: Who was displaced by the construction of the Houston area freeway system, and why were the freeways built where they are? In recent years, a variety of articles and books have been written claiming that freeways were designed and built with racist intent. [13] These assertions have sparked new policy discussions on restoring minority neighborhoods negatively impacted by freeways and compensating individuals who may have been unjustly displaced from their homes.

It is crucial that these policy discussions be informed by factual evidence rather than anecdotal accounts. Additionally, the data used to inform these discussions should reflect the demographics of neighborhoods at the time the freeway alignments were planned, not upon what the neighborhoods look like today or even when the rights-of-way were cleared.

Table 1 shows the results from the methodology detailed earlier. For each major Houston freeway or, in some cases, specific freeway sections, the table provides estimates of the number of people displaced, as well as their racial composition. 

Table 1 — Residential Displacements by Highway Segment

Despite the fact that we were able to match just under 50% of residential properties with corresponding census records, the impact of freeway development on the Black and white populations is both measurable and explainable. The two major takeaways from this analysis are as follows:

• Disproportionate Impact on the Black Population: During the freeway alignment and construction process, the Black population of Harris County hovered around 20%. However,using the most recent previous census data (either 1940 or 1950) to the date of highway alignment, it is estimated that 41% of those displaced by freeways were Black, indicating that the Black population was disproportionately affected by freeway development in the Houston area.  
• Varied Impacts Based on Location: The impact on Black neighborhoods varied by freeway and freeway section, with neighborhoods near the central business district experiencing the most displacement. Since the neighborhoods close to downtown were predominantly Black and more densely populated, the greatest displacement of the Black population occurred there.

It should be noted that the current demographics of the Houston area differ significantly from those during the period of freeway development. Today, over 40% of Harris County’s population is Hispanic, whereas the 1940 and 1950 censuses only used two primary categories of race: “negro” and “white.” If the Hispanic population had been identified, it likely would have been no more than 10%. Therefore, discussions about the impact of major highways on minority neighborhoods focus on the Black neighborhoods that existed when the highways were aligned.

At the time locational decisions were made for the Houston area freeways, the largest predominantly Black neighborhoods were the Third Ward, Fourth Ward, Fifth Ward, Frenchtown, Independence Heights, and Acres Homes. The Third, Fourth, and Fifth Wards had significant numbers of residences in close proximity to downtown Houston. Frenchtown, Independence Heights, and Acres Homes were farther to the northeast and northwest.

The Gulf Freeway and the Gulf Freeway Expansion greatly impacted the northern section of the Third Ward, east and southeast of downtown. Approximately one-fourth of the Black residents identified as displaced by freeways were in the path of the Gulf Freeway or its expansion. The Third Ward was later impacted to a lesser degree by the Southwest Freeway, as it was connected to the downtown loop. The final impact on Black residents of the Third Ward came from the South Freeway, also known as State Highway 288. When the South Freeway was aligned, the affected sections of the Third Ward were predominantly white, but by the time the freeway was constructed, those same sections had become predominantly Black. The change in demographics of those parts of the Third Ward between the time the South Freeway was aligned and when it was actually built has led to some false allegations that the freeway was purposely routed to remove Black residential areas.

Located southwest of downtown Houston, the Fourth Ward saw a significant number of residents displaced due to the alignment of the freeway connecting the Gulf Freeway and the North Freeway. Combined with urban renewal projects such as the San Felipe Courts and city of Houston acquisitions for public buildings and parks, the Fourth Ward was not only impacted in terms of residences, but it also lost many commercial enterprises, churches, and social gathering places.

The Fifth Ward, northeast of downtown Houston, suffered the most significant displacement of Black residents. The Eastex Freeway bisected the western part of the Fifth Ward, and Interstate 10 (East Freeway) cut a swath through the southern part of the Fifth Ward parallel to Lyons Avenue, a major commercial and entertainment district for Houston’s Black community. Lyons Avenue was no longer a through street due to the East Freeway creating a dead end at Harbor Street.

Under the methodology used, the number of census roll matches for residences removed by Loop 610 was significantly lower compared to other freeways. That is particularly true for the section of Loop 610 West that removed 200 residential structures, but only nine could be matched to the 1950 census data. It turns out this lack of matches has a simple explanation. Many of the houses that were cleared for the freeway were not built until after 1950, meaning their occupants were not counted in the 1950 census. To varying degrees, the same explanation applies to other sections of Loop 610, which were farther from downtown and representative of some of the earliest suburbanization of Houston. Adjacent to Loop 610 North were existing neighborhoods such as Sunset Heights and Lindale Park, with predominantly white residents, and Independence Heights, a historically Black community that was an incorporated city at one time. Although the percentage of census matches for Loop 610 is small, the fact that 87% of known displaced residents were white likely reflects the demographic composition at the time the highway was aligned. However, a significant number of unmatched structures in Independence Heights were removed due to a realignment through the southern part of that neighborhood, suggesting a higher number of displaced Black residents than the data indicates.

As previously stated, the most important aspect of this analysis is that it is based on the demographics of neighborhoods and residents at the time of the alignment decisions. Other analyses, which estimate displacement based on right-of-way clearances or actual freeway construction, are less reliable when used to determine the motives behind freeway placement.

Why Were Major Highways Built Where They Are?

This section will attempt to answer the project’s second research question: Why were the Houston sections of freeways built where they are? [14] Additionally, given the freeways’ disproportionate impact on minority neighborhoods, what were the underlying motives behind the decisions of where to locate major highways?

Although the Gulf Freeway, the first freeway in the Houston area, was not designed until the late 1940s, and the Interstate Highway System and other Houston-area freeways were developed in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, the foundation for these projects was laid much earlier. The 1929 Houston City Planning Commission introduced the first comprehensive city plan, which proposed major thoroughfares and outlined segregation by “mutual agreement.” In aligning future highways, this plan not only reduced some Black neighborhoods while expanding others, but it also used transportation infrastructure such as railroads as “natural lines of demarcation.” [15] As the Houston freeway system was planned and developed over the next two decades, highways joined bayous and railroads as the main lines separating segregated neighborhoods. Simultaneously, in some neighborhoods, highways were planned to clear city blocks that had “deteriorated into slum areas,” according to Texas Highway Department planners. [16] The original planners of the Houston highway system operated under the assumption that segregation would continue and the racial composition of neighborhoods would not change. While this assumption held true to some extent, there are numerous examples of neighborhoods changing from white to Black and vice versa, particularly after the advent of open housing laws.

By first placing Houston in a national context, this section demonstrates how the decision to bring highways into central business districts inevitably led to significant minority displacement in nearly every major U.S. urban area. Within this context, Texas and Houston planners designed urban freeways with multiple objectives: building an efficient automobile-centered transportation network, accommodating increased freight movement via trucks, and clearing deteriorating neighborhoods at the same time.

National Context: Freeway Planners’ Goals and Influences 

Over 100 years ago, architects and city designers sought to create elegant, efficient, and modern systems, often featuring radial and spoke roadway designs (Figure 8). [17] Houston — with only floodplains and small bayous restricting urban development — provided highway designers with a blank canvas for plotting the city’s expressways.

Figure 8 — Theoretical Diagram of the Plan of Paris (1905) 

The interwar federal government saw the twin trends of urbanization and rapid growth of automobile use on the horizon. President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal administration outlined a plan for a national highway system in two key documents: “Toll Roads and Free Roads” (1939) and “Interregional Highways” (1944). In addition to presenting statistics on the gridlocked, poorly planned, and dangerous urban road system unequipped to deal with modern automobile traffic, these memorandums urged planners to design and build major off-grade arterial highways. [19] The 1939 report described the “fringe” areas of downtowns as “decadent” and referred to these zones as a city’s “slum — a blight near its very core!” [20] The 1944 follow-up reinforced the idea that urban highways should connect existing rural highways to the “focal point” of central business districts, which were already at risk of depreciation. [21] Surrounding downtowns, was a ring of “rundown buildings” and “slum areas” with a secondary ring of the city in a partial state of “depreciation” that was at risk of becoming “part of the city’s slums.” [22] With encouragement from the federal government, local planners conceptualized freeways as tools to modernize traffic flows and remove buildings, blocks, and neighborhoods deemed “blighted.”

Since Texas and Houston planners were deeply involved in the national community of highway engineers — attending conferences from San Francisco to Detroit throughout the pre-World War II era — it is understandable that they would take these national ideas to heart. [23] Planners were also acutely aware of the consequences, particularly the displacement of residents. By the early 1960s, the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) estimated that “a quarter-million urban families will have been displaced as a result of urban renewal from highway and other public improvement programs.” [24] Engineers viewed highway-construction displacement as similar to displacement from public housing, parks, and other infrastructure projects. The dual push to create urban freeways linking city centers and to conduct urban renewal meant that any neighborhood deemed blighted by city halls was considered for removal. The AASHO, with Texas’ State Highway Engineer Dewitt C. Greer serving on its executive committee, argued this exact point: “Many cities have blighted areas slated for redevelopment. Where they are near general desired lines of travel, arterial routes might be located through them in coordination with slum clearance and redevelopment programs. In other instances, the location of a highway through a blighted district may instigate plans for its redevelopment. In some cities blighted areas adjacent to the central business district are good locations for inner belts.” [25]

This vision of arterial and concentric limited-access highways, combined with the ability to clear or isolate blighted, slum, and “decadent” Houston neighborhoods, led to a clear highway design strategy: Clear large sections of “decay and blight” near the city center, build parking and civic institutions downtown, construct large radial freeways through partially dilapidated residential and light industrial zones, and build a ring road connecting the radials. [26] Houston was not alone in following this pattern. Cities such as Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, Pittsburgh, and St. Paul also adopted similar plans. Planners in these cities agreed on the supremacy of single-use urban districts, the benefits of residential neighborhoods primarily composed of single-family homes for social and psychological stability, and the need to solve present and future traffic congestion. They also concurred with local business leaders on the importance of supporting the central business district as a city’s economic focal point. [27]

Once the decisions were made in cities like Houston to build limited-access expressways into the central business district, the displacement of residents near downtown became inevitable. The logic of building freeways into and through the central business districts of major cities quickly gained support from both the public and private sectors. Accordingly, planners sought ways to connect existing rural highways to city cores, either by following rail lines or by clearing inexpensive property in poorer neighborhoods.

Local Context: Pre-War Houston Planning 

It is a common misconception that the federal highway legislation of the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s imposed plans on cities against their will. In Houston, local government planners were responsible for designing the map of the urban freeway system, largely unencumbered by federal or state interference. They acquired the right-of-way lines and, along with Harris County, funded the first decade of highway construction before federal aid began. [28] Long before the advent of limited-access freeways, Houston planners were acutely aware of the city’s racial and economic geography, down to the block.

Figure 9 — Plate Depicting Rusk Avenue in Downtown Houston From the 1913 City Plan

The photograph in Figure 9 shows a Houston street that is now part of Tranquility Park, with City Hall, a federal courthouse, and a performing arts venue all within a one-block radius. In 1913, city planners marked this street and the Black neighborhood to its south as part of Houston’s earliest attempt at comprehensive city planning. This initial plan included parkways along Houston’s bayous, designed to lead into downtown or connect with existing state roads.

However, the onset of World War I and subsequent political jockeying delayed many of the proposals in the 1913 city plan. It wasn’t until 1929 that Houston’s first fully realized city plan was issued by the Houston Planning Commission. Described as having “unprecedented breadth and scope” for the city, this plan included comprehensive zoning recommendations (Figure 10), improvements to parks and schools, transit planning, street widening, improved parking, and a major street plan. [30] According to the plan’s authors, the major street plan (Figure 11) served as the “framework” upon which the rest of the city’s planning efforts were built.

Figure 10 — Report of the City Planning Commission, Houston, Texas, 1929, ‘Race Distribution’ and ‘Proposed Race Restriction Areas’

The 1929 plan also included proposals for increased racial segregation with two accompanying maps. It stated, “The chief racial problem centers about the negroes.” [32] The commission noted that Black Houstonians were “a necessary and useful element in the population,” while also noting that recent population data showed that white Houstonians had grown to be a much larger majority in the city. The plan emphasized that Black Houstonians needed to live near white districts in order to work as domestics. [33] The commission argued that “it is best for both races that living areas be segregated” due to racial tensions. However, since “segregation by zoning has been proven unconstitutional,” the commission suggested that segregation must be accomplished through “mutual agreement.” [34]

Figure 11 — 1929 Major Street Plan

The report also discussed the primary areas of Black settlement in Houston, specifically the San Felipe District (also known as the Fourth Ward or Freedman’s Town), the southeast district (Third Ward), and the Fifth Ward. It noted that the Fourth Ward, being “closest to the business center” and made up of “very poor homes,” would be significantly impacted by the street plan. Specifically, it stated that the street plan will “encroach on this district and may tend to reduce it in size.” [36] The report went further, suggesting that the district be truncated and geographically reduced by more than 50%.

Although the comprehensive zoning law, the crowning jewel of the 1929 city plan, was derailed by organized property owners, the city nonetheless enacted the “Proposed Race Restriction” of the Fourth Ward through a variety of targeted public projects. [37] In the 1930s, the construction of the civic center and City Hall led to the demolition of three blocks along the bayou in the northeast. In the late 1930s and 1940s, the whites-only San Felipe Courts housing project removed nine blocks north of West Dallas Street. By 1952, the construction of what would become Interstate 45 removed 17 blocks on either side of the Sabine bridge along Heiner Street. [38] Within 15 years of the highway’s completion, private commercial development, mostly in the form of parking lots, eliminated the rest of the eastern half of the Black Fourth Ward, including its most important commercial and cultural landmarks, such as the Carnegie Colored Library, the Supreme Home of Ancient Order Pilgrims, and the original location of Booker T. Washington High School. [39] The project database shows that almost all of the homes in the highway’s path along the proposed Race Restriction Area line through the Fourth Ward were occupied by Black Houstonians. [40] It is evident that the city of Houston’s efforts to reduce the Fourth Ward were underway before the highway’s construction, but this project stands as an early instance of a highway being used as a tool for urban renewal. Interestingly, while the new freeway clearly destroyed a significant part of the Fourth Ward, it also cut off the Fourth Ward from downtown, thereby limiting potential expansion of downtown Houston in that direction. 

The Local Context: Houston Planners Design the Freeways

The approach of using highways as tools for urban renewal reached its apex when Ralph Ellifrit was appointed city planning engineer in 1940. [41] Ellifrit, who led the city planning department for over two decades, played a crucial role in designing and completing most of the major plans for Houston’s network of urban freeways. According to Ellifrit, Houston “had more influence on the location of its freeways than almost any other city in dealing with the Highway Department,” adding, “We did the original layout of the freeway system ahead of the Highway Department.” [42] Together with Texas Highway Department officials, Ellifrit continued to direct freeway planning and routes through the plan’s final major alignment change in 1963. [43]

Ellifrit was familiar with public projects that caused mass displacement even before his move to Houston in 1939. He described the area of the Fourth Ward cleared for the whites-only San Felipe Courts housing project as follows:

“Yes, it was one of the worst blighted areas that I have ever seen. There were shacks just literally built on dump and I walked through that area, uh, I think one of the main reasons was to try to eliminate that terrible slum area. It was as bad a blighted area as I have ever seen. There is nothing in Houston like it today and and over from it, about where the city’s barn is now, was Addie Sasser’s place which is a house of ill repute, two story, big square house with a big fence around it, kept just perfect condition, just absolute contrast to this terrible slum. I mean they weren’t just run-down dwellings, they were shacks, they were people just living in things like you see pictures of ’em living in uh in Vietnam, parts of Vietnam, places like that, that just unbelievable, around Singapore.” [44]

During the freeway placement process, few citizens made their way to City Hall to protest. This is not surprising since the majority of displaced individuals were renters who were not involved in right-of-way negotiations. Public discourse was mostly limited to debate within City Hall. [45] Other than a petition from businesses along the southern edge of the central business district and a letter signed by residents from the east side of town in the 1950s, there is no record of organized protests against highway construction until 1973.

Reflecting on his career as Houston’s first highway architect, Ellifrit discussed the location of Houston’s downtown ring of highways with Louis Marchiafava, noting that “it was finally realized that in order to build a system, there was no way to get one that would not skirt the downtown district.” [46] The nationwide pressure to build freeways through dense urban areas to reach central business districts seems closely associated with slum clearance in Ellifrit’s mind.

Figure 12 — 1949 Proposed Freeway Plan (Red) Overlaid on the 1929 Race Restriction Areas Map (Black)

Ellifrit’s 1942 Major Street Plan, the 1946 Major Thoroughfare Plan, and the 1949 Proposed Freeway map, which introduced modern expressways, were all built upon the foundation laid by the 1929 plan. [47] The new urban freeways mapped in Figure 12 — which included all extant urban highways until the publication of the 1955 Major Thoroughfare and Freeway Plan — followed the ideal design of radial arteries and circumferential roads discussed earlier in this section. Gone from these new maps are the parkway loops along bayous and parks. Instead, wide expressways were routed through residential and light commercial areas, connecting to the city’s loop and extending to highways leading to other major cities. [48]

Right-of-way costs were always a pressing concern to planners, and Houston’s freeway plan intersected with other government programs that had already depreciated property values. The 1949 Proposed Freeways map aligns closely with neighborhoods of low property value if plotted on top of the 1930s HOLC map of Houston, commonly known as a “redline map.” All the structures initially located in the in the path of the proposed highway were in neighborhoods labeled as “Definitely Declining” (C or yellow) or “Hazardous” (D or red). [49] The only exceptions were 33 structures in the “Still Desirable” (B or blue) neighborhood of Park Place. No structures from this initial highway plan were located in neighborhoods deemed “Best” (A or green) (Figure 13). [50] This suggests that Houston’s initial freeways were deliberately planned through less desirable and lower-value neighborhoods.

Figure 13 — 1949 Proposed Freeway Map (Black) Overlaid on the 1930s HOLC (Color)

Ellifrit retired from the city planning department in 1963, but before his departure, two more urban expressways were added to Houston’s master plan in 1955: the Southwest and South Freeways. Both of these freeways were aligned to pass through neighborhoods that were predominantly white at the time. The Southwest Freeway was originally planned along the Westpark corridor, but at the urging of developer Frank Sharp, who made right-of-way available outside of the proposed Loop 610, it was rerouted to pass through the new Sharpstown development. Ellifrit’s 1963 freeway plan marked the last major change to urban highway alignments, and by 1968, the government had acquired almost all properties within the right-of-way of Houston’s freeways.

In 1968, J.C. Dingwall, who was previously the director of construction for Houston’s first modern superhighway, the Gulf Freeway, took over as head of the Texas Highway Department. In his new role in Austin, he continued championing the benefits of highways to clear unwanted parts of cities: “Frequently the central business district of a city is surrounded by a belt of land suffering from urban blight. Often such land served as good residential neighborhoods at one time, but later deteriorated into slum areas. It is important to remember that urban highways can be a valuable tool in rehabilitating such slum areas. The clearing away of unsafe and unsanitary buildings makes the adjacent land eligible for better use. The problem arises in finding a place for the residents of these areas to go. Too often they cannot find adequate housing at prices or rents they can afford.” [51]

Given all of the above considerations, there were still decisions to be made regarding where to route new freeways in relation to existing neighborhoods. Recent analyses have suggested that freeways were purposely built through certain neighborhoods to destroy them, a view that is amply supported by the earlier discussion of urban renewal efforts. [52] Other narratives suggest that freeways were built adjacent to minority neighborhoods to isolate those areas from the rest of the city. [53] In hindsight, it seems that either perspective can be deemed negative, but it is important to acknowledge that freeways were necessary to accommodate a thriving central business district, a burgeoning population, and increasing mobility needs for both. In the Houston area, each freeway has its own unique history, making it informative to consider some of the specific impacts of the major alignments.

Gulf Freeway

The Gulf Freeway was Houston and Texas’ first freeway, planned as a direct connection between Houston and Galveston. Rather than expanding the existing U.S. Highway 75 between Houston and Galveston, planners opted to use a corridor largely along the right-of-way of the Houston interurban electric railway. The freeway passed through the predominantly white Park Place neighborhood near Hobby Airport, but the most substantial impact was to the northern section of the Third Ward, a Black neighborhood near downtown. Homes and businesses were removed, and a section of the Third Ward was separated from the rest of the neighborhood. When the Gulf Freeway was expanded in the early 1970s, more of the Third Ward was destroyed. Taken together, the Gulf Freeway and its later expansion removed approximately 1,500 residential structures, displacing a population that was 80% Black. Ironically, after the Gulf Freeway opened, the upscale Glenbrook Valley subdivision was developed adjacent to the new Gulf Freeway at the entrance to Hobby Airport. Glenbrook Valley’s connection to downtown Houston via the new freeway was touted as a key feature.

Eastex Freeway

Prior to the opening of the Eastex Freeway, the main road leaving Houston to Lufkin and the rest of East Texas was Jensen Drive. The Eastex Freeway was originally planned along Carr/Stevens streets, then expanding Jensen Drive was considered, but the final alignment was along a route paralleling Jensen Drive to the east. Outside the city limits of Houston, the route passed through open, undeveloped land, but as it entered the city from the northeast, it skirted the edge of Kashmere Gardens and bisected Frenchtown, both of which are now recognized as historically Black neighborhoods. However, in 1950, just after the Eastex Freeway was aligned, Kashmere Gardens was 81% percent white. By the time of the 1960 census, Kashmere Gardens had become 73% Black, demonstrating a clear demographic shift after the freeway was designed and built. Frenchtown was originally populated by Creoles who had moved to the Houston area from Louisiana.

As the Eastex Freeway moved closer to downtown Houston, it took a slice off the western side of the predominantly Black Fifth Ward. This area was largely a commercial and entertainment district adjacent to a confluence of railroad tracks, but it also included many residences. It is difficult to imagine an alignment of the Eastex Freeway that could have avoided the western edge of the Fifth Ward. Even if the freeway had followed Jensen Drive, the major road toward East Texas, it would have entered downtown through the same area. West of Jensen Drive are several main railroad tracks that would have made highway construction virtually impossible.

North Freeway

The North Freeway, now known as Interstate 45 North, was built along the footprint of U.S. 75 from the northern Harris County line to the intersection of Shepherd Drive and Stuebner Airline. While U.S. 75 continued along Shepherd Drive toward downtown Houston, the new freeway was aligned to the east, passing through largely open areas and avoiding major portions of Acres Homes and Independence Heights, historically Black neighborhoods. Closer to downtown, the freeway was built adjacent to White Oak Bayou, largely avoiding residential areas but impacting flood management. The portion of the North Freeway just north of downtown Houston passed through neighborhoods that have historically been transitional, housing immigrant workers and their families. At the time the new freeway was planned, that area had a mixed racial profile but was predominantly white.

Fourth Ward/Pierce Elevated Freeways

What is now known as Interstate 45 through Houston is the combination of four major projects. The longer Gulf Freeway and the North Freeway are connected by shorter freeway sections, one through the Fourth Ward and another elevated section along Pierce Street.

The Fourth Ward Freeway was aligned and the right-of-way acquired in 1952. The population of the Fourth Ward was predominantly Black at the time and included Freedmen’s Town, a historic area where freed slaves settled and built homes, businesses, and churches following the Civil War. The highway, along with urban renewal efforts undertaken by city planners, not only removed a significant number of houses and businesses, but it also separated the Fourth Ward community from the downtown Houston area where many Black institutions were located.

The Pierce Elevated project, initiated in the early 1960s, primarily impacted apartment buildings and commercial properties. Original plans for the elevated freeway section included parks and potential recreational opportunities underneath the highway lanes, but those plans were never realized. Instead, the property under the freeway became parking areas or remained undeveloped. By elevating the freeway, planners also hoped to improve traffic circulation between nearby neighborhoods and downtown.

The Houston Planning Commission first proposed a loop around the city’s perimeter in 1942, which eventually became the route for Loop 610, part of the Interstate Highway System. Except for a few sections that pass through neighborhoods such as Bellaire, Lindale Park, Kashmere Gardens, Manchester Annex, Golfcrest/Gulfgate, and the edges of Independence Heights and Pleasantville, the Loop was primarily aligned through either sparsely populated areas or light industrial and commercial tracts. After its opening, the area around West Loop 610 became a major commercial area with the development of the Galleria and other shopping and office projects. Other sections of the Loop also saw significant commercial development, although residential neighborhoods remained in some nearby areas.

Southwest Freeway

The Southwest Freeway (U.S. 59) was not part of the original freeway plan but was added and aligned to serve fast-growing suburbs, specifically Sharpstown, in the 1950s. From downtown Houston to what is now Loop 610, the freeway went through old, well-established neighborhoods close to downtown and post-World War II tract housing in the area that is now Greenway Plaza near Wesleyan Street.

In 1966, the Southwest Freeway was connected to the Eastex Freeway on the east side of downtown Houston by an elevated section of freeway. This meant that U.S. 59, now Interstate 69, became a continuous freeway through Harris County.

East Freeway

The section of Interstate 10 between downtown Houston and Baytown was aligned in 1953, with the right-of-way acquisition completed in 1961. Unlike other Houston interstate highways, the East Freeway did not align closely to an existing U.S. highway. U.S. 90, which connected Houston to Beaumont and points east, was not used as a route for the new interstate since it went north to Liberty instead of due east to Baytown. Residents and commercial interests, particularly in Denver Harbor and the Fifth Ward, expressed concerns about the alignment of the new freeway, which removed numerous structures, particularly in the Fifth Ward.

Katy Freeway

The Katy Freeway (Interstate 10) from Katy to downtown Houston, was designed in two distinct sections by two different Texas Department of Highways offices — one responsible for the freeway outside Loop 610 and the other for the freeway between Loop 610 and downtown. Outside Loop 610, the Katy Freeway ran parallel to Old Katy Road and the MKT railroad tracks, minimizing the number of residential displacements. However, inside Loop 610, the alignment decision was more complex. There was a conscious effort to avoid the heart of Memorial Park and the two rail lines that converged in the Eureka railyard before going east to the train stations near downtown and the major freight yards northeast of downtown. Rather than aligning the new interstate along Memorial Drive or Washington Avenue, a route was chosen that would allow Interstate 10 to pass just north of downtown Houston. That route went through several existing neighborhoods, some that were predominantly white and one that was Black.

Interstate 10 Downtown

The section of Interstate 10 just north of downtown Houston connecting the Katy Freeway and the East Freeway was designed in 1955, five years after the Katy and East Freeways were designed and two years after their final alignments. By the time of its alignment and right-of-way acquisition, the area had become almost exclusively light industrial and commercial, though there were still four blocks of residences. The intersection of Interstate 10 and the Eastex Freeway resulted in the elimination of residential areas in the west end of the Fifth Ward that had been separated from the main part of the ward.

South Freeway

The South Freeway, designated State Highway 288, runs from just south of downtown Houston, where it intersects with Interstate 69, to Freeport. It was not included in the original freeway plans and is not on the Interstate Highway System. Initially planned to be placed on the Almeda Road corridor, the route was shifted a few blocks east to avoid major facilities at the intersection of Almeda Road and Holcombe Boulevard, including the VA Medical Center, Nabisco plant, and Dominican College.

Changing demographics in the Third Ward along the South Freeway route have led to many false assumptions about the impact of the freeway. The southern part of the Third Ward was historically home to a large Jewish population, which moved to other neighborhoods during the 1950s. The area then became home to a burgeoning Black population. Likewise, the western part of the Third Ward between Almeda Road and Main Street was predominantly white until the alignment of the South Freeway, after which the area’s residents became largely Black. Since the opening of the South Freeway, the same area, now known as the Museum District, has increasingly become home to affluent white residents in new apartments and condominiums.

La Porte and Harrisburg Freeways

The La Porte Freeway, better known as State Highway 225 since it was really a major upgrade to that highway, parallels the Houston Ship Channel in a heavily industrialized area. Built in 1966, it had minimal effects on residential areas. The western terminus of the La Porte Freeway was at Loop 610 East.

In 1961, plans for Harrisburg Freeway aimed to move traffic from the La Porte Freeway and Loop 610 to downtown Houston along Harrisburg Boulevard. Local residents were divided on the project. Some viewed the freeway as an opportunity for redevelopment of the East End, while others opposed it due to its potential destruction of neighborhoods along the route. In the end, freeway lanes were only built for a short distance inside Loop 610 East to the intersection with Harrisburg Boulevard. That short section of freeway opened in 1976, displacing mainly white residents in the vicinity of Milby High School.

Multiple Factors Contributed to the Location of Houston’s Freeways 

In summary, Houston’s freeway system was originally based on a downtown loop and radial design considered ideal by highway planners. The plan was implemented during a period marked by racial segregation in housing, employment, and education — all recognized and encouraged by public officials. Simultaneously, there was a nationwide push for urban renewal tied to expanding and improving public and private facilities in downtown areas. Combined with the rise of the automobile culture and suburbanization, the freeways were designed to meet the needs of that era.

Highways Were Not the Only Variable

In examining who was displaced by the development of major highways in the Houston area and why the highways were built where they were, it is important to recognize that these highways were only one factor among many that affected neighborhoods. The construction of the Interstate Highway System spanned a period marked by dramatic changes in public policies, societal norms, and lifestyle choices. Evaluating the motives and impacts of highway location decisions made decades ago requires a deep understanding of the political and social environment at the time of those decisions. Considering these other factors is necessary before deciding whether any restorative actions are warranted for neighborhoods damaged by highway construction or whether policymakers should make amends to those who were displaced by highway development.

Segregated Neighborhoods and the End of Segregation

When major highways were being planned, the city of Houston enforced clear policies and practices that mandated racial segregation. At that time, society dictated that people of color live only in neighborhoods designated specifically for them. These neighborhoods often had a higher population density than average, and as a result, any highway right-of-way through these areas would inevitably have a disproportionate impact.

For years after housing segregation policies were abolished, de facto segregation persisted through deed restrictions and other means. Much of the civil rights movement in the 1960s and 1970s focused on allowing people of all races to live where they wanted, with an aim to eliminate mandated neighborhoods based on race. With the passage of the Fair Housing Act in 1968 and the removal of other restrictions, people of color started moving to other neighborhoods in search of a better quality of life. The residents who moved were often higher-income residents, leaving their former neighborhoods economically disadvantaged. This shift occurred during the same period that many of highways were constructed, raising important questions: How many people moved by choice versus those forced out by a highway? How many people would have moved regardless of the highway’s construction?

Another important question revolves around the desirability of maintaining or restoring neighborhoods of color that were the result of earlier racist policies. In considering this fundamental question, we must acknowledge the current reality. Many neighborhoods near downtown, such as the Fourth Ward and the East Downtown neighborhood, which were formerly populated by minorities and those who were economically disadvantaged, are now home to thriving business communities and wealthy residential developments. These neighborhoods no longer bear any resemblance to the communities that were displaced by the highways. This raises the question of whether it is realistic or feasible to put these displaced communities back together. Additionally, the idea of restoring certain neighborhoods of color that were divided by highways assumes that neighborhoods should be defined by race or ethnicity. Should this assumption still stand in today’s society?

Highways Designed to Serve Central Business District and Suburbanization

The Interstate Highway System was originally designed to connect the central business districts of cities. Additionally, local major freeways were designed to serve downtown areas, which were the central hubs of employment and commercial enterprises. In Houston, the downtown area was ringed by designated minority neighborhoods. Therefore, any highway alignment into downtown Houston inevitably impacted these neighborhoods.

The construction of freeways undoubtedly resulted in extensive suburbanization and a decline in urban residential patterns. Much has been written about who moved to the suburbs and why. Throughout the era of major freeway expansion, automobile culture was in full swing, with people choosing to drive their own cars instead of using public transit. This led to widespread public support for highway construction to accommodate this lifestyle.

Urban Renewal

The urban renewal movement was based upon the idea that some urban minority neighborhoods were blighted and should be removed for public health and safety reasons. This viewpoint made the destruction of such neighborhoods appear to be a positive outcome of highway construction. In retrospect, several questions need to be addressed: Were better housing options made available to the people who were displaced from the “blighted” neighborhoods? How many displaced individuals were homeowners, and did they receive fair market compensation for their properties? Were accommodations made for those displaced from rental housing? What happened to the areas adjacent to the highway?

Our research determined that some of Houston’s near-downtown areas were repurposed for government and civic purposes through the city’s use of eminent domain, while others became parking lots or commercial developments. Other neighborhoods farther from the central business district had mixed outcomes. Some neighborhoods adjacent to freeways, such as the Third Ward, remained primarily residential, while other neighborhoods, such as Greenway Plaza, saw residential neighborhoods replaced by shopping and office developments. These considerations are vital for government officials planning future highway projects or weighing options for how to deal with the impact of existing highways on earlier neighborhoods.

Impact of Economic Development

While the acquisition of right-of-way and highway construction clearly displaced homes and businesses, highways also had broader impacts on adjacent areas that are less easily assessed. In some cases, the new highway increased nearby property values for commercial purposes, providing financial benefits to property owners who were then happy to relocate. Conversely, in other instances, property values near new highways declined, leaving property owners uncompensated for the right-of-way while their properties suffered losses and the entire neighborhood declined. Thus, the impact of highways on any given neighborhood depends on factors beyond just the right-of-way clearance and construction of the highway itself.

Employment and Commuter Patterns

The post-World War II rise of automobile culture and suburbanization led to the growth of commuter populations. Since the central business district was the primary office center of Houston and other major cities, there was impetus to build major highways into downtown from the suburbs. In the case of Houston, this approach coincided with the major thoroughfare plan developed decades earlier.

As noted in previous sections, when most of Houston’s major highways were built, the downtown area was ringed by Black neighborhoods, meaning any route into downtown from any direction would inevitably disrupt these neighborhoods. Highways such as Interstate 10, Interstate 45, and U.S. 59 all severely impacted established minority neighborhoods.

Cost of Right-of-Way

In selecting a final route for a highway project, the cost of right-of-way acquisition is often a crucial factor. Typically, the alignment of a new highway aims to maximize tax dollars by avoiding high-value parcels of land, making low-income neighborhoods more vulnerable to highway development.

In some cases, other circumstances dictate highway alignments. For example, the alignment of the Southwest Freeway was altered to accommodate Frank Sharp, the developer of Sharpstown, a mixed residential and commercial development. Additionally, although Grand Parkway is not included in this study, it is noteworthy that much of its right-of-way was donated to the state of Texas using legislation created specifically for that purpose. [54]

Parallel Railroad Tracks

In many instances, highways were purposely planned to parallel existing railroad tracks. This practice helped avoid major neighborhood disruptions but still required the removal of some structures. By the time of highway development, those living adjacent to railroad tracks were often economically disadvantaged. [55]

Changing Demographics

In discussing who was displaced by major highways, we used census data for each address. As neighborhoods changed demographically and homeowners relocated, some homes became rental properties. In neighborhoods such as south Third Ward and Kashmere Gardens, some white homeowners moved and rented their properties to Black families, while others chose to sell their homes. The result was a shift from white to Black residents. By the time a major highway impacted these neighborhoods, the racial makeup had often changed. Therefore, determining when the highway alignment decision was made is critical in analyzing its impact. If a highway was aligned through a neighborhood when the residents were predominantly white, but the neighborhood became majority Black before the highway was constructed, it would be misleading to argue the highway was built with racist intent.

Were Houston’s Freeways Built With Good Intent?

Most of the freeway system in the Houston area was designed before the Interstate Highway System existed. For instance, the Gulf Freeway and North Freeway were originally completed as U.S. Highway 75, while the Eastex Freeway and Southwest Freeway were built as U.S. Highway 59. Even the Katy Freeway and the East Freeway were planned years before the concept of interstate highways was introduced, though they were later designated as Interstate 10 when they opened in the 1960s. Additionally, the general alignment of Loop 610, excluding the East Loop, was determined prior to passage of the Federal-Aid Highway Act, which created the Interstate Highway System.

Consequently, any interpretation of why Houston’s major freeways were built in their current locations should not attribute their placement solely to the creation of the Interstate Highway System. The Federal-Aid Highway Act provided funding for the purchase of right-of-way and construction of freeways that had, for the most part, already been proposed with the general alignments already largely determined. Therefore, understanding who was impacted by Houston area freeways and why requires examining local decisions made years before the freeways were actually built.

The narrative suggesting that Houston’s freeways were purposely designed to destroy or marginalize minority and economically disadvantaged neighborhoods is often an oversimplification of the facts. A common mistake is to assess the impact of a highway based only on who was displaced by the right-of-way acquisition and actual construction of the highway. However, in deciding the intentional impact of a freeway, it is more accurate to assess who was affected when the freeway was finally aligned, as this is when planners decided which communities would be affected. For example, if a freeway was aligned through a neighborhood that underwent a change in its racial profile after the alignment but before construction, it should not be said that the freeway was intentionally designed to displace the residents who moved in after the alignment was determined.

According to the numbers generated by the census-based methodology, approximately 41% of the people living in the path of the freeway alignments were Black, while the Black population of Harris County at the time hovered around 20%. It is my opinion that the impact of the freeways on the Black population was due to factors other than highway planners’ intentional efforts to target these communities. There was, however, a clear intent among urban renewal advocates to displace Black residents living in what were deemed blighted areas, with freeway construction sometimes used as a tool for that purpose. [56]

During the period of freeway planning and development, societal norms and systemic racism — reinforced by government policies — created a segregated residential pattern through the designation of Black-only neighborhoods. Several of these designated Black neighborhoods were densely populated and located near downtown. As a result, the desire to build freeways to serve downtown Houston inevitably displaced residents of these nearby neighborhoods. Of the Black residents identified as living in the path of Houston’s freeways when they were aligned, 89% lived in the Third, Fourth, or Fifth Wards, which are adjacent to downtown.

Other notable Black residential areas that existed in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s included Acres Homes, Independence Heights, and Frenchtown. The North Freeway was aligned to avoid Acres Homes and Independence Heights, while the Eastex Freeway bisected Frenchtown, though this was largely unavoidable. Later, for undetermined reasons, a shift in the alignment of the North Loop led to the removal of several blocks on the south side of Independence Heights, leading to significant displacement of Black residents.

There is considerable evidence that city planners viewed highways as a tool for urban renewal, facilitating the removal of neighborhoods considered blighted. [57] In some instances, highways were only one part of a broader urban renewal process. For example, sections of the Fourth Ward were cleared for downtown civic projects and development of the San Felipe Courts public housing project. The section of freeway that connected the North Freeway and the Gulf Freeway removed much of the historic Fourth Ward, but most of the area affected was located between the downtown projects and San Felipe Courts, meaning that this area was likely transitioning regardless.

The debate over the impact of highways on minority and economically disadvantaged residents often fails to consider the changing status of neighborhoods over time. For example, neighborhoods such as Kashmere Gardens, Lindale Park, and Alief were predominantly white when they were developed, but they have since become home to primarily Black and other minority residents. It is also worth noting that defining a neighborhood by race is increasingly inappropriate today. It is ironic that some have suggested recreating neighborhoods that were originally established based on racist policies.

Overall, our analysis indicates that freeway planners generally avoided established residential neighborhoods outside of the downtown area when possible, with some notable exceptions. For instance, the Southwest Freeway cut through the predominantly white Lamar Wesleyan subdivision, and Loop 610 bifurcated the eastern residential area of Bellaire, which was also primarily white. On the north side, Loop 610 was built through the northern edge of Sunset Heights, a white community, before curving a few blocks north and removing several blocks of homes in Independence Heights, a historically Black neighborhood.

Considering all of the evidence presented in this analysis, the routing of Houston’s freeways relative to minority and economically disadvantaged areas was not done with racist intent. However, many of the affected neighborhoods were considered blighted and impoverished, largely due to racist segregation and civic neglect. The disproportionate displacement of Black residents resulted from imposing what was considered at the time the most efficient highway system on segregated housing patterns created by a racist society. Additionally, some urban renewal advocates, rightly or wrongly, viewed highways as a means of improving living conditions for Black Houstonians.

In terms of future highway development or improvement, our study does not suggest that Houston’s freeway system needs to be dismantled or halted in its expansion. A particularly troubling aspect of the criticisms launched at those who planned the existing freeways is the lack of discussion about alternatives. What were the alternatives at the time the highways were planned? What would Houston look like today without the freeways? Could different alignments have produced better outcomes? These are important questions that should be explored by future researchers and scholars, and this project aims to contribute to that discussion.

The historical perspective does point to the need for a more comprehensive approach to building new freeways or restoring existing ones. In planning additions or improvements to the highway system, attention must be given to potential socioeconomic and environmental impacts on affected communities.

However, any attempt to restore or reconnect communities as they existed before freeways ignores reality. In the decades that have passed since the freeways were built, the affected communities have evolved, and working and shopping patterns are completely different. The people who live in those communities now are not the same as the pre-freeway residents, and attempting to recreate segregated neighborhoods that once existed because of racist policies should be rejected by modern society.

Maintaining and improving highways is necessary to our economy and our daily lives. We must, therefore, dispel the notion that highways are inherently harmful. Doing so requires a more inclusive planning process and a transparent record of the decisions made.

[1] U.S. Department of Transportation, “Reconnecting Communities FY 2022 Awards,”  https://www.transportation.gov/grants/reconnecting/rcp-fy22-awards . 

[2] This section was written by Matt Drwenski and is an abridged version of the full methodology provided on the roadsTaken website. See Drwenski, Uilvim Ettore Gardin Franco, and Bruno Sousa, “roadsTaken: The History of Highway Displacement in Houston — Our Methodology” (Houston: Rice University’s Baker Institute for Public Policy).

[3] Ben Poston and Liam Dillon, “How We Reported the Story on Highway Displacements,” Los Angeles Times, November 11, 2021,  https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2021-11-11/how-we-reported-the-story-on-freeway-displacements .

[4] Texas Department of Transportation, “Real Property Asset Map,”  https://maps.dot.state.tx.us/AGO_Template/TxDOT_Viewer/ .

[5] Houston Public Library, “Houston and Texas,”  https://houstonlibrary.org/sb.php?subject_id=209042 . 

[6] “Annual Right-of-Way Statistics,” Federal Highway Administration, updated October 13, 2022,  https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/real_estate/uniform_act/stats/ .

[7] Ralph Ellifrit, interviewed by Louis Marchiafava, Houston History Research Center (HHRC) Oral History Collection, Houston Public Library Special Collections, September 26, 1979.

[8] “1950 Census,” U.S. National Archives, accessed November 20, 2023,  https://1950census.archives.gov/ .

[9] “Questions Asked on the 1950 Census,” U.S. National Archives, October 29, 2020,  https://www.archives.gov/research/census/1950/questions-asked .

[10] Demographic or income summaries based on these datasets for blocks or neighborhoods that underwent a demographic or economic change during the period between our data collection and the clearance of buildings for the highway are likely to be inaccurate or misleading.

[11] Please note that other information about the methodology has been omitted. See full methodology at Drwenski, Ettore Gardin Franco, and Sousa, “roadsTaken — Our Methodology.”

[12] For sources on the displaced buildings layer file and demographic information, see Drwenski, Ettore Gardin Franco, and Sousa, “roadsTaken — Sources.”

[13] See, for example, Ryan Reft, “We Mythologize Highways, But They’ve Damaged Communities of Color,” Washington Post, January 19, 2023,  https://www.washingtonpost.com/made-by-history/2023/01/19/interstate-highways-black-neighborhoods/ ; and Noel King, “A Brief History of How Racism Shaped Interstate Highways,” NPR, April 7, 2021,  https://www.npr.org/2021/04/07/984784455/a-brief-history-of-how-racism-shaped-interstate-highways . 

[14] This section was written by Drwenski and is an abridged and edited version of the full history provided on the roadsTaken website. See Drwenski, Ettore Gardin Franco, and Sousa, “roadsTaken — History.”

[15] Report of the City Planning Commission, Houston, Texas, 1929, Folder: 41, James R. Sims papers, 1924–2002, MS 0596, Woodson Research Center, Rice University, Houston, Texas, 25,  https://archives.library.rice.edu/repositories/2/archival_objects/93652 . 

[16] J.C. Dingwall, “Topical Outline (Not a Finished Speech),” 1968 Original Speeches, Texas Highway Department, Archives and Information Services Division, Texas State Library and Archives Commission, 5.

[17] Joseph F. DiMento and Cliff Ellis, Changing Lanes: Visions and Histories of Urban Freeways (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2013), 10–4,  https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9374.001.0001 .

[18] Daniel H. Burnham, “Theoretical Diagram, Paris,” Report on a Plan for San Francisco by Daniel H. Burnham, 1905, David Rumsey Map Collection, David Rumsey Map Center, Stanford Libraries,  https://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/detail/RUMSEY~8~1~354997~1120378 . 

[19] Toll Roads and Free Roads, Public Roads, vol. 20 (Washington, DC: U.S. Federal Highway Administration, Office of Research and Development, 1939), 93,  https://enotrans.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/membersOnly-1939-Toll-Roads-and-Free-Roads.compressed.pdf . 

[20] Toll Roads and Free Roads, Public Roads, 94–5.

[21] Interregional Highways, Report of National Interregional Highway Committee, Congressional Document, 1944, 53,  https://enotrans.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/membersOnly-1944-Interregional-Highways.pdf .

[22] Interregional Highways.

[23] Texas Archival Resources Online, “Texas Department of Transportation Highway Department Historical Records: An Inventory of the Department of Transportation Highway Department Historical Records at the Texas State Archives, 1911–1993, bulk 1927–1960,” American Association of State Highway Officials correspondence, Texas State Library and Archives Commission (boxes 2002/101–1, 2002/101–2, 2002/101–3),  https://txarchives.org/tslac/finding_aids/19001.xml .

[24] The Sagamore Conference on Highways and Urban Development: Guidelines for Action, (Syracuse: Syracuse University, 1958), 23–4.

[25] American Association of State Highway Officials, 89.

[26] The Sagamore Conference on Highways and Urban Development, 11.

[27] Mark H. Rose and Raymond A. Mohl, Interstate: Highway Politics and Policy Since 1939, (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2012), 55–67.

[28] Ellifrit, interviewed by Louis Marchiafava.

[29] Arthur Coleman Comey, “Houston: Tentative Plans for Its Development,” Report to the Houston Park Commission (United States: Press of Geo. H. Ellis Company, 1913).

[30] Archie Henderson, “City Planning in Houston, 1920-1930,” The Houston Review, 133,  https://houstonhistorymagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/9.3-City-Planning-In-Houston-1920-1930-Archie-Henderson.pdf .   

[31] The City Plan of Houston(Houston: The City Planning Commission, 1929), City Planning Department, City of Houston, RG A 0004, HHRC, Houston Public Library.

[32] The spelling “about” instead of “around” is as the source material reads (The City Plan of Houston, 25).

[33] The City Plan of Houston, 25–6.

[34] The City Plan of Houston, 25.

[35] The City Plan of Houston.

[36] Report of the City Planning Commission, 25.

[37] Henderson, 134–6.

[38] “Planning the City: An Interview with Ralph Ellifrit,” Houston Magazine, Winter 1981, 215,  https://houstonhistorymagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Planning-the-City-An-Interview-with-Ralph-Ellifrit.pdf . 

[39] Today, Antioch Mission Baptist Church is the only remaining building of the east Fourth Ward.

[40] Drwenski, Ettore Gardin Franco, and Sousa, “roadsTaken — Demographic Layer.”

[41] “Planning the City,” Houston Chronicle, February 23, 1940, 39, 205.

[42] “Planning the City: An Interview with Ralph Ellifrit,” 213, 218.

[43] Ellen Middlebrook, “Ellifritt Urges Shifting of Southwest Freeway,” Houston Post, March 4, 1959, 28.

[44] Ellifrit, interviewed by Louis Marchiafava, transcription by Drwenski, Tape 3.

[45] “Planning the City: An Interview with Ralph Ellifrit,” 213. 

[46] Ellifrit, interviewed by Louis Marchiafava, transcription by Drwenski, Tape 3.

[47] Drwenski, Ettore Gardin Franco, and Sousa, “roadsTaken — Plans and Maps.”

[48] DiMento and Ellis, 67–73

[49] Robert K. Nelson et al., “Mapping Inequality: Redlining in New Deal America,” American Panorama, https://dsl.richmond.edu/panorama/redlining/map#loc=4/41.1787/-95.8008 .

[50]  Drwenski, Ettore Gardin Franco, and Sousa, “roadsTaken.”

[51] Dingwall, 5.

[52] See, for example, David Leonhardt, “Fixing What Highways Destroyed,” New York Times, Morning Newsletter, May 28, 2021,  https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/28/briefing/us-highways-destruction-sugar-hill.html . 

[53] See, for example, Sally Bagshaw, Scott Bonjukian, and John Feit, “Reconnecting What Freeways Severed: Addressing the Historical Toll on Communities Split by Highways,” Harvard Advanced Leadership Initiative Social Impact Review, December 15, 2021,  https://www.sir.advancedleadership.harvard.edu/articles/reconnecting-what-freeways-severed-addressing-the-historical-toll-on-communities-split-by-highways .

[54] Drwenski, Ettore Gardin Franco, and Sousa, “roadsTaken — Important Maps — HOLC Houston Redlining Map.”

[55] Drwenski, Ettore Gardin Franco, and Sousa, “roadsTaken — Historical Railroads.”

[56] See sources listed at Drwenski, Ettore Gardin Franco, and Sousa, “roadsTaken — History.”

[57] See sources listed at Drwenski, Ettore Gardin Franco, and Sousa, “roadsTaken — History.”

This material may be quoted or reproduced without prior permission, provided appropriate credit is given to the author and Rice University’s Baker Institute for Public Policy. The views expressed herein are those of the individual author(s), and do not necessarily represent the views of Rice University’s Baker Institute for Public Policy.

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How to Research and Write a Compelling History Thesis

The Importance of Research for Writing a History Thesis

Just as history is more than a collection of facts about past events, an effective history thesis goes beyond simply sharing recorded information. Writing a compelling history thesis requires making an argument about a historical fact and, then, researching and providing a well-crafted defense for that position.

With so many sources available—some of which may provide conflicting findings—how should a student research and write a history thesis? How can a student create a thesis that’s both compelling and supports a position that academic editors describe as “concise, contentious, and coherent”?

Key steps in how to write a history thesis include evaluating source materials, developing a strong thesis statement, and building historical knowledge.

Compelling theses provide context about historical events. This context, according to the reference website ThoughtCo., refers to the social, religious, economic, and political conditions during an occurrence that “enable us to interpret and analyze works or events of the past, or even the future, rather than merely judge them by contemporary standards”.

The context supports the main point of a thesis, called the thesis statement, by providing an interpretive and analytical framework of the facts, instead of simply stating them. Research uncovers the evidence necessary to make the case for that thesis statement.

To gather evidence that contributes to a deeper understanding of a given historical topic, students should reference both primary and secondary sources of research.

Primary Sources

Primary sources are firsthand accounts of events in history, according to Professor David Ulbrich, director of Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History program. These sources provide information not only about what happened and how it happened but also why it happened.

Primary sources can include letters, diaries, photos, and videos as well as material objects such as “spent artillery shells, architectural features, cemetery headstones, chemical analysis of substances, shards of bowls or bottles, farming implements, or earth or environmental features or factors,” Ulbrich says. “The author of the thesis can tell how people lived, for example, by the ways they arranged their material lives.”

Primary research sources are the building blocks to help us better understand and appreciate history. It is critical to find as many primary sources from as many perspectives as possible. Researching these firsthand accounts can provide evidence that helps answer those “what”, “how”, and “why” questions about the past, Ulbrich says.

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources are materials—such as books, articles, essays, and documentaries—gathered and interpreted by other researchers. These sources often provide updates and evaluation of the thesis topic or viewpoints that support the theories presented in the thesis.

Primary and secondary sources are complementary types of research that form a convincing foundation for a thesis’ main points.

How to Write a History Thesis

What are the steps to write a history thesis? The process of developing a thesis that provides a thorough analysis of a historical event—and presents academically defensible arguments related to that analysis—includes the following:

1. Gather and Analyze Sources

When collecting sources to use in a thesis, students should analyze them to ensure they demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the materials. A student should evaluate the attributes of sources such as their origin and point-of-view.

An array of primary and secondary sources can help provide a thorough understanding of a historical event, although some of those sources may include conflicting views and details. In those cases, the American Historical Association says, it’s up to the thesis author to determine which source reflects the appropriate point-of-view.

2. Develop a Thesis Statement

To create a thesis statement, a student should establish a specific idea or theory that makes the main point about a historical event. Scribbr, an editing website, recommends starting with a working thesis, asking the question the thesis intends to answer, and, then, writing the answer.

The final version of a thesis statement might be argumentative, for example, taking a side in a debate. Or it might be expository, explaining a historical situation. In addition to being concise and coherent, a thesis statement should be contentious, meaning it requires evidence to support it.

3. Create an Outline

Developing a thesis requires an outline of the content that will support the thesis statement. Students should keep in mind the following key steps in creating their outline:

• Note major points.
• Categorize ideas supported by the theories.
• Arrange points according to the importance and a timeline of events addressed by the thesis.
• Create effective headings and subheadings.
• Format the outline.

4. Organize Information

Thesis authors should ensure their content follows a logical order. This may entail coding resource materials to help match them to the appropriate theories while organizing the information. A thesis typically contains the following elements.

• Abstract —Overview of the thesis.
• Introduction —Summary of the thesis’ main points.
• Literature review —Explanation of the gap in previous research addressed by this thesis.
• Methods —Outline how the author reviewed the research and why materials were selected.
• Results —Description of the research findings.
• Discussion —Analysis of the research.
• Conclusion —Statements about what the student learned.

5. Write the Thesis

Online writing guide Paperpile recommends that students start with the literature review when writing the thesis. Developing this section first will help the author gain a more complete understanding of the thesis’ source materials. Writing the abstract last can give the student a thorough picture of the work the abstract should describe.

The discussion portion of the thesis typically is the longest since it’s here that the writer will explain the limitations of the work, offer explanations of any unexpected results, and cite remaining questions about the topic.

In writing the thesis, the author should keep in mind that the document will require multiple changes and drafts—perhaps even new insights. A student should gather feedback from a professor and colleagues to ensure their thesis is clear and effective before finalizing the draft.      

6. Prepare to Defend the Thesis

A committee will evaluate the student’s defense of the thesis’ theories. Students should prepare to defend their thesis by considering answers to questions posed by the committee. Additionally, students should develop a plan for addressing questions to which they may not have a ready answer, understanding the evaluation likely will consider how the author handles that challenge.

Developing Skills to Write a Compelling History Thesis

When looking for direction on how to write a history thesis, Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History program can provide the needed skills and knowledge. The program’s tracks and several courses—taken as core classes or as electives in multiple concentrations—can provide a strong foundation for thesis work.

Master of Arts in History Tracks

In the Norwich online Master of Arts in History program, respected scholars help students improve their historical insight, research, writing, analytical, and presentation skills. They teach the following program tracks.

• Public History —Focuses on the preservation and interpretation of historic documents and artifacts for purposes of public observation.
• American History —Emphasizes the exploration and interpretation of key events associated with U.S. history.
• World History —Prepares students to develop an in-depth understanding of world history from various eras.
• Legal and Constitutional History —Provides a thorough study of the foundational legal and constitutional elements in the U.S. and Europe.

Master of Arts in History Courses

Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History program enables students to customize studies based on career goals and personal interests through the following courses:

• Introduction to History and Historiography —Covers the core concepts of history-based study and research methodology, highlighting how these concepts are essential to developing an effective history thesis.
• Directed Readings in History —Highlights different ways to use sources that chronicle American history to assist in researching and writing a thorough and complete history thesis.
• Race, Gender, and U.S. Constitution —Explores key U.S. Supreme Court decisions relating to national race and gender relations and rights, providing a deeper context to develop compelling history theses.
• Archival Studies —Breaks down the importance of systematically overseeing archival materials, highlighting how to build historical context to better educate and engage with the public.

Start Your Path Toward Writing a Compelling History Thesis

For over two centuries, Norwich University has played a vital role in history as America’s first private military college and the birthplace of the ROTC. As such, the university is uniquely positioned to lead students through a comprehensive analysis of the major developments, events, and figures of the past.

Explore Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History program. Start your path toward writing a compelling history thesis and taking your talents further.

Writing History: An Introductory Guide to How History Is Produced , American Historical Association     How to Write a Thesis Statement , Scribbr     The Importance of Historic Context in Analysis and Interpretation , ThoughtCo.     7 Reasons Why Research Is Important , Owlcation     Primary and Secondary Sources , Scribbr     Secondary Sources in Research , ThoughtCo.     Analysis of Sources , History Skills     Research Paper Outline , Scribbr     How to Structure a Thesis , Paperpile     Writing Your Final Draft , History Skills     How to Prepare an Excellent Thesis Defense , Paperpile

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Research Methods for History

• Lucy Faire and Simon Gunn
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• Language: English
• Publisher: Edinburgh University Press
• Copyright year: 2016
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• Keywords: History
• Published: July 8, 2016
• ISBN: 9781474408745

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Resources for My Subject

History: writing a history dissertation.

• Writing a History Dissertation
• Referencing and Style Guide
• Literature Search Plan
• American History

Starting a Literature Search

Conducting a literature search is a great way to find a viable topic and plan your research. It will also give you the opportunity to look for primary and secondary resources that can support the arguments you make in your dissertation. 

Starting your literature search early will help you plan your dissertation and give you an overview of all the resources you might want to consult. Below are examples of how you can start this process and how they can help.

Dissertation Books

Define your Topic

Start your search by identifying a broad subject area, such as a country, period, theme or person. You might do this by looking at reference works, such as a Very Short Introduction , Cambridge Histories , or Oxford Handbooks . These books will give you an insight into the many areas you can investigate in greater depth and they will also provide references to peer-reviewed material on more defined topics. 

Next , look at material which focuses more on the area you have identified from reference works. These might be books, chapters or articles which focus on a more defined area of the subject you have identified. Use these to formulate questions that you can answer in your research.

Then ,  read resources that will help you form your argument and answer the questions you have set. This material should focus on the topic you have chosen and help you explain what has been written on this area before.

Search for Secondary Resources

In order to successfully search for resources relevant to your study, you will need to use search-terms which will retrieve the best results. The tips below will help you do this:

Terms you have found in your reading

Keep a note of terms you have seen when you have been identifying your topic. This could be anything relevant your topic, including: places, people, jobs, religions, institutions, objects, periods, or events. Also, take note of terms that are related to your topic and had an impact on the area you are studying. Write down all the terms which relate to your topic and note which ones provide the most relevant results.

It can also be useful to keep a note of what you are not looking at so that you stay focused on your topic and do not retrieve too many results.

Authors who are written about the topic

You will start to notice that some authors are mentioned as specialists on the topic you are researching. Search a variety of catalogues to find what they have written on the subject in different formats. They might have contributed to edited works, written articles, given presentations to conferences or annotated works. They also might lead you to others who have written about your topic or research groups which are relevant to your studies.

Use subject searches

Most secondary resources have been indexed according to their subject. Through using these subject terms you can search catalogues more efficiently and find relevant resources without just searching the title or author. 

If you find a useful resources, try looking at its catalogue record. See if any of the subject headings look useful and note what terminology they use as this will be consistent across most databases. When you have found a useful term, copy and paste it into a subject search (or select the link) and see what other resources are available.

You can also use an online thesaurus to find search terms. The most commonly used terms are the Library of Congress Subject Headings  which provide uniform terms across international databases.

Use databases

The University subscribes to many databases that focus on different countries and topics. These will provide a comprehensive guide to what has been written in your area and may use different subject headings. Reference databases and bibliographies can be especially useful for finding citations of everything that has been written on a certain area of history. Biographical databases can also help find information about individuals and institutions. For a complete list of all the databases the University subscribes to, look at the A-Z of databases . 

Search for Primary Resources

There are plenty of primary resources that can be used in your dissertation. The University subscribes to many databases that provide access to primary resources and some of our libraries hold special collections which can be used in your research. Below are some examples:

The University subscribes to many newspapers from the past and present. They can be a really useful tool for finding contemporary accounts of events and provide more than just articles (including: advertisements, illustrations, family notices, sports, arts, court cases). Many newspaper databases will also include related content, such as pamphlets and newsbooks.

The University Library has a collection of print newspapers which can be consulted on site. The University also subscribes to electronic databases of national and local newspapers across the world. More information about the newspaper databases we subscribe to is available on our  dedicated website .

Special Collection Material

Many libraries and archives provide access to rare, unique and specialised collections of books and manuscripts. The University Library, for example, provides access to Manuscripts and Rare Books Departments , as do some of the colleges. Some of the more frequently used and important material is also available as part of an online library, such as Cambridge's CUDL .

Official Publications (Government Documents)

Documents produced by governmental and intergovernmental bodies can provide an insight into their decision making and governance. Several libraries in Cambridge have received official publications material and a lot of material is now available online. More information about the official material in Cambridge libraries is available on our Official Publications LibGuide .

Data and Statistics

Figures can be used to help illustrate a point and provide evidence as you answer the central question in your dissertation. You might chose to refer to census data, crime statistics, trade figures, or any other data set that relates to your area of history. This sort of information can be found in databases and replicated in secondary resources. 

Private Papers

If you are researching an individual (or someone who played a prominent role in the area you are focusing on) it is a good idea to see if they have deposited private papers in an archive. These might includes diaries, letters, draft works, or anything else that was kept and not published. These works are normally kept in an archive, so a good starting point is to look at a catalogue that might show where relevant papers are held (such as Archives Hub )

These can include maps, cartoons, paintings and photographs. Images are available both in print and online, but you need to be cautious of the copyright restrictions of images before you use them (check the information given by the source). Some databases will allow you to search images, like ARTstor , so use them as a good starting point for your search. 

Audio-Visual

Similarly to images, the University provides access to a variety of audio-visual resources, including interviews, recordings, radio and films. If there is a particular DVD you would like to use, try searching the title in iDiscover. For example, " Interviews with Historians " will take you to a comprehensive collection of DVDs available at the Seeley. Many films are also available online, such as British Pathe .

Organise and Save Your Research

You will be able to do a comprehensive and efficient literature search if you keep a record of what you have read, where you read it and what each item means to your research. The best way to achieve this is to:

1. Record the key ideas, themes and quotes from what you have read. Try to find a uniform way to do this as it will make it easier to find information when you come to write your dissertation. Some formats are freely available on the internet, such as the Cornell Note Taking System .

2. Save citations you have looked at so you do not struggle to find them again. Also, this will help you when you come to do your references. There are many reference managers available to help you store this information and create a fully formatted bibliography.

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A Step-by-Step Guide to Doing Historical Research [without getting hysterical!] In addition to being a scholarly investigation, research is a social activity intended to create new knowledge. Historical research is your informed response to the questions that you ask while examining the record of human experience. These questions may concern such elements as looking at an event or topic, examining events that lead to the event in question, social influences, key players, and other contextual information. This step-by-step guide progresses from an introduction to historical resources to information about how to identify a topic, craft a thesis and develop a research paper. Table of contents: The Range and Richness of Historical Sources Secondary Sources Primary Sources Historical Analysis What is it? Who, When, Where, What and Why: The Five "W"s Topic, Thesis, Sources Definition of Terms Choose a Topic Craft a Thesis Evaluate Thesis and Sources A Variety of Information Sources Take Efficient Notes Note Cards Thinking, Organizing, Researching Parenthetical Documentation Prepare a Works Cited Page Drafting, Revising, Rewriting, Rethinking For Further Reading: Works Cited Additional Links So you want to study history?! Tons of help and links Slatta Home Page Use the Writing and other links on the lefhand menu I. The Range and Richness of Historical Sources Back to Top Every period leaves traces, what historians call "sources" or evidence. Some are more credible or carry more weight than others; judging the differences is a vital skill developed by good historians. Sources vary in perspective, so knowing who created the information you are examining is vital. Anonymous doesn't make for a very compelling source. For example, an FBI report on the antiwar movement, prepared for U.S. President Richard Nixon, probably contained secrets that at the time were thought to have affected national security. It would not be usual, however, for a journalist's article about a campus riot, featured in a local newspaper, to leak top secret information. Which source would you read? It depends on your research topic. If you're studying how government officials portrayed student activists, you'll want to read the FBI report and many more documents from other government agencies such as the CIA and the National Security Council. If you're investigating contemporary opinion of pro-war and anti-war activists, local newspaper accounts provide a rich resource. You'd want to read a variety of newspapers to ensure you're covering a wide range of opinions (rural/urban, left/right, North/South, Soldier/Draft-dodger, etc). Historians classify sources into two major categories: primary and secondary sources. Secondary Sources Back to Top Definition: Secondary sources are created by someone who was either not present when the event occurred or removed from it in time. We use secondary sources for overview information, to familiarize ourselves with a topic, and compare that topic with other events in history. In refining a research topic, we often begin with secondary sources. This helps us identify gaps or conflicts in the existing scholarly literature that might prove promsing topics. Types: History books, encyclopedias, historical dictionaries, and academic (scholarly) articles are secondary sources. To help you determine the status of a given secondary source, see How to identify and nagivate scholarly literature . Examples: Historian Marilyn Young's (NYU) book about the Vietnam War is a secondary source. She did not participate in the war. Her study is not based on her personal experience but on the evidence she culled from a variety of sources she found in the United States and Vietnam. Primary Sources Back to Top Definition: Primary sources emanate from individuals or groups who participated in or witnessed an event and recorded that event during or immediately after the event. They include speeches, memoirs, diaries, letters, telegrams, emails, proclamations, government documents, and much more. Examples: A student activist during the war writing about protest activities has created a memoir. This would be a primary source because the information is based on her own involvement in the events she describes. Similarly, an antiwar speech is a primary source. So is the arrest record of student protesters. A newspaper editorial or article, reporting on a student demonstration is also a primary source. II. Historical Analysis What is it? Back to Top No matter what you read, whether it's a primary source or a secondary source, you want to know who authored the source (a trusted scholar? A controversial historian? A propagandist? A famous person? An ordinary individual?). "Author" refers to anyone who created information in any medium (film, sound, or text). You also need to know when it was written and the kind of audience the author intend to reach. You should also consider what you bring to the evidence that you examine. Are you inductively following a path of evidence, developing your interpretation based on the sources? Do you have an ax to grind? Did you begin your research deductively, with your mind made up before even seeing the evidence. Historians need to avoid the latter and emulate the former. To read more about the distinction, examine the difference between Intellectual Inquirers and Partisan Ideologues . In the study of history, perspective is everything. A letter written by a twenty- year old Vietnam War protestor will differ greatly from a letter written by a scholar of protest movements. Although the sentiment might be the same, the perspective and influences of these two authors will be worlds apart. Practicing the " 5 Ws " will avoid the confusion of the authority trap. Who, When, Where, What and Why: The Five "W"s Back to Top Historians accumulate evidence (information, including facts, stories, interpretations, opinions, statements, reports, etc.) from a variety of sources (primary and secondary). They must also verify that certain key pieces of information are corroborated by a number of people and sources ("the predonderance of evidence"). The historian poses the " 5 Ws " to every piece of information he examines: Who is the historical actor? When did the event take place? Where did it occur? What did it entail and why did it happen the way it did? The " 5 Ws " can also be used to evaluate a primary source. Who authored the work? When was it created? Where was it created, published, and disseminated? Why was it written (the intended audience), and what is the document about (what points is the author making)? If you know the answers to these five questions, you can analyze any document, and any primary source. The historian doesn't look for the truth, since this presumes there is only one true story. The historian tries to understand a number of competing viewpoints to form his or her own interpretation-- what constitutes the best explanation of what happened and why. By using as wide a range of primary source documents and secondary sources as possible, you will add depth and richness to your historical analysis. The more exposure you, the researcher, have to a number of different sources and differing view points, the more you have a balanced and complete view about a topic in history. This view will spark more questions and ultimately lead you into the quest to unravel more clues about your topic. You are ready to start assembling information for your research paper. III. Topic, Thesis, Sources Definition of Terms Back to Top Because your purpose is to create new knowledge while recognizing those scholars whose existing work has helped you in this pursuit, you are honor bound never to commit the following academic sins: Plagiarism: Literally "kidnapping," involving the use of someone else's words as if they were your own (Gibaldi 6). To avoid plagiarism you must document direct quotations, paraphrases, and original ideas not your own. Recycling: Rehashing material you already know thoroughly or, without your professor's permission, submitting a paper that you have completed for another course. Premature cognitive commitment: Academic jargon for deciding on a thesis too soon and then seeking information to serve that thesis rather than embarking on a genuine search for new knowledge. Choose a Topic Back to Top "Do not hunt for subjects, let them choose you, not you them." --Samuel Butler Choosing a topic is the first step in the pursuit of a thesis. Below is a logical progression from topic to thesis: Close reading of the primary text, aided by secondary sources Growing awareness of interesting qualities within the primary text Choosing a topic for research Asking productive questions that help explore and evaluate a topic Creating a research hypothesis Revising and refining a hypothesis to form a working thesis First, and most important, identify what qualities in the primary or secondary source pique your imagination and curiosity and send you on a search for answers. Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive levels provides a description of productive questions asked by critical thinkers. While the lower levels (knowledge, comprehension) are necessary to a good history essay, aspire to the upper three levels (analysis, synthesis, evaluation). Skimming reference works such as encyclopedias, books, critical essays and periodical articles can help you choose a topic that evolves into a hypothesis, which in turn may lead to a thesis. One approach to skimming involves reading the first paragraph of a secondary source to locate and evaluate the author's thesis. Then for a general idea of the work's organization and major ideas read the first and last sentence of each paragraph. Read the conclusion carefully, as it usually presents a summary (Barnet and Bedau 19). Craft a Thesis Back to Top Very often a chosen topic is too broad for focused research. You must revise it until you have a working hypothesis, that is, a statement of an idea or an approach with respect to the source that could form the basis for your thesis. Remember to not commit too soon to any one hypothesis. Use it as a divining rod or a first step that will take you to new information that may inspire you to revise your hypothesis. Be flexible. Give yourself time to explore possibilities. The hypothesis you create will mature and shift as you write and rewrite your paper. New questions will send you back to old and on to new material. Remember, this is the nature of research--it is more a spiraling or iterative activity than a linear one. Test your working hypothesis to be sure it is: broad enough to promise a variety of resources. narrow enough for you to research in depth. original enough to interest you and your readers. worthwhile enough to offer information and insights of substance "do-able"--sources are available to complete the research. Now it is time to craft your thesis, your revised and refined hypothesis. A thesis is a declarative sentence that: focuses on one well-defined idea makes an arguable assertion; it is capable of being supported prepares your readers for the body of your paper and foreshadows the conclusion. Evaluate Thesis and Sources Back to Top Like your hypothesis, your thesis is not carved in stone. You are in charge. If necessary, revise it during the research process. As you research, continue to evaluate both your thesis for practicality, originality, and promise as a search tool, and secondary sources for relevance and scholarliness. The following are questions to ask during the research process: Are there many journal articles and entire books devoted to the thesis, suggesting that the subject has been covered so thoroughly that there may be nothing new to say? Does the thesis lead to stimulating, new insights? Are appropriate sources available? Is there a variety of sources available so that the bibliography or works cited page will reflect different kinds of sources? Which sources are too broad for my thesis? Which resources are too narrow? Who is the author of the secondary source? Does the critic's background suggest that he/she is qualified? After crafting a thesis, consider one of the following two approaches to writing a research paper: Excited about your thesis and eager to begin? Return to the primary or secondary source to find support for your thesis. Organize ideas and begin writing your first draft. After writing the first draft, have it reviewed by your peers and your instructor. Ponder their suggestions and return to the sources to answer still-open questions. Document facts and opinions from secondary sources. Remember, secondary sources can never substitute for primary sources. Confused about where to start? Use your thesis to guide you to primary and secondary sources. Secondary sources can help you clarify your position and find a direction for your paper. Keep a working bibliography. You may not use all the sources you record, but you cannot be sure which ones you will eventually discard. Create a working outline as you research. This outline will, of course, change as you delve more deeply into your subject. A Variety of Information Sources Back to Top "A mind that is stretched to a new idea never returns to its original dimension." --Oliver Wendell Holmes Your thesis and your working outline are the primary compasses that will help you navigate the variety of sources available. In "Introduction to the Library" (5-6) the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers suggests you become familiar with the library you will be using by: taking a tour or enrolling for a brief introductory lecture referring to the library's publications describing its resources introducing yourself and your project to the reference librarian The MLA Handbook also lists guides for the use of libraries (5), including: Jean Key Gates, Guide to the Use of Libraries and Information Sources (7th ed., New York: McGraw, 1994). Thomas Mann, A Guide to Library Research Methods (New York: Oxford UP, 1987). Online Central Catalog Most libraries have their holdings listed on a computer. The online catalog may offer Internet sites, Web pages and databases that relate to the university's curriculum. It may also include academic journals and online reference books. Below are three search techniques commonly used online: Index Search: Although online catalogs may differ slightly from library to library, the most common listings are by: Subject Search: Enter the author's name for books and article written about the author. Author Search: Enter an author's name for works written by the author, including collections of essays the author may have written about his/her own works. Title Search: Enter a title for the screen to list all the books the library carries with that title. Key Word Search/Full-text Search: A one-word search, e.g., 'Kennedy,' will produce an overwhelming number of sources, as it will call up any entry that includes the name 'Kennedy.' To focus more narrowly on your subject, add one or more key words, e.g., "John Kennedy, Peace Corps." Use precise key words. Boolean Search: Boolean Search techniques use words such as "and," "or," and "not," which clarify the relationship between key words, thus narrowing the search. Take Efficient Notes Back to Top Keeping complete and accurate bibliography and note cards during the research process is a time (and sanity) saving practice. If you have ever needed a book or pages within a book, only to discover that an earlier researcher has failed to return it or torn pages from your source, you understand the need to take good notes. Every researcher has a favorite method for taking notes. Here are some suggestions-- customize one of them for your own use. Bibliography cards There may be far more books and articles listed than you have time to read, so be selective when choosing a reference. Take information from works that clearly relate to your thesis, remembering that you may not use them all. Use a smaller or a different color card from the one used for taking notes. Write a bibliography card for every source. Number the bibliography cards. On the note cards, use the number rather than the author's name and the title. It's faster. Another method for recording a working bibliography, of course, is to create your own database. Adding, removing, and alphabetizing titles is a simple process. Be sure to save often and to create a back-up file. A bibliography card should include all the information a reader needs to locate that particular source for further study. Most of the information required for a book entry (Gibaldi 112): Author's name Title of a part of the book [preface, chapter titles, etc.] Title of the book Name of the editor, translator, or compiler Edition used Number(s) of the volume(s) used Name of the series Place of publication, name of the publisher, and date of publication Page numbers Supplementary bibliographic information and annotations Most of the information required for an article in a periodical (Gibaldi 141): Author's name Title of the article Name of the periodical Series number or name (if relevant) Volume number (for a scholarly journal) Issue number (if needed) Date of publication Page numbers Supplementary information For information on how to cite other sources refer to your So you want to study history page . Note Cards Back to Top Take notes in ink on either uniform note cards (3x5, 4x6, etc.) or uniform slips of paper. Devote each note card to a single topic identified at the top. Write only on one side. Later, you may want to use the back to add notes or personal observations. Include a topical heading for each card. Include the number of the page(s) where you found the information. You will want the page number(s) later for documentation, and you may also want page number(s)to verify your notes. Most novice researchers write down too much. Condense. Abbreviate. You are striving for substance, not quantity. Quote directly from primary sources--but the "meat," not everything. Suggestions for condensing information: Summary: A summary is intended to provide the gist of an essay. Do not weave in the author's choice phrases. Read the information first and then condense the main points in your own words. This practice will help you avoid the copying that leads to plagiarism. Summarizing also helps you both analyze the text you are reading and evaluate its strengths and weaknesses (Barnet and Bedau 13). Outline: Use to identify a series of points. Paraphrase, except for key primary source quotations. Never quote directly from a secondary source, unless the precise wording is essential to your argument. Simplify the language and list the ideas in the same order. A paraphrase is as long as the original. Paraphrasing is helpful when you are struggling with a particularly difficult passage. Be sure to jot down your own insights or flashes of brilliance. Ralph Waldo Emerson warns you to "Look sharply after your thoughts. They come unlooked for, like a new bird seen on your trees, and, if you turn to your usual task, disappear...." To differentiate these insights from those of the source you are reading, initial them as your own. (When the following examples of note cards include the researcher's insights, they will be followed by the initials N. R.) When you have finished researching your thesis and you are ready to write your paper, organize your cards according to topic. Notecards make it easy to shuffle and organize your source information on a table-- or across the floor. Maintain your working outline that includes the note card headings and explores a logical order for presenting them in your paper. IV. Begin Thinking, Researching, Organizing Back to Top Don't be too sequential. Researching, writing, revising is a complex interactive process. Start writing as soon as possible! "The best antidote to writer's block is--to write." (Klauser 15). However, you still feel overwhelmed and are staring at a blank page, you are not alone. Many students find writing the first sentence to be the most daunting part of the entire research process. Be creative. Cluster (Rico 28-49). Clustering is a form of brainstorming. Sometimes called a web, the cluster forms a design that may suggest a natural organization for a paper. Here's a graphical depiction of brainstorming . Like a sun, the generating idea or topic lies at the center of the web. From it radiate words, phrases, sentences and images that in turn attract other words, phrases, sentences and images. Put another way--stay focused. Start with your outline. If clustering is not a technique that works for you, turn to the working outline you created during the research process. Use the outline view of your word processor. If you have not already done so, group your note cards according to topic headings. Compare them to your outline's major points. If necessary, change the outline to correspond with the headings on the note cards. If any area seems weak because of a scarcity of facts or opinions, return to your primary and/or secondary sources for more information or consider deleting that heading. Use your outline to provide balance in your essay. Each major topic should have approximately the same amount of information. Once you have written a working outline, consider two different methods for organizing it. Deduction: A process of development that moves from the general to the specific. You may use this approach to present your findings. However, as noted above, your research and interpretive process should be inductive. Deduction is the most commonly used form of organization for a research paper. The thesis statement is the generalization that leads to the specific support provided by primary and secondary sources. The thesis is stated early in the paper. The body of the paper then proceeds to provide the facts, examples, and analogies that flow logically from that thesis. The thesis contains key words that are reflected in the outline. These key words become a unifying element throughout the paper, as they reappear in the detailed paragraphs that support and develop the thesis. The conclusion of the paper circles back to the thesis, which is now far more meaningful because of the deductive development that supports it. Chronological order A process that follows a traditional time line or sequence of events. A chronological organization is useful for a paper that explores cause and effect. Parenthetical Documentation Back to Top The Works Cited page, a list of primary and secondary sources, is not sufficient documentation to acknowledge the ideas, facts, and opinions you have included within your text. The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers describes an efficient parenthetical style of documentation to be used within the body of your paper. Guidelines for parenthetical documentation: "References to the text must clearly point to specific sources in the list of works cited" (Gibaldi 184). Try to use parenthetical documentation as little as possible. For example, when you cite an entire work, it is preferable to include the author's name in the text. The author's last name followed by the page number is usually enough for an accurate identification of the source in the works cited list. These examples illustrate the most common kinds of documentation. Documenting a quotation: Ex. "The separation from the personal mother is a particularly intense process for a daughter because she has to separate from the one who is the same as herself" (Murdock 17). She may feel abandoned and angry. Note: The author of The Heroine's Journey is listed under Works Cited by the author's name, reversed--Murdock, Maureen. Quoted material is found on page 17 of that book. Parenthetical documentation is after the quotation mark and before the period. Documenting a paraphrase: Ex. In fairy tales a woman who holds the princess captive or who abandons her often needs to be killed (18). Note: The second paraphrase is also from Murdock's book The Heroine's Journey. It is not, however, necessary to repeat the author's name if no other documentation interrupts the two. If the works cited page lists more than one work by the same author, include within the parentheses an abbreviated form of the appropriate title. You may, of course, include the title in your sentence, making it unnecessary to add an abbreviated title in the citation. > Prepare a Works Cited Page Back to Top There are a variety of titles for the page that lists primary and secondary sources (Gibaldi 106-107). A Works Cited page lists those works you have cited within the body of your paper. The reader need only refer to it for the necessary information required for further independent research. Bibliography means literally a description of books. Because your research may involve the use of periodicals, films, art works, photographs, etc. "Works Cited" is a more precise descriptive term than bibliography. An Annotated Bibliography or Annotated Works Cited page offers brief critiques and descriptions of the works listed. A Works Consulted page lists those works you have used but not cited. Avoid using this format. As with other elements of a research paper there are specific guidelines for the placement and the appearance of the Works Cited page. The following guidelines comply with MLA style: The Work Cited page is placed at the end of your paper and numbered consecutively with the body of your paper. Center the title and place it one inch from the top of your page. Do not quote or underline the title. Double space the entire page, both within and between entries. The entries are arranged alphabetically by the author's last name or by the title of the article or book being cited. If the title begins with an article (a, an, the) alphabetize by the next word. If you cite two or more works by the same author, list the titles in alphabetical order. Begin every entry after the first with three hyphens followed by a period. All entries begin at the left margin but subsequent lines are indented five spaces. Be sure that each entry cited on the Works Cited page corresponds to a specific citation within your paper. Refer to the the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (104- 182) for detailed descriptions of Work Cited entries. Citing sources from online databases is a relatively new phenomenon. Make sure to ask your professor about citing these sources and which style to use. V. Draft, Revise, Rewrite, Rethink Back to Top "There are days when the result is so bad that no fewer than five revisions are required. In contrast, when I'm greatly inspired, only four revisions are needed." --John Kenneth Galbraith Try freewriting your first draft. Freewriting is a discovery process during which the writer freely explores a topic. Let your creative juices flow. In Writing without Teachers , Peter Elbow asserts that "[a]lmost everybody interposes a massive and complicated series of editings between the time words start to be born into consciousness and when they finally come off the end of the pencil or typewriter [or word processor] onto the page" (5). Do not let your internal judge interfere with this first draft. Creating and revising are two very different functions. Don't confuse them! If you stop to check spelling, punctuation, or grammar, you disrupt the flow of creative energy. Create; then fix it later. When material you have researched comes easily to mind, include it. Add a quick citation, one you can come back to later to check for form, and get on with your discovery. In subsequent drafts, focus on creating an essay that flows smoothly, supports fully, and speaks clearly and interestingly. Add style to substance. Create a smooth flow of words, ideas and paragraphs. Rearrange paragraphs for a logical progression of information. Transition is essential if you want your reader to follow you smoothly from introduction to conclusion. Transitional words and phrases stitch your ideas together; they provide coherence within the essay. External transition: Words and phrases that are added to a sentence as overt signs of transition are obvious and effective, but should not be overused, as they may draw attention to themselves and away from ideas. Examples of external transition are "however," "then," "next," "therefore." "first," "moreover," and "on the other hand." Internal transition is more subtle. Key words in the introduction become golden threads when they appear in the paper's body and conclusion. When the writer hears a key word repeated too often, however, she/he replaces it with a synonym or a pronoun. Below are examples of internal transition. Transitional sentences create a logical flow from paragraph to paragraph. Iclude individual words, phrases, or clauses that refer to previous ideas and that point ahead to new ones. They are usually placed at the end or at the beginning of a paragraph. A transitional paragraph conducts your reader from one part of the paper to another. It may be only a few sentences long. Each paragraph of the body of the paper should contain adequate support for its one governing idea. Speak/write clearly, in your own voice. Tone: The paper's tone, whether formal, ironic, or humorous, should be appropriate for the audience and the subject. Voice: Keep you language honest. Your paper should sound like you. Understand, paraphrase, absorb, and express in your own words the information you have researched. Avoid phony language. Sentence formation: When you polish your sentences, read them aloud for word choice and word placement. Be concise. Strunk and White in The Elements of Style advise the writer to "omit needless words" (23). First, however, you must recognize them. Keep yourself and your reader interested. In fact, Strunk's 1918 writing advice is still well worth pondering. First, deliver on your promises. Be sure the body of your paper fulfills the promise of the introduction. Avoid the obvious. Offer new insights. Reveal the unexpected. Have you crafted your conclusion as carefully as you have your introduction? Conclusions are not merely the repetition of your thesis. The conclusion of a research paper is a synthesis of the information presented in the body. Your research has led you to conclusions and opinions that have helped you understand your thesis more deeply and more clearly. Lift your reader to the full level of understanding that you have achieved. Revision means "to look again." Find a peer reader to read your paper with you present. Or, visit your college or university's writing lab. Guide your reader's responses by asking specific questions. Are you unsure of the logical order of your paragraphs? Do you want to know whether you have supported all opinions adequately? Are you concerned about punctuation or grammar? Ask that these issues be addressed. You are in charge. Here are some techniques that may prove helpful when you are revising alone or with a reader. When you edit for spelling errors read the sentences backwards. This procedure will help you look closely at individual words. Always read your paper aloud. Hearing your own words puts them in a new light. Listen to the flow of ideas and of language. Decide whether or not the voice sounds honest and the tone is appropriate to the purpose of the paper and to your audience. Listen for awkward or lumpy wording. Find the one right word, Eliminate needless words. Combine sentences. Kill the passive voice. Eliminate was/were/is/are constructions. They're lame and anti-historical. Be ruthless. If an idea doesn't serve your thesis, banish it, even if it's one of your favorite bits of prose. In the margins, write the major topic of each paragraph. By outlining after you have written the paper, you are once again evaluating your paper's organization. OK, you've got the process down. Now execute! And enjoy! It's not everyday that you get to make history. VI. For Further Reading: Works Cited Back to Top Barnet, Sylvan, and Hugo Bedau. Critical Thinking, Reading, and Writing: A Brief Guide to Argument. Boston: Bedford, 1993. Brent, Doug. Reading as Rhetorical Invention: Knowledge,Persuasion and the Teaching of Research-Based Writing. Urbana: NCTE, 1992. Elbow, Peter. Writing without Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. Gibladi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 4th ed. New York: Modern Language Association, 1995. Horvitz, Deborah. "Nameless Ghosts: Possession and Dispossession in Beloved." Studies in American Fiction , Vol. 17, No. 2, Autum, 1989, pp. 157-167. Republished in the Literature Research Center. Gale Group. (1 January 1999). Klauser, Henriette Anne. Writing on Both Sides of the Brain: Breakthrough Techniques for People Who Write. Philadelphia: Harper, 1986. Rico, Gabriele Lusser. Writing the Natural Way: Using Right Brain Techniques to Release Your Expressive Powers. Los Angeles: Houghton, 1983. Sorenson, Sharon. The Research Paper: A Contemporary Approach. New York: AMSCO, 1994. Strunk, William, Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 3rd ed. New York: MacMillan, 1979. Back to Top This guide adapted from materials published by Thomson Gale, publishers. For free resources, including a generic guide to writing term papers, see the Gale.com website , which also includes product information for schools.

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How to organise a history essay or dissertation

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Sachiko Kusukawa

There are many ways of writing history and no fixed formula for a 'good' essay or dissertation. Before you start, you may find it helpful to have a look at some sample dissertations and essays from the past: ask at the Whipple Library.

Some people have a clear idea already of what they are going to write about; others find it more difficult to choose or focus on a topic. It may be obvious, but it is worth pointing out that you should choose a topic you find interesting and engaging. Ask a potential supervisor for a list of appropriate readings, chase up any further sources that look interesting or promising from the footnotes, or seek further help. Try to define your topic as specifically as possible as soon as possible. Sometimes, it helps to formulate a question (in the spirit of a Tripos question), which could then be developed, refined, or re-formulated. A good topic should allow you to engage closely with a primary source (text, image, object, etc.) and develop a historiographical point – e.g. adding to, or qualifying historians' current debates or received opinion on the topic. Specific controversies (either historically or historiographically) are often a great place to start looking. Many dissertations and essays turn out to be overambitious in scope, but underambition is a rare defect!

Both essays and dissertations have an introduction and a conclusion . Between the introduction and the conclusion there is an argument or narrative (or mixture of argument and narrative).

An introduction introduces your topic, giving reasons why it is interesting and anticipating (in order) the steps of your argument. Hence many find that it is a good idea to write the introduction last. A conclusion summarises your arguments and claims. This is also the place to draw out the implications of your claims; and remember that it is often appropriate to indicate in your conclusion further profitable lines of research, inquiry, speculation, etc.

An argument or narrative should be coherent and presented in order. Divide your text into paragraphs which make clear points. Paragraphs should be ordered so that they are easy to follow. Always give reasons for your assertions and assessments: simply stating that something or somebody is right or wrong does not constitute an argument. When you describe or narrate an event, spell out why it is important for your overall argument. Put in chapter or section headings whenever you make a major new step in your argument of narrative.

It is a very good idea to include relevant pictures and diagrams . These should be captioned, and their relevance should be fully explained. If images are taken from a source, this should be included in the captions or list of illustrations.

The extent to which it is appropriate to use direct quotations varies according to topic and approach. Always make it clear why each quotation is pertinent to your argument. If you quote from non-English sources say if the translation is your own; if it isn't give the source. At least in the case of primary sources include the original in a note if it is your own translation, or if the precise details of wording are important. Check your quotations for accuracy. If there is archaic spelling make sure it isn't eliminated by a spell-check. Don't use words without knowing what they mean.

An essay or a dissertation has three components: the main text , the notes , and the bibliography .

The main text is where you put in the substance of your argument, and is meant to be longer than the notes. For quotes from elsewhere, up to about thirty words, use quotation marks ("...", or '...'). If you quote anything longer, it is better to indent the whole quotation without quotation marks.

Notes may either be at the bottom of the page (footnotes) or at the end of the main text, but before the bibliography (endnotes). Use notes for references and other supplementary material which does not constitute the substance of your argument. Whenever you quote directly from other works, you must give the exact reference in your notes. A reference means the exact location in a book or article which you have read , so that others can find it also – it should include author, title of the book, place and date of publication, page number. (There are many different ways to refer to scholarly works: see below.) . If you cite a primary source from a secondary source and you yourself have not read or checked the primary source, you must acknowledge the secondary source from which the citation was taken. Whenever you paraphrase material from somebody else's work, you must acknowledge that fact. There is no excuse for plagiarism. It is important to note that generous and full acknowledgement of the work of others does not undermine your originality.

Your bibliography must contain all the books and articles you have referred to (do not include works that you did not use). It lists works alphabetically by the last name of the author. There are different conventions to set out a bibliography, but at the very least a bibliographic entry should include for a book the last name and initials/first name of the author, the title of the book in italics or underlined, and the place, (publisher optional) and date of publication; or, for an article, the last name and initials/first name of the author, the title in inverted commas, and the name of the journal in italics or underlined, followed by volume number, date of publication, and page numbers. Names of editors of volumes of collected articles and names of translators should also be included, whenever applicable.

• M. MacDonald, Mystical Bedlam: Madness, Anxiety, and Healing in Seventeenth-Century England , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
• William Clark, 'Narratology and the History of Science', Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 26 (1995), 1–72.
• M. F. Burnyeat, 'The Sceptic in His Place and Time', in R. Rorty, J. B. Schneewind and Q. Skinner (eds), Philosophy in History , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984, pp. 225–54.

Alternatively, if you have many works to refer to, it may be easier to use an author-date system in notes, e.g.:

• MacDonald [1981], p. 89; Clark [1995a], p. 65; Clark [1995b], pp. 19–99.

In this case your bibliography should also start with the author-date, e.g.:

• MacDonald, Michael [1981], Mystical Bedlam: Madness, Anxiety, and Healing in Seventeenth-Century England , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Clark, William [1995a], 'Narratology and the History of Science', Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 26, 1–72.

This system has the advantage of making your foot- or endnotes shorter, and many choose it to save words (the bibliography is not included in the word limit). It is the system commonly used in scientific publications. Many feel however that something is historically amiss when you find in a footnote something like 'Plato [1996b]' or 'Locke [1975]'. In some fields of research there are standard systems of reference: you will find that this is the case if, for example, you write an essay/dissertation on classical history or philosophy of science. In such cases it is a good idea to take a standard secondary source as your model (e.g. in the case of classics, see G.E.R. Lloyd's The Revolutions of Wisdom: Studies in the Claims and Practices of Ancient Greek Science , Berkeley 1987).

Whatever system you decide to follow for your footnotes, what matters most is that the end-product is consistent.

Keep accurate records of all the relevant bibliographic information as you do your reading for your essay/dissertation. (If you don't you may waste days trying to trace references when you are close to submission deadlines.)

Consistency of style throughout the essay/dissertation is encouraged. There are many professional guides to thesis writing which give you more information on the style and format of theses – for example the MLS handbook (British) and the Chicago Manual of Style (American), both in the Whipple, and a booklet, H. Teitelbaum, How to Write a Thesis: A Guide to the Research Paper , 3rd ed., 126 pp., New York: Macmillan (& Arco), 1994 (in the UL: 1996.8.2620). But don't try to follow everything they say!

Every now and then you should read through a printout of your whole essay/dissertation, to ensure that your argument flows throughout the piece: otherwise there is a danger that your arguments become compartmentalised to the size of the screen. When reading drafts, ask yourself if it would be comprehensible to an intelligent reader who was not an expert on the specific topic.

It is imperative that you save your work on disk regularly – never be caught out without a back-up.

Before you submit:

• remember to run a spell-check (and remember that a spell check will not notice if you have written, for example, 'pheasant' instead of 'peasant', or, even trickier, 'for' instead of 'from', 'it' instead of 'is', etc.);
• prepare a table of contents, with titles for each chapter of your essay/dissertation, page numbers and all;
• prepare a cover page with the title, your name and college;
• prepare a page with the required statement about length, originality etc.

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How To Write The Methodology Chapter

The what, why & how explained simply (with examples).

By: Jenna Crossley (PhD) | Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | September 2021 (Updated April 2023)

So, you’ve pinned down your research topic and undertaken a review of the literature – now it’s time to write up the methodology section of your dissertation, thesis or research paper . But what exactly is the methodology chapter all about – and how do you go about writing one? In this post, we’ll unpack the topic, step by step .

Overview: The Methodology Chapter

• The purpose  of the methodology chapter
• Why you need to craft this chapter (really) well
• How to write and structure the chapter
• Methodology chapter example
• Essential takeaways

What (exactly) is the methodology chapter?

The methodology chapter is where you outline the philosophical underpinnings of your research and outline the specific methodological choices you’ve made. The point of the methodology chapter is to tell the reader exactly how you designed your study and, just as importantly, why you did it this way.

Importantly, this chapter should comprehensively describe and justify all the methodological choices you made in your study. For example, the approach you took to your research (i.e., qualitative, quantitative or mixed), who  you collected data from (i.e., your sampling strategy), how you collected your data and, of course, how you analysed it. If that sounds a little intimidating, don’t worry – we’ll explain all these methodological choices in this post .

Why is the methodology chapter important?

The methodology chapter plays two important roles in your dissertation or thesis:

Firstly, it demonstrates your understanding of research theory, which is what earns you marks. A flawed research design or methodology would mean flawed results. So, this chapter is vital as it allows you to show the marker that you know what you’re doing and that your results are credible .

Secondly, the methodology chapter is what helps to make your study replicable. In other words, it allows other researchers to undertake your study using the same methodological approach, and compare their findings to yours. This is very important within academic research, as each study builds on previous studies.

The methodology chapter is also important in that it allows you to identify and discuss any methodological issues or problems you encountered (i.e., research limitations ), and to explain how you mitigated the impacts of these. Every research project has its limitations , so it’s important to acknowledge these openly and highlight your study’s value despite its limitations . Doing so demonstrates your understanding of research design, which will earn you marks. We’ll discuss limitations in a bit more detail later in this post, so stay tuned!

Need a helping hand?

How to write up the methodology chapter

First off, it’s worth noting that the exact structure and contents of the methodology chapter will vary depending on the field of research (e.g., humanities, chemistry or engineering) as well as the university . So, be sure to always check the guidelines provided by your institution for clarity and, if possible, review past dissertations from your university. Here we’re going to discuss a generic structure for a methodology chapter typically found in the sciences.

Before you start writing, it’s always a good idea to draw up a rough outline to guide your writing. Don’t just start writing without knowing what you’ll discuss where. If you do, you’ll likely end up with a disjointed, ill-flowing narrative . You’ll then waste a lot of time rewriting in an attempt to try to stitch all the pieces together. Do yourself a favour and start with the end in mind .

Section 1 – Introduction

As with all chapters in your dissertation or thesis, the methodology chapter should have a brief introduction. In this section, you should remind your readers what the focus of your study is, especially the research aims . As we’ve discussed many times on the blog, your methodology needs to align with your research aims, objectives and research questions. Therefore, it’s useful to frontload this component to remind the reader (and yourself!) what you’re trying to achieve.

In this section, you can also briefly mention how you’ll structure the chapter. This will help orient the reader and provide a bit of a roadmap so that they know what to expect. You don’t need a lot of detail here – just a brief outline will do.

Section 2 – The Methodology

The next section of your chapter is where you’ll present the actual methodology. In this section, you need to detail and justify the key methodological choices you’ve made in a logical, intuitive fashion. Importantly, this is the heart of your methodology chapter, so you need to get specific – don’t hold back on the details here. This is not one of those “less is more” situations.

Let’s take a look at the most common components you’ll likely need to cover. 

Methodological Choice #1 – Research Philosophy

Research philosophy refers to the underlying beliefs (i.e., the worldview) regarding how data about a phenomenon should be gathered , analysed and used . The research philosophy will serve as the core of your study and underpin all of the other research design choices, so it’s critically important that you understand which philosophy you’ll adopt and why you made that choice. If you’re not clear on this, take the time to get clarity before you make any further methodological choices.

While several research philosophies exist, two commonly adopted ones are positivism and interpretivism . These two sit roughly on opposite sides of the research philosophy spectrum.

Positivism states that the researcher can observe reality objectively and that there is only one reality, which exists independently of the observer. As a consequence, it is quite commonly the underlying research philosophy in quantitative studies and is oftentimes the assumed philosophy in the physical sciences.

Contrasted with this, interpretivism , which is often the underlying research philosophy in qualitative studies, assumes that the researcher performs a role in observing the world around them and that reality is unique to each observer . In other words, reality is observed subjectively .

These are just two philosophies (there are many more), but they demonstrate significantly different approaches to research and have a significant impact on all the methodological choices. Therefore, it’s vital that you clearly outline and justify your research philosophy at the beginning of your methodology chapter, as it sets the scene for everything that follows.

Methodological Choice #2 – Research Type

The next thing you would typically discuss in your methodology section is the research type. The starting point for this is to indicate whether the research you conducted is inductive or deductive .

Inductive research takes a bottom-up approach , where the researcher begins with specific observations or data and then draws general conclusions or theories from those observations. Therefore these studies tend to be exploratory in terms of approach.

Conversely , d eductive research takes a top-down approach , where the researcher starts with a theory or hypothesis and then tests it using specific observations or data. Therefore these studies tend to be confirmatory in approach.

Related to this, you’ll need to indicate whether your study adopts a qualitative, quantitative or mixed  approach. As we’ve mentioned, there’s a strong link between this choice and your research philosophy, so make sure that your choices are tightly aligned . When you write this section up, remember to clearly justify your choices, as they form the foundation of your study.

Methodological Choice #3 – Research Strategy

Next, you’ll need to discuss your research strategy (also referred to as a research design ). This methodological choice refers to the broader strategy in terms of how you’ll conduct your research, based on the aims of your study.

Several research strategies exist, including experimental , case studies , ethnography , grounded theory, action research , and phenomenology . Let’s take a look at two of these, experimental and ethnographic, to see how they contrast.

Experimental research makes use of the scientific method , where one group is the control group (in which no variables are manipulated ) and another is the experimental group (in which a specific variable is manipulated). This type of research is undertaken under strict conditions in a controlled, artificial environment (e.g., a laboratory). By having firm control over the environment, experimental research typically allows the researcher to establish causation between variables. Therefore, it can be a good choice if you have research aims that involve identifying causal relationships.

Ethnographic research , on the other hand, involves observing and capturing the experiences and perceptions of participants in their natural environment (for example, at home or in the office). In other words, in an uncontrolled environment.  Naturally, this means that this research strategy would be far less suitable if your research aims involve identifying causation, but it would be very valuable if you’re looking to explore and examine a group culture, for example.

As you can see, the right research strategy will depend largely on your research aims and research questions – in other words, what you’re trying to figure out. Therefore, as with every other methodological choice, it’s essential to justify why you chose the research strategy you did.

Methodological Choice #4 – Time Horizon

The next thing you’ll need to detail in your methodology chapter is the time horizon. There are two options here: cross-sectional and longitudinal . In other words, whether the data for your study were all collected at one point in time (cross-sectional) or at multiple points in time (longitudinal).

The choice you make here depends again on your research aims, objectives and research questions. If, for example, you aim to assess how a specific group of people’s perspectives regarding a topic change over time , you’d likely adopt a longitudinal time horizon.

Another important factor to consider is simply whether you have the time necessary to adopt a longitudinal approach (which could involve collecting data over multiple months or even years). Oftentimes, the time pressures of your degree program will force your hand into adopting a cross-sectional time horizon, so keep this in mind.

Methodological Choice #5 – Sampling Strategy

Next, you’ll need to discuss your sampling strategy . There are two main categories of sampling, probability and non-probability sampling.

Probability sampling involves a random (and therefore representative) selection of participants from a population, whereas non-probability sampling entails selecting participants in a non-random  (and therefore non-representative) manner. For example, selecting participants based on ease of access (this is called a convenience sample).

The right sampling approach depends largely on what you’re trying to achieve in your study. Specifically, whether you trying to develop findings that are generalisable to a population or not. Practicalities and resource constraints also play a large role here, as it can oftentimes be challenging to gain access to a truly random sample. In the video below, we explore some of the most common sampling strategies.

Methodological Choice #6 – Data Collection Method

Next up, you’ll need to explain how you’ll go about collecting the necessary data for your study. Your data collection method (or methods) will depend on the type of data that you plan to collect – in other words, qualitative or quantitative data.

Typically, quantitative research relies on surveys , data generated by lab equipment, analytics software or existing datasets. Qualitative research, on the other hand, often makes use of collection methods such as interviews , focus groups , participant observations, and ethnography.

So, as you can see, there is a tight link between this section and the design choices you outlined in earlier sections. Strong alignment between these sections, as well as your research aims and questions is therefore very important.

Methodological Choice #7 – Data Analysis Methods/Techniques

The final major methodological choice that you need to address is that of analysis techniques . In other words, how you’ll go about analysing your date once you’ve collected it. Here it’s important to be very specific about your analysis methods and/or techniques – don’t leave any room for interpretation. Also, as with all choices in this chapter, you need to justify each choice you make.

What exactly you discuss here will depend largely on the type of study you’re conducting (i.e., qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods). For qualitative studies, common analysis methods include content analysis , thematic analysis and discourse analysis . In the video below, we explain each of these in plain language.

For quantitative studies, you’ll almost always make use of descriptive statistics , and in many cases, you’ll also use inferential statistical techniques (e.g., correlation and regression analysis). In the video below, we unpack some of the core concepts involved in descriptive and inferential statistics.

In this section of your methodology chapter, it’s also important to discuss how you prepared your data for analysis, and what software you used (if any). For example, quantitative data will often require some initial preparation such as removing duplicates or incomplete responses . Similarly, qualitative data will often require transcription and perhaps even translation. As always, remember to state both what you did and why you did it.

Section 3 – The Methodological Limitations

With the key methodological choices outlined and justified, the next step is to discuss the limitations of your design. No research methodology is perfect – there will always be trade-offs between the “ideal” methodology and what’s practical and viable, given your constraints. Therefore, this section of your methodology chapter is where you’ll discuss the trade-offs you had to make, and why these were justified given the context.

Methodological limitations can vary greatly from study to study, ranging from common issues such as time and budget constraints to issues of sample or selection bias . For example, you may find that you didn’t manage to draw in enough respondents to achieve the desired sample size (and therefore, statistically significant results), or your sample may be skewed heavily towards a certain demographic, thereby negatively impacting representativeness .

In this section, it’s important to be critical of the shortcomings of your study. There’s no use trying to hide them (your marker will be aware of them regardless). By being critical, you’ll demonstrate to your marker that you have a strong understanding of research theory, so don’t be shy here. At the same time, don’t beat your study to death . State the limitations, why these were justified, how you mitigated their impacts to the best degree possible, and how your study still provides value despite these limitations .

Section 4 – Concluding Summary

Finally, it’s time to wrap up the methodology chapter with a brief concluding summary. In this section, you’ll want to concisely summarise what you’ve presented in the chapter. Here, it can be a good idea to use a figure to summarise the key decisions, especially if your university recommends using a specific model (for example, Saunders’ Research Onion ).

Importantly, this section needs to be brief – a paragraph or two maximum (it’s a summary, after all). Also, make sure that when you write up your concluding summary, you include only what you’ve already discussed in your chapter; don’t add any new information.

Methodology Chapter Example

In the video below, we walk you through an example of a high-quality research methodology chapter from a dissertation. We also unpack our free methodology chapter template so that you can see how best to structure your chapter.

Wrapping Up

And there you have it – the methodology chapter in a nutshell. As we’ve mentioned, the exact contents and structure of this chapter can vary between universities , so be sure to check in with your institution before you start writing. If possible, try to find dissertations or theses from former students of your specific degree program – this will give you a strong indication of the expectations and norms when it comes to the methodology chapter (and all the other chapters!).

Also, remember the golden rule of the methodology chapter – justify every choice ! Make sure that you clearly explain the “why” for every “what”, and reference credible methodology textbooks or academic sources to back up your justifications.

If you need a helping hand with your research methodology (or any other component of your research), be sure to check out our private coaching service , where we hold your hand through every step of the research journey. Until next time, good luck!

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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• Dissertation
• What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips

What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips

Published on 25 February 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022.

Your research methodology discusses and explains the data collection and analysis methods you used in your research. A key part of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, the methodology chapter explains what you did and how you did it, allowing readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of your research.

It should include:

• The type of research you conducted
• How you collected and analysed your data
• Any tools or materials you used in the research
• Why you chose these methods
• Your methodology section should generally be written in the past tense .
• Academic style guides in your field may provide detailed guidelines on what to include for different types of studies.
• Your citation style might provide guidelines for your methodology section (e.g., an APA Style methods section ).

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Table of contents

How to write a research methodology, why is a methods section important, step 1: explain your methodological approach, step 2: describe your data collection methods, step 3: describe your analysis method, step 4: evaluate and justify the methodological choices you made, tips for writing a strong methodology chapter, frequently asked questions about methodology.

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Your methods section is your opportunity to share how you conducted your research and why you chose the methods you chose. It’s also the place to show that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated .

It gives your research legitimacy and situates it within your field, and also gives your readers a place to refer to if they have any questions or critiques in other sections.

You can start by introducing your overall approach to your research. You have two options here.

Option 1: Start with your “what”

What research problem or question did you investigate?

• Aim to describe the characteristics of something?
• Explore an under-researched topic?
• Establish a causal relationship?

And what type of data did you need to achieve this aim?

• Quantitative data , qualitative data , or a mix of both?
• Primary data collected yourself, or secondary data collected by someone else?
• Experimental data gathered by controlling and manipulating variables, or descriptive data gathered via observations?

Option 2: Start with your “why”

Depending on your discipline, you can also start with a discussion of the rationale and assumptions underpinning your methodology. In other words, why did you choose these methods for your study?

• Why is this the best way to answer your research question?
• Is this a standard methodology in your field, or does it require justification?
• Were there any ethical considerations involved in your choices?
• What are the criteria for validity and reliability in this type of research ?

Once you have introduced your reader to your methodological approach, you should share full details about your data collection methods .

Quantitative methods

In order to be considered generalisable, you should describe quantitative research methods in enough detail for another researcher to replicate your study.

Here, explain how you operationalised your concepts and measured your variables. Discuss your sampling method or inclusion/exclusion criteria, as well as any tools, procedures, and materials you used to gather your data.

Surveys Describe where, when, and how the survey was conducted.

• How did you design the questionnaire?
• What form did your questions take (e.g., multiple choice, Likert scale )?
• Were your surveys conducted in-person or virtually?
• What sampling method did you use to select participants?
• What was your sample size and response rate?

Experiments Share full details of the tools, techniques, and procedures you used to conduct your experiment.

• How did you design the experiment ?
• How did you recruit participants?
• How did you manipulate and measure the variables ?
• What tools did you use?

Existing data Explain how you gathered and selected the material (such as datasets or archival data) that you used in your analysis.

• Where did you source the material?
• How was the data originally produced?
• What criteria did you use to select material (e.g., date range)?

The survey consisted of 5 multiple-choice questions and 10 questions measured on a 7-point Likert scale.

The goal was to collect survey responses from 350 customers visiting the fitness apparel company’s brick-and-mortar location in Boston on 4–8 July 2022, between 11:00 and 15:00.

Here, a customer was defined as a person who had purchased a product from the company on the day they took the survey. Participants were given 5 minutes to fill in the survey anonymously. In total, 408 customers responded, but not all surveys were fully completed. Due to this, 371 survey results were included in the analysis.

Qualitative methods

In qualitative research , methods are often more flexible and subjective. For this reason, it’s crucial to robustly explain the methodology choices you made.

Be sure to discuss the criteria you used to select your data, the context in which your research was conducted, and the role you played in collecting your data (e.g., were you an active participant, or a passive observer?)

Interviews or focus groups Describe where, when, and how the interviews were conducted.

• How did you find and select participants?
• How many participants took part?
• What form did the interviews take ( structured , semi-structured , or unstructured )?
• How long were the interviews?
• How were they recorded?

Participant observation Describe where, when, and how you conducted the observation or ethnography .

• What group or community did you observe? How long did you spend there?
• How did you gain access to this group? What role did you play in the community?
• How long did you spend conducting the research? Where was it located?
• How did you record your data (e.g., audiovisual recordings, note-taking)?

Existing data Explain how you selected case study materials for your analysis.

• What type of materials did you analyse?
• How did you select them?

In order to gain better insight into possibilities for future improvement of the fitness shop’s product range, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 8 returning customers.

Here, a returning customer was defined as someone who usually bought products at least twice a week from the store.

Surveys were used to select participants. Interviews were conducted in a small office next to the cash register and lasted approximately 20 minutes each. Answers were recorded by note-taking, and seven interviews were also filmed with consent. One interviewee preferred not to be filmed.

Mixed methods

Mixed methods research combines quantitative and qualitative approaches. If a standalone quantitative or qualitative study is insufficient to answer your research question, mixed methods may be a good fit for you.

Mixed methods are less common than standalone analyses, largely because they require a great deal of effort to pull off successfully. If you choose to pursue mixed methods, it’s especially important to robustly justify your methods here.

Next, you should indicate how you processed and analysed your data. Avoid going into too much detail: you should not start introducing or discussing any of your results at this stage.

In quantitative research , your analysis will be based on numbers. In your methods section, you can include:

• How you prepared the data before analysing it (e.g., checking for missing data , removing outliers , transforming variables)
• Which software you used (e.g., SPSS, Stata or R)
• Which statistical tests you used (e.g., two-tailed t test , simple linear regression )

In qualitative research, your analysis will be based on language, images, and observations (often involving some form of textual analysis ).

Specific methods might include:

• Content analysis : Categorising and discussing the meaning of words, phrases and sentences
• Thematic analysis : Coding and closely examining the data to identify broad themes and patterns
• Discourse analysis : Studying communication and meaning in relation to their social context

Mixed methods combine the above two research methods, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches into one coherent analytical process.

Above all, your methodology section should clearly make the case for why you chose the methods you did. This is especially true if you did not take the most standard approach to your topic. In this case, discuss why other methods were not suitable for your objectives, and show how this approach contributes new knowledge or understanding.

In any case, it should be overwhelmingly clear to your reader that you set yourself up for success in terms of your methodology’s design. Show how your methods should lead to results that are valid and reliable, while leaving the analysis of the meaning, importance, and relevance of your results for your discussion section .

• Quantitative: Lab-based experiments cannot always accurately simulate real-life situations and behaviours, but they are effective for testing causal relationships between variables .
• Qualitative: Unstructured interviews usually produce results that cannot be generalised beyond the sample group , but they provide a more in-depth understanding of participants’ perceptions, motivations, and emotions.
• Mixed methods: Despite issues systematically comparing differing types of data, a solely quantitative study would not sufficiently incorporate the lived experience of each participant, while a solely qualitative study would be insufficiently generalisable.

Remember that your aim is not just to describe your methods, but to show how and why you applied them. Again, it’s critical to demonstrate that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated.

1. Focus on your objectives and research questions

The methodology section should clearly show why your methods suit your objectives  and convince the reader that you chose the best possible approach to answering your problem statement and research questions .

2. Cite relevant sources

Your methodology can be strengthened by referencing existing research in your field. This can help you to:

• Show that you followed established practice for your type of research
• Discuss how you decided on your approach by evaluating existing research
• Present a novel methodological approach to address a gap in the literature

3. Write for your audience

Consider how much information you need to give, and avoid getting too lengthy. If you are using methods that are standard for your discipline, you probably don’t need to give a lot of background or justification.

Regardless, your methodology should be a clear, well-structured text that makes an argument for your approach, not just a list of technical details and procedures.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research. Developing your methodology involves studying the research methods used in your field and the theories or principles that underpin them, in order to choose the approach that best matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyse data (e.g. interviews, experiments , surveys , statistical tests ).

In a dissertation or scientific paper, the methodology chapter or methods section comes after the introduction and before the results , discussion and conclusion .

Depending on the length and type of document, you might also include a literature review or theoretical framework before the methodology.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research.

For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

Statistical sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population. There are various sampling methods you can use to ensure that your sample is representative of the population as a whole.

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• Undergraduate
• Department News

Guide to Writing a Public History Thesis with a Public History Component

Nancy K. Berlage August, 2021

Table of Contents

Section 1: public history components.

• Section 2: Sample Theses and Approaches by Practice or Methods or Topica Area
• A. Component Option: Uses a Particular Methodological or Addresses a Public History Pratcie Area
• B. Component Option: Illuminates the ways in which the public comes to understand historical information or interacts with the past
• C. Component Option: Application of research or begins to develop application of research
• D. Component Option: Internship Continuation.

The thesis/article should incorporate a public history component. Types of components are categorized and described below, with accompanying examples.

The thesis should do at least one of the following:

• Demonstrate good knowledge and use of a particular methodology, public history practice area, or topic inherent to public history.
• Show evidence of knowledge of best practices as identified by methods course and/or professional organization.
• Discuss (briefly) the methodology used or practice area drawn upon to accomplish the aim of the thesis. Discussion might include the importance, history, legitimacy, or purpose of the methodology. This discussion is typically situated in the introduction. Discussion can also occur in the chapter or section that uses the methodology.)

A: Component Option: Uses a Particular Methodology or Addresses a Public History Practice Area

The public history program offers methods and practice field courses that can provide a frame for the thesis. The methods and practice areas can shape the whole thesis or chapters and sections can focus on application of the method to the topic.

The entire thesis/article does not need to be grounded in the methodology. For example, a thesis might draw on material culture or oral history methods in only one chapter/section.

Suggested Methods & Practice Areas

• Architectural History
• Community Engagement Cultural Landscapes

Cultural Resource Management

• Digital History
• Heritage Tourism
• Immediacy of Topic that has contemporary resonance and has potential for current impact Interpretation and Public Programming
• Local and Community History Material Culture
• Memory Studies Museum Practice Oral History Preservation
• Public History Administration of Historical or non-profit entities
• Diversity and Inclusion

B: Component Option: Illuminates the ways in which the public comes to understand historical information or interacts with the past

The thesis helps illuminate the ways in which a public comes to understand historical information or interacts with the past.

• Analysis of a park’s public programming on a particular topic and change over time.
• Analysis of the development of a local history society and what it chose to include or exclude from the narratives it promoted.

C: Component Option: Application of research or begins to develop application of research

Keeping questions about interpretation and ideas about practical applications of thesis research at the forefront can help develop competency in practice areas. It can open doors to careers and professional contacts. And it can provide a set of skills and knowledge that can be listed on the resume.

• Makes recommendations (typically in the last chapter or section), on how to engage the public on the historical findings of the thesis. Or, how to improve an existing presentation, e.g., at a park, museum, or site, on the topic examined by the thesis.
• Discusses specific suggestions for public outreach on the topic, perhaps through digital exhibit, museum, signage, community meetings, etc.
• Prepares pop-up exhibit and describes the process in a chapter or section.
• Develops suggestions for a preservation plan.
• Suggestions for future public programming and interpretive practices.
• Analyzes or develops a new interpretation of a landscape following appropriate methodology.
• Writes a grant proposal related to thesis findings –as a chapter or appendix.
• Writes text of an exhibit related to thesis findings—as a chapter.
• Suggests archival or records management practices in creating a new physical or on-line collection related to the topic and discussed the methodology and problems for doing so in the practice area.

D: Component Option: Internship Continuation

The topic and approach can develop out of an internship or project with a constituency, stakeholder, or community beyond the academy. The student continues and expands the project on their own, or they work with the organization to develop a product—to the extent the chair advises.

• A student who worked at a National Battlefield writes a thesis on how the National Park Service has interpreted that battle, paying attention to change over time.
• A student who helped collect oral histories for a site continues and elaborates the project in conducting, analyzing, curating additional oral histories.
• A student who assisted with an exhibit on the history of education at a local museum writes a thesis on how museums nationwide or locally interpret the history of education and then gives suggestions for improvement.
• A student who worked for a history museum in Austin writes about how the museum handled a controversy.
• A student who interned on the preservation of an adobe building writes a history of how Portland cement came to replace lime plaster as an outer coating on adobe buildings in the 1930s.
• A student who interned at a historic site conducts research and writes a comprehensive guide for new interpretations of subjects previously ignored by the site.
• A student who worked at a national historic site that included a Civil War battlefield writes on the significance of women soldiers in the Civil War and suggests public interpretation and/or programming.
• I student who interned at an archive writes a history of a topic based on an archival collection they processed.
• A student who wrote a history of a site for the National Park Service turns one chapter— based on original research on a hitherto unknown part of that history—into an article.

Section 2: Sample Theses and Approaches by Practice or Methods or Topical Area

Architecture, cultural landscapes, digital; spatial, heritage, tourism.

• Interpretation & Public Programming

Local History and Community History

Material culture, memory and film, military and public history.

• Military History and Cultural Landscape & CRM

Museums: Pop-up Exhibit

Music and application, oral history, preservation, race: public history and heritage, section ii: sample theses and approaches by practice or methods or topic area.

Theses were completed at leading public history programs and incorporate a public history component. Abstracts and hyperlinks.

• Mosley, Keneisha Diane. “ Volunteer Traditions: Neoclassical Architecture and Its Racial Impact on Fraternity and Sorority Houses at the University of Tennessee ,” 2021.
• Gamble, Bonnie L. " The Nashville and Chattanooga and St. Louis Railroad 1845-1880: preservation of a railroad landscape .” MTSU MA Thesis, 1993.
• Fredericks, Katelyn V. " Back to the land and all its beauty": managing cultural resources, natural resources, and wilderness on North Manitou Island, Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, Michigan ." MA Thesis, IUPUI, 2014.
• Ramsey, Ginger. " Cedars of Lebanon State Park: a preservation plan ." MA Thesis, MTSU,1999.
• Schneider, Sarah. “ Searching for Home at Château de la Guette and Beyond: Social and Spatial Dimensions of Jewish German and Austrian Children's and Spatial Dimensions of Jewish German and Austrian Children's Journey to Flee Nazi Persecution via Children's Homes in France .” MA Thesis, University of Central Florida, 2018.
• Laney, Mackenzie Elizabeth. “ Doing Digital History as a Public Historian: The Implications and Uses of the Growing Digital History Field For Public History .” BA Thesis, Central Florida University, 2018.
• Bailey, Heather. Hillbilly skits to Buford sticks: sustainable heritage tourism in Tennessee . MA Thesis, MTSU.
• McMahan, Andrew Wayne. “ Urgent and Necessary”: Tennesseans and Their Competing Visions of the Interstate System .
• Morrill, Benjamin. Public History and America's Pastime: The Use of History and Sports Heritage in Marketing and Community Relations in Minor League Baseball in Tennessee .
• O'Dell, Joey Lena. VULNERABILTY DURING COVID-19: AN ORAL HISTORY PROJECT .
• Stringer, Mary Kate. Enriching the Public History Dialogue: Effective Museum Education Programs for Audiences with Special Needs . MA Thesis, MTSU.

Interpretation & Public Programming

• Allison, David B. “ Entertaining the Public to Educate the Public at Conner Prairie: Prairietown 1975- 2006 ." IUPUI, MA Thesis, 2010.
• Akins, Martha D. " Implementation of heritage education at Historic Carnton Plantation ." MTSU MA Thesis, 2000.
• Highfield, Elaura. Public History and the Fractured Past: Colonial Williamsburg, the Usable Past, and the Concept of an American Identity . MA Thesis, MTSU, 2014.
• Andrews, Jenny. Public History to Public Policy: Using Historic Resources to Inform Park Interpretation and Community Preservation . MA Thesis, MTSU.
• Bailey, Heather L. “ Conflict and tension: saving the history of Middle Tennessee villages .” MTSU MA Thesis, 2005.
• Knight, Callie. Nashville Copts: Cultural Identity, Community Collaboration, and Cultural Institutions .
• Receveur, Garrett Wayne. “ Commemorating Indiana at the 1916 Statehood Centennial Celebrations: An Examination of the Memory of Colonization and its Lingering Effects on the Indiana State Park System .” IUPUI, MA Thesis, 2021.
• Wernicke, Rose. " The Farmland Opera House: culture, identity, and the corn contest ." IUPUI, MA Thesis, 2013.
• Badgley, Benjamin Joseph. " The making of a historical consciousness in Henry County, Indiana: a case study of the Henry County Historical Society, 1887-1950 .” IUPUI, MA Thesis.
• Abdallah, Jaryn Elizabeth. More to the Story: Historical Narratives and the African American Past in Maury County, Tennessee .
• Betterly, Richard. Using historic rural church cemeteries as a material culture resource in heritage education .
• Rainesalo, Timothy C. “ Senator Oliver P. Morton and Historical Memory of the Civil War and Reconstruction in Indiana .” IUPUI, MA Thesis.
• Kane, Alissa. “ Countering the Lost Cause: Examining Civil War Commemoration in Murfreesboro, Tennessee .” MA Thesis, MTSU.
• Haire, Stefanie Morgan. “ Memorialization of Forgotten Steps: Native American Participation in the American Civil War .” MA Thesis, MTSU.
• Jackson, Danielle. “ REPRESENTATIONS OF GENOCIDE: A CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF THE SCHOLARLY AND PUBLIC INTERPRETATIONS OF THE CONESTOGA MASSACRE .” MA Thesis, MTSU.
• Born, Jennifer D. “ A Survey of Indiana Military Monuments .” MA Thesis, IUPUI, 2000.
• Seager, Brenda Mary. “ Memory Retrieved: The Memorial for the Murdered Jews of Europe .” MA Thesis, IUPUI, 2004.
• Rainesalo, Timothy C. “ Senator Oliver P. Morton and Historical Memory of the Civil War and Reconstruction in Indiana .” MA Thesis, IUPUI.
• Rippel, Elena Marie. “ Festive expressions of ethnicity: national German-American festivals in Indianapolis at the turn of the twentieth century .” MA Thesis, IUPUI, 2014.
• Abercrombie, Brent S. " How America Remembers: Analysis of the Academic Interpretation and Public Memory of the Battle of Tippecanoe ." MA Thesis, IUPUI, 2011.
• Receveur, Garrett Wayne. “ Commemorating Indiana at the 1916 Statehood Centennial Celebrations: An Examination of the Memory of Colonization and its Lingering Effects on the Indiana State Park System .” MA Thesis, IUPUI, 2021.
• May, Cinda Ann. “ On Becoming a Valued Member of Society: The Childhood of Famous Americans Series and the Transmission of Americanism, 1932-1958 .” MA Thesis, IUPUI, 2005.
• Johnson, Nicholas K. “HBO and the Holocaust: conspiracy, the historical film, and public history at Wannsee .” MA Thesis, IUPUI, 2016.
• Mitchell, Amber N. " Playing patsy: film as public history and the image of enslaved African American women in post-civil rights era cinema .” IUPUI, MA Thesis, 2017.
• Savarino, Malia Dorothy. “ Historical Film and the Assassination of President Lincoln: The Prisoner of Shark Island (1936) and The Lincoln Conspiracy (1977) .” IUPUI, MA Thesis.
• Pfeiffer, David Michael. " From Revolutionary War heroes to navy cruisers: the role of public history and military history in Vincennes, Indiana ." MA Thesis, IUPUI, 2012.
• Hankins, Melanie Barbara. " Fort Benjamin Harrison: From Military Base to Indiana State Park ." MA Thesis, IUPUI, 2020.
• Jones, Amanda Christine. “ The Greatest Outrage: Military Park, Long Hospital, and Progressive Era Notions of Urban Space .” MA Thesis, IUPUI.
• Lynch, Doria Marie. “ The Labor Branch of the Office of Strategic Services: An Academic Study from a Public History Perspective .” MA Thesis, IUPUI.

Military History and Cultural Landscape & CRM

• Quigg, Gary Francis. “ JB-2: America's First Cruise Missile .” MA Thesis, IUPUI.
• Miller, Brittany L. A MECHANISM OF AMERICAN MUSEUM-BUILDING PHILANTHROPY, 1925-1970 .” IUPUI, MA Thesis, 2010.
• Wilson, Morgan Lee. " Threshing the Grain: Revealing the Lived Experience of a Late Nineteenth Century Hoosier Farm Woman to an Early Twenty First Century Audience ." MA Thesis IUPUI.
• Sproul, Kate. “ Interpreting Grassmere's Enslaved Community: Archaeological Approaches to Public History at the Nashville Zoo .” MA thesis, MTSU.
• Peterson, Erik C. " Playing, learning, and using music in early Middle Indiana ." MA Thesis, IUPUI, 2014.
• Crawford-Lackey, Katherine. “ PUBLIC PROTEST AS A CLAIM TO CITIZENSHIP: TWENTIETH-CENTURY OCCUPATIONS OF WASHINGTON, D.C. AND THEIR ROLE IN PUBLIC MEMORY .” MA Thesis, MTSU.
• Cole, Ashley Daniel. “ I WANTED TO BE JUST WHAT I WAS:” DOCUMENTING QUEER VOICES IN THE SOUTH .” MA Thesis, MTSU.
• Alley, Jesse L. " Buffalo Valley School: preservation and adaptive reuse in a rural Tennessee community . MTSU MA Thesis, 2011.
• Benac, David. “ Hoosiers, Timber, and Conservation: The Timber Industry's Role in Indiana's Conservation Movement, 1890 to 1920 .” IUPUI, MA Thesis
• Brady, Carolyn M. “ The Transformation of a Neighborhood: Ransom Place Historic District, Indianapolis, 1900-1920 .” MA Thesis, IUPUI .
• Holder, Laura Stewart. " Natchez Street then and now: the evolution and preservation of Franklin's historic African American neighborhood ." MTSU MA Thesis, 2005.
• Price, David L. " City planning and historic preservation in Nashville, Tennessee, 1931-1985 ." MTSU MA Thesis, 2005.
• Reichard, Ruth Diane. “I nfrastructure, Separation, and Inequality: The Streets of Indianapolis Between 1890 and 1930 .” IUPUI, MA Thesis.
• Ryan, Jordan B. " How Others Have Built": A Sketch of Indianapolis Construction and Demolition Patterns ." IUPUI, MA Thesis, 2018.
• Stewart, Taylor. True to Small Town Roots: A Case Study of Adaptive Reuse in Prattville, Alabama .
• Gautreau, Abigail Rose. The Past is Political: Race, Cultural Landscapes, and the Case for Community- Driven Heritage in Selma and South Africa . PhD Diss.

Writing the Undergraduate Thesis

  Your thesis is not something to be put off, but something to get started on early!

Daniel has just completed his  BA History and Politics at  Magdalen College . He is a disabled student and the first in his immediate family to go to university. Daniel is a Trustee of  Potential Plus UK , a Founding Ambassador and Expert Panel Member for  Zero Gravity , a  Sutton Trust Alumni Leadership Board Member  and a History Faculty Ambassador. Before coming to university, Daniel studied at a non-selective state school, and was a participant on the  UNIQ ,  Sutton Trust , and  Social Mobility Foundation  APP Reach programmes, as well as being part of the inaugural  Opportunity Oxford  cohort. Daniel is passionate about outreach and social mobility and ensuring all students have the best opportunity to succeed.

The undergraduate thesis is most probably the longest piece of writing you will have encountered but can be the most rewarding. It gives you the opportunity to follow your passions and conduct historical research that may have never been done before, in a new field or deepening understanding in an area you had already explored. Based on my recent experience here is my advice for how to put it all together:

Choosing a topic

You should begin thinking about this in the January of your second year. Most work on your thesis begins in Trinity (summer term) of your second year, so use Hilary (spring term) to brainstorm what you want to write about. Reflect on which bits of the History degree you have really enjoyed, or any areas you wish to learn more about. Don’t just go for the most obvious topics. 20th century British political topics in some cases have very little unexplored material, so you want to choose an area where you can really add value. Make sure your topic is small enough to be able to do it well in 12,000 words, as that becomes surprisingly few words when you are putting it all together.

You may cover something where there has been some research, but find a new approach or a new angle. In my case, I used the new donations of materials on the Oxford Union’s ‘King and Country’ debate as one way my thesis would be original.

You want to think about the sources you would potentially need to consult, and where they may be stored – no point choosing a topic if the archives are in a language you don’t understand or they are inaccessible. You need to think about logistics and ensure there will be enough material to write about. Not enough primary material can really hold writing back. You don’t need to travel across the world (though it can be very cool) to put it together. There are plenty of subjects that haven’t been explored that could be answered by archives within the University of Oxford. That’s another way to bring value from your thesis; focus on a well-known topic, but in a local context where it may not have been researched.

If you are struggling to choose a topic, don’t worry as there are lectures and sessions to support you throughout the thesis process from the Faculty of History and your college tutor. Not every idea works first time either, so do leave yourself enough time to explore the primary material available.

Introductory reading and your supervisor

At this point it is worth seeing what secondary material is available so you can begin to get a clear idea of what you are writing about. The History Faculty Canvas page is a good place to start. Use reading lists from other papers to put together an introductory reading list for your thesis. You could also attend relevant lectures if you start early enough to gain an understanding of the key ideas in each area.

Don’t worry if you aren’t sure how you want to move forward, your thesis supervisor is there to support with this. They are a tutor who has some experience in the area you are writing about; they have subject specialist knowledge which will be invaluable in driving your thesis forward.

Throughout your thesis writing process you can access up to 5 hours of support (inclusive of time spent responding to email questions as well as meetings), so don’t use all your time up at the start. Leave time for feedback on your thesis draft (I would recommend saving around three hours for this). Talk about your ideas and where you are stuck, and they will be able to suggest relevant reading or sources of primary material.

Ideally confirm your topic and supervisor by the end of Trinity (summer term) of your second year. You can meet before the summer to set out what work you are going to do over the long vacation.

Primary source work

The vast majority of this should be completed over the summer, given you only get Hilary (spring) term of your third year to write up. You are likely to need to spend around 2 weeks conducting primary research, looking at archives or conducting interviews depending on what you are studying. You want to make good notes while doing this and make sure to note down all reference codes for the material you access in the archive. Anything quoted in your thesis will need to be referenced (including page numbers), so note these early to save having to do so again. This is particularly important for sources located a long way away.

You will require ethical approval from your supervisor before you undertake any interviews. This process can take some time, so make sure you submit the request early as you don’t want your thesis timeline to be derailed by this review. Also consider how you will reach those you want to interview; are they likely to want to be involved? What is the best medium to engage with them (online or in-person)? What are the strengths and limitations of such an approach?

While conducting primary source analysis, think back to the question you initially discussed with your supervisor and consider if your enquiry is developing differently. You may find your focus in archival research is slightly different to what you outlined initially. That is fine as long as you can complete a good piece of writing on it.

As you go, begin thinking about the two to three chapters you may break your work into. Also reflect – is there enough material to write about? You don’t want to be going into third year with too much primary source analysis left to do. Keep thinking what you want to cover in your thesis and identify gaps early so you can continue to develop your enquiry.

You will need to submit a short proposal in Michaelmas (autumn term) of your third year. This is signed off by the exam board, to certify your thesis is a viable proposal. By now you should know if there is enough material to cover the topic you want. You can make changes after the submission, but I think it’s a good deadline to see if you are on track. It doesn’t need to be too detailed; suggest a title, list the sources you are consulting and what you are hoping to investigate. Your supervisor or tutors in college can give feedback on this.

Secondary reading

You will already have done some secondary reading as part of choosing a topic, and through your initial meetings with your supervisor. While conducting primary source analysis over the long vacation, it is also advantageous to do some more secondary reading. Secondary reading helps to put sources in context and allows you to see where your work fits in to the wider historical debate. Your thesis may be responding to an author or building upon their work. If possible, you could even reach out to them to get their advice or suggestions for unexplored avenues of enquiry.

It is worth flagging you are unlikely to have any time during Michaelmas (autumn term) to work on your thesis. The earliest you are likely to get back to your thesis is at some point during the Christmas vacation or the 1st week of Hilary (spring term).

You must submit your thesis by midday on Friday of 8th week of Hilary. As you can see the timelines are tight. It is therefore worth finishing any primary source analysis as a priority at the start of term, before devoting a few more weeks to secondary reading. During this time, keep checking in with your supervisor to stay on track.

How long you spend on secondary reading should be determined by how long you think you need for writing; my advice is learn from the Extended Essay that you completed in Michaelmas (autumn term) to know your timings. If it took much longer to write than planned, this needs to be factored into your timings. You don’t want to spend all your time reading if writing is the most challenging aspect. You can also read while writing, as the writing process can expose gaps. So give yourself more time to write than you think you need, and prioritise your reading by where you think you need more knowledge.

You should have a detailed plan for your thesis, breaking it down into two to three chapters and what you want to cover in each chapter. With a long piece of writing, it is easy for the quality to drop in the middle as you lose steam so be aware of this. You want to be selective as you only have 12000 words and referencing counts within that limit. Just like any piece of academic writing, it needs an argument so make sure you have a clear train of thought throughout.

I would advise you start writing by the beginning of fourth week. You ideally want to submit your thesis to your supervisor by the end of fifth week to give time for review. It is likely to take your supervisor a minimum of a week to review your thesis (they may be supervising multiple students), so check when they need it by to ensure you have ample time to make the necessary improvements.

When writing, you may want to write a sketch version first where you write all of your thoughts before adding the detail with references. Make sure your referencing format is consistent and make the work as good as possible so your supervisor’s feedback can be focused on how to get your thesis to the next level rather than simple mistakes. For things like spelling and grammar it is down to you to ensure your thesis is readable.

While it can be tempting to leave writing until the last possible second, you will get your best work by working consistently over a week or two with clear goals. You don’t want to be in the library every waking hour, as this will come through in the quality of what is written.

When working with a supervisor, it is all about communication. If you do find issues while writing your thesis, you can always meet your supervisor to get some steer. Some supervisors like to review it chapter by chapter, so establish how you want to work at the start of Hilary (spring term) and stick to it.

Proofreading and re-drafting

When you receive your supervisor’s feedback, it can be useful to schedule sessions with them to run through it on a granular level. Some supervisors will go through chapter by chapter, others will be steered by your questions.

You will hopefully have at least one or two weeks to make the necessary edits, which could be as drastic as restructuring an entire chapter. It is worth rewriting with time to spare, so you can proofread it to ensure the thesis reads clearly. Do follow the University regulations if you would like others to review your thesis.

The final step is sending it in before the deadline – some students submit up to a week in advance if they are happy with it, where others (like myself) give it a final read on the morning of submission. Make sure to back up on a cloud-based platform so if there are any technical issues you can obtain a recent version.

Writing a thesis can be an enjoyable process, where you get a lot of freedom to work at your own pace on a topic you are interested in. My main piece of advice is don’t let that freedom get you off track, as there is little time to catch up if you do fall behind (particularly during Hilary term). Your thesis is not something to be put off but something to get started on early!

My undergraduate thesis will be published on the Oxford Union Library and Archives website in due course, and a physical copy can also be found within the Oxford Union Library.

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• What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips

What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips

Published on August 25, 2022 by Shona McCombes and Tegan George. Revised on November 20, 2023.

Your research methodology discusses and explains the data collection and analysis methods you used in your research. A key part of your thesis, dissertation , or research paper , the methodology chapter explains what you did and how you did it, allowing readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of your research and your dissertation topic .

It should include:

• The type of research you conducted
• How you collected and analyzed your data
• Any tools or materials you used in the research
• How you mitigated or avoided research biases
• Why you chose these methods
• Your methodology section should generally be written in the past tense .
• Academic style guides in your field may provide detailed guidelines on what to include for different types of studies.
• Your citation style might provide guidelines for your methodology section (e.g., an APA Style methods section ).

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Table of contents

How to write a research methodology, why is a methods section important, step 1: explain your methodological approach, step 2: describe your data collection methods, step 3: describe your analysis method, step 4: evaluate and justify the methodological choices you made, tips for writing a strong methodology chapter, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about methodology.

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Your methods section is your opportunity to share how you conducted your research and why you chose the methods you chose. It’s also the place to show that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated .

It gives your research legitimacy and situates it within your field, and also gives your readers a place to refer to if they have any questions or critiques in other sections.

You can start by introducing your overall approach to your research. You have two options here.

Option 1: Start with your “what”

What research problem or question did you investigate?

• Aim to describe the characteristics of something?
• Explore an under-researched topic?
• Establish a causal relationship?

And what type of data did you need to achieve this aim?

• Quantitative data , qualitative data , or a mix of both?
• Primary data collected yourself, or secondary data collected by someone else?
• Experimental data gathered by controlling and manipulating variables, or descriptive data gathered via observations?

Option 2: Start with your “why”

Depending on your discipline, you can also start with a discussion of the rationale and assumptions underpinning your methodology. In other words, why did you choose these methods for your study?

• Why is this the best way to answer your research question?
• Is this a standard methodology in your field, or does it require justification?
• Were there any ethical considerations involved in your choices?
• What are the criteria for validity and reliability in this type of research ? How did you prevent bias from affecting your data?

Once you have introduced your reader to your methodological approach, you should share full details about your data collection methods .

Quantitative methods

In order to be considered generalizable, you should describe quantitative research methods in enough detail for another researcher to replicate your study.

Here, explain how you operationalized your concepts and measured your variables. Discuss your sampling method or inclusion and exclusion criteria , as well as any tools, procedures, and materials you used to gather your data.

Surveys Describe where, when, and how the survey was conducted.

• How did you design the questionnaire?
• What form did your questions take (e.g., multiple choice, Likert scale )?
• Were your surveys conducted in-person or virtually?
• What sampling method did you use to select participants?
• What was your sample size and response rate?

Experiments Share full details of the tools, techniques, and procedures you used to conduct your experiment.

• How did you design the experiment ?
• How did you recruit participants?
• How did you manipulate and measure the variables ?
• What tools did you use?

Existing data Explain how you gathered and selected the material (such as datasets or archival data) that you used in your analysis.

• Where did you source the material?
• How was the data originally produced?
• What criteria did you use to select material (e.g., date range)?

The survey consisted of 5 multiple-choice questions and 10 questions measured on a 7-point Likert scale.

The goal was to collect survey responses from 350 customers visiting the fitness apparel company’s brick-and-mortar location in Boston on July 4–8, 2022, between 11:00 and 15:00.

Here, a customer was defined as a person who had purchased a product from the company on the day they took the survey. Participants were given 5 minutes to fill in the survey anonymously. In total, 408 customers responded, but not all surveys were fully completed. Due to this, 371 survey results were included in the analysis.

• Information bias
• Omitted variable bias
• Regression to the mean
• Survivorship bias
• Undercoverage bias
• Sampling bias

Qualitative methods

In qualitative research , methods are often more flexible and subjective. For this reason, it’s crucial to robustly explain the methodology choices you made.

Be sure to discuss the criteria you used to select your data, the context in which your research was conducted, and the role you played in collecting your data (e.g., were you an active participant, or a passive observer?)

Interviews or focus groups Describe where, when, and how the interviews were conducted.

• How did you find and select participants?
• How many participants took part?
• What form did the interviews take ( structured , semi-structured , or unstructured )?
• How long were the interviews?
• How were they recorded?

Participant observation Describe where, when, and how you conducted the observation or ethnography .

• What group or community did you observe? How long did you spend there?
• How did you gain access to this group? What role did you play in the community?
• How long did you spend conducting the research? Where was it located?
• How did you record your data (e.g., audiovisual recordings, note-taking)?

Existing data Explain how you selected case study materials for your analysis.

• What type of materials did you analyze?
• How did you select them?

In order to gain better insight into possibilities for future improvement of the fitness store’s product range, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 8 returning customers.

Here, a returning customer was defined as someone who usually bought products at least twice a week from the store.

Surveys were used to select participants. Interviews were conducted in a small office next to the cash register and lasted approximately 20 minutes each. Answers were recorded by note-taking, and seven interviews were also filmed with consent. One interviewee preferred not to be filmed.

• The Hawthorne effect
• Observer bias
• The placebo effect
• Response bias and Nonresponse bias
• The Pygmalion effect
• Recall bias
• Social desirability bias
• Self-selection bias

Mixed methods

Mixed methods research combines quantitative and qualitative approaches. If a standalone quantitative or qualitative study is insufficient to answer your research question, mixed methods may be a good fit for you.

Mixed methods are less common than standalone analyses, largely because they require a great deal of effort to pull off successfully. If you choose to pursue mixed methods, it’s especially important to robustly justify your methods.

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Next, you should indicate how you processed and analyzed your data. Avoid going into too much detail: you should not start introducing or discussing any of your results at this stage.

In quantitative research , your analysis will be based on numbers. In your methods section, you can include:

• How you prepared the data before analyzing it (e.g., checking for missing data , removing outliers , transforming variables)
• Which software you used (e.g., SPSS, Stata or R)
• Which statistical tests you used (e.g., two-tailed t test , simple linear regression )

In qualitative research, your analysis will be based on language, images, and observations (often involving some form of textual analysis ).

Specific methods might include:

• Content analysis : Categorizing and discussing the meaning of words, phrases and sentences
• Thematic analysis : Coding and closely examining the data to identify broad themes and patterns
• Discourse analysis : Studying communication and meaning in relation to their social context

Mixed methods combine the above two research methods, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches into one coherent analytical process.

Above all, your methodology section should clearly make the case for why you chose the methods you did. This is especially true if you did not take the most standard approach to your topic. In this case, discuss why other methods were not suitable for your objectives, and show how this approach contributes new knowledge or understanding.

In any case, it should be overwhelmingly clear to your reader that you set yourself up for success in terms of your methodology’s design. Show how your methods should lead to results that are valid and reliable, while leaving the analysis of the meaning, importance, and relevance of your results for your discussion section .

• Quantitative: Lab-based experiments cannot always accurately simulate real-life situations and behaviors, but they are effective for testing causal relationships between variables .
• Qualitative: Unstructured interviews usually produce results that cannot be generalized beyond the sample group , but they provide a more in-depth understanding of participants’ perceptions, motivations, and emotions.
• Mixed methods: Despite issues systematically comparing differing types of data, a solely quantitative study would not sufficiently incorporate the lived experience of each participant, while a solely qualitative study would be insufficiently generalizable.

Remember that your aim is not just to describe your methods, but to show how and why you applied them. Again, it’s critical to demonstrate that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated.

1. Focus on your objectives and research questions

The methodology section should clearly show why your methods suit your objectives and convince the reader that you chose the best possible approach to answering your problem statement and research questions .

2. Cite relevant sources

Your methodology can be strengthened by referencing existing research in your field. This can help you to:

• Show that you followed established practice for your type of research
• Discuss how you decided on your approach by evaluating existing research
• Present a novel methodological approach to address a gap in the literature

3. Write for your audience

Consider how much information you need to give, and avoid getting too lengthy. If you are using methods that are standard for your discipline, you probably don’t need to give a lot of background or justification.

Regardless, your methodology should be a clear, well-structured text that makes an argument for your approach, not just a list of technical details and procedures.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Measures of central tendency
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles

Methodology

• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Thematic analysis
• Cohort study
• Peer review
• Ethnography

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Conformity bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Availability heuristic
• Attrition bias

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

In a scientific paper, the methodology always comes after the introduction and before the results , discussion and conclusion . The same basic structure also applies to a thesis, dissertation , or research proposal .

Depending on the length and type of document, you might also include a literature review or theoretical framework before the methodology.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something:

• Reliability refers to the  consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions).
• Validity   refers to the  accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they are supposed to measure).

If you are doing experimental research, you also have to consider the internal and external validity of your experiment.

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

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The Princeton Guide to Historical Research

• Zachary Schrag

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The essential handbook for doing historical research in the twenty-first century

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The Princeton Guide to Historical Research provides students, scholars, and professionals with the skills they need to practice the historian’s craft in the digital age, while never losing sight of the fundamental values and techniques that have defined historical scholarship for centuries. Zachary Schrag begins by explaining how to ask good questions and then guides readers step-by-step through all phases of historical research, from narrowing a topic and locating sources to taking notes, crafting a narrative, and connecting one’s work to existing scholarship. He shows how researchers extract knowledge from the widest range of sources, such as government documents, newspapers, unpublished manuscripts, images, interviews, and datasets. He demonstrates how to use archives and libraries, read sources critically, present claims supported by evidence, tell compelling stories, and much more. Featuring a wealth of examples that illustrate the methods used by seasoned experts, The Princeton Guide to Historical Research reveals that, however varied the subject matter and sources, historians share basic tools in the quest to understand people and the choices they made.

• Offers practical step-by-step guidance on how to do historical research, taking readers from initial questions to final publication
• Connects new digital technologies to the traditional skills of the historian
• Draws on hundreds of examples from a broad range of historical topics and approaches
• Shares tips for researchers at every skill level

Skills for Scholars: The new tools of the trade

Awards and recognition.

• Winner of the James Harvey Robinson Prize, American Historical Association
• A Choice Outstanding Academic Title of the Year

• Introduction: History Is for Everyone
• History Is the Study of People and the Choices They Made
• History Is a Means to Understand Today’s World
• History Combines Storytelling and Analysis
• History Is an Ongoing Debate
• Autobiography
• Everything Has a History
• Narrative Expansion
• From the Source
• Public History
• Research Agenda
• Factual Questions
• Interpretive Questions
• Opposing Forces
• Internal Contradictions
• Competing Priorities
• Determining Factors
• Hidden or Contested Meanings
• Before and After
• Dialectics Create Questions, Not Answers
• Copy Other Works
• History Big and Small
• Pick Your People
• Add and Subtract
• Narrative versus Thematic Schemes
• The Balky Time Machine
• Local and Regional
• Transnational and Global
• Comparative
• What Is New about Your Approach?
• Are You Working in a Specific Theoretical Tradition?
• What Have Others Written?
• Are Others Working on It?
• What Might Your Critics Say?
• Primary versus Secondary Sources
• Balancing Your Use of Secondary Sources
• Sets of Sources
• Sources as Records of the Powerful
• No Source Speaks for Itself
• Languages and Specialized Reading
• Choose Sources That You Love
• Workaday Documents
• Specialized Periodicals
• Criminal Investigations and Trials
• Official Reports
• Letters and Petitions
• Institutional Records
• Scholarship
• Motion Pictures and Recordings
• Buildings and Plans
• The Working Bibliography
• The Open Web
• Limits of the Open Web
• Bibliographic Databases
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• Oral History
• What Is an Archive?
• Archives and Access
• Read the Finding Aid
• Follow the Rules
• Work with Archivists
• Types of Cameras
• How Much to Shoot?
• Managing Expectations
• Duck, Duck, Goose
• Credibility
• Avoid Catastrophe
• Complete Tasks—Ideally Just Once, and in the Right Order
• Maintain Momentum
• Kinds of Software
• Word Processors
• Means of Entry
• A Good Day’s Work
• Word Count Is Your Friend
• Managing Research Assistants
• Research Diary
• When to Stop
• Note-Taking as Mining
• Note-Taking as Assembly
• Identify the Source, So You Can Go Back and Consult if Needed
• Distinguish Others’ Words and Ideas from Your Own
• Allow Sorting and Retrieval of Related Pieces of Information
• Provide the Right Level of Detail
• Notebooks and Index Cards
• Word Processors for Note-Taking
• Plain Text and Markdown
• Reference Managers
• Note-Taking Apps
• Relational Databases
• Spreadsheets
• Glossaries and Alphabetical Lists
• Image Catalogs
• Other Specialized Formats
• The Working Draft
• Variants: The Ten- and Thirty-Page Papers
• Thesis Statement
• Historiography
• Sections as Independent Essays
• Topic Sentences
• Answering Questions
• Invisible Bullet Points
• The Perils of Policy Prescriptions
• A Model (T) Outline
• Flexibility
• Protagonists
• Antagonists
• Bit Players
• The Shape of the Story
• The Controlling Idea
• Alchemy: Turning Sources to Stories
• Turning Points
• Counterfactuals
• Point of View
• Symbolic Details
• Combinations
• Speculation
• Is Your Jargon Really Necessary?
• Defining Terms
• Word Choice as Analysis
• Period Vocabulary or Anachronism?
• Integrate Images into Your Story
• Put Numbers in Context
• Summarize Data in Tables and Graphs
• Why We Cite
• Citation Styles
• Active Verbs
• People as Subjects
• Signposting
• First Person
• Putting It Aside
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• Auditing Your Word Budget
• Writing for the Ear
• Conferences
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• Tough, Fair, and Encouraging
• Manuscript and Book Reviews
• Journal Articles
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• Websites and Social Media
• Museums and Historic Sites
• Press Appearances and Op-Eds
• Law and Policy
• Graphic History, Movies, and Broadway Musicals
• Acknowledgments

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"A tour de force that will help all of us be more capable historians. This wholly readable, delightful book is packed with good advice that will benefit seasoned scholars and novice researchers alike."—Nancy Weiss Malkiel, author of "Keep the Damned Women Out": The Struggle for Coeducation

"An essential and overdue contribution. Schrag's guide offers a lucid breakdown of what historians do and provides plenty of examples."—Jessica Mack, Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, George Mason University

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Qualitative and Quantitive Research

Historians rely on primary and secondary sources when conducting research and writing historical works. They also use qualitative and/or quantitative research methods to support their arguments and conclusions.

Here are some sources about research design and writing:

• Using Archives: A Guide to Effective Research
• Using Photographs in Social and Historical Research by Penny Tinkler, Special Collections Reference HM511.T56 2013
• Historical Research: A Guide by W.H. McDowell, ebook
• A Concise Companion to History edited by Ulinka Rublack, Main Stacks D13.C663 2011
• Going to the Sources: A Guide to Historical Research and Writing by Anthony Brundage, Main Stacks D16.B893 2013
• Research Methods for History edited by Simon Gunn and Lucy Faire, ebook
• A Short Guide to Writing about History by Richard Marius, Main Stacks D13.M294 2002
• Historian's Guide to Statistics: Quantitative Analysis and Historical Research by Charles M. Dollar and Richard J. Jensen, Main Stacks HA29.D645
• Writing the Winning Thesis or Dissertation: A Step-by-Step Guide by Randy Joyner, William A. Rouse, and Allan A. Glathorn, Main Stacks LB2369.G56 2013
• The Craft of Research by Wayne C. Booth, ebook
• The Elements of Style by William Strunk and E.B. White, Main Stacks PE1408.S772 1972

Historians use the Chicago Manual of Style when writing papers, books, and articles and documenting sources. The manual is available here .

What is a Scholarly Article?

A scholarly or peer-reviewed article is one that is reviewed by a panel of experts in the field. The following are a few characteristics of a scholarly article:

• An abstract, or summary, before the main text of the article
• Footnotes and/or bibliographies that cite sources
• Graphs or charts detailing the research process and/or results
• Publication by a professional or academic organization
• Discipline-specific language
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Department of History

Yale history dissertations.

During the late 1800’s, only a trickle of dissertations were submitted annually, but today, the department averages about 25 per year. See who some of those intrepid scholars were and what they wrote about by clicking on any of the years listed below.

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Guide for Thesis Research

• Introduction to the Thesis Process
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Basics of Methodology

Research is a process of inquiry that is carried out in a pondered, organized, and strategic manner. In order to obtain high quality results, it is important to understand methodology.

Research methodology refers to how your project will be designed, what you will observe or measure, and how you will collect and analyze data. The methods you choose must be appropriate for your field and for the specific research questions you are setting out to answer.

A strong understanding of methodology will help you:

• apply appropriate research techniques
• design effective data collection instruments
• analyze and interpret your data
• develop well-founded conclusions

Below, you will find resources that mostly cover general aspects of research methodology. In the left column, you will find resources that specifically cover qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods research.

General Works on Methodology

Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research

Mixed Methods Research

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