assignment on growth and development of infant

Child Growth and Development

(13 reviews)

Jennifer Paris

Antoinette Ricardo

Dawn Rymond

Alexa Johnson

Last Update: 2019

Publisher: College of the Canyons

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

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Reviewed by Joanne Leary, adjunct faculty, North Shore Community College on 6/9/24

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

Content Accuracy rating: 4

This text has an emphasis on object and sound development and best practices to support development.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

Content includes the latest research and best practices in the field. It gives the reader a sense of what is current in the field and notices current trends.

Clarity rating: 5

The Chapters begin with objectives and an introduction and end with a conclusion of key concepts addressed. Within the Chapters are found material bringing the theory and best practice to life.

Consistency rating: 5

The Chapters begin with objectives and an introduction and end with a conclusion of key concepts addressed. Physical Development, Cognitive Development and Social Emotional Development are covered in-depth for each age group. The format becomes predictable and familiar as the Chapters are read.

Modularity rating: 5

Each Chapter follows a familiar pattern. Each developmental domain within each age category has easy to follow information. The book also includes mini-lectures and powerpoint presentations to support the reading material.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The early Chapters are outlined to give background information about the history of Child Development and factors effecting the family before birth. From Chapter 3 through the remainder of the text attention is given chronologically to each age group and developmental domain within each age category through Adolescence.

Interface rating: 5

The organization of the text is both linear and spiraling. Material covered in one Chapter is often seen again in later Chapters with more in-depth information.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

Throughout the text an effort is clearly made to limit educational jargon and keep the language accessible to all readers.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The Chapters include relevant information about current topics, resources and pictures representing the diverse backgrounds of children and families that are in our classrooms and communities.

Child Growth and Development is a text that can be seamlessly used to accompany any Child Development Course Pre-birth through Adolescence. The material lays the foundation for understanding development along with the many theorists that paved the way to notice how genetics, environment, culture, family and experience impact growth and development. The organization of the text is both linear and spiraling. The early Chapters are outlined to give background information about the history of Child Development and factors effecting the family before birth. From Chapter 3 through the remainder of the text attention is given chronologically to each age group and developmental domain within each age category through Adolescence. Physical Development, Cognitive Development and Social Emotional Development are covered in-depth for each age group. The Chapters begin with objectives and an introduction and end with a conclusion of key concepts addressed. Each Chapters also include relevant information about current topics, resources and pictures representing the diverse backgrounds of children and families that are in our classrooms and communities.

Reviewed by Mistie Potts, Assistant Professor, Manchester University on 11/22/22

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

This text covers some topics with more detail than necessary (e.g., detailing infant urination) yet it lacks comprehensiveness in a few areas that may need revision. For example, the text discusses issues with vaccines and offers a 2018 vaccine schedule for infants. The text brushes over “commonly circulated concerns” regarding vaccines and dispels these with statements about the small number of antigens a body receives through vaccines versus the numerous antigens the body normally encounters. With changes in vaccines currently offered, shifting CDC viewpoints on recommendations, and changing requirements for vaccine regulations among vaccine producers, the authors will need to revisit this information to comprehensively address all recommended vaccines, potential risks, and side effects among other topics in the current zeitgeist of our world.

Content Accuracy rating: 3

At face level, the content shared within this book appears accurate. It would be a great task to individually check each in-text citation and determine relevance, credibility and accuracy. It is notable that many of the citations, although this text was updated in 2019, remain outdated. Authors could update many of the in-text citations for current references. For example, multiple in-text citations refer to the March of Dimes and many are dated from 2012 or 2015. To increase content accuracy, authors should consider revisiting their content and current citations to determine if these continue to be the most relevant sources or if revisions are necessary. Finally, readers could benefit from a reference list in this textbook. With multiple in-text citations throughout the book, it is surprising no reference list is provided.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

This text would be ideal for an introduction to child development course and could possibly be used in a high school dual credit or beginning undergraduate course or certificate program such as a CDA. The outdated citations and formatting in APA 6th edition cry out for updating. Putting those aside, the content provides a solid base for learners interested in pursuing educational domains/careers relevant to child development. Certain issues (i.e., romantic relationships in adolescence, sexual orientation, and vaccination) may need to be revisited and updated, or instructors using this text will need to include supplemental information to provide students with current research findings and changes in these areas.

Clarity rating: 4

The text reads like an encyclopedia entry. It provides bold print headers and brief definitions with a few examples. Sprinkled throughout the text are helpful photographs with captions describing the images. The words chosen in the text are relatable to most high school or undergraduate level readers and do not burden the reader with expert level academic vocabulary. The layout of the text and images is simple and repetitive with photographs complementing the text entries. This allows the reader to focus their concentration on comprehension rather than deciphering a more confusing format. An index where readers could go back and search for certain terms within the textbook would be helpful. Additionally, a glossary of key terms would add clarity to this textbook.

Chapters appear in a similar layout throughout the textbook. The reader can anticipate the flow of the text and easily identify important terms. Authors utilized familiar headings in each chapter providing consistency to the reader.

Modularity rating: 4

Given the repetitive structure and the layout of the topics by developmental issues (physical, social emotional) the book could be divided into sections or modules. It would be easier if infancy and fetal development were more clearly distinct and stages of infant development more clearly defined, however the book could still be approached in sections or modules.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The text is organized in a logical way when we consider our own developmental trajectories. For this reason, readers learning about these topics can easily relate to the flow of topics as they are presented throughout the book. However, when attempting to find certain topics, the reader must consider what part of development that topic may inhabit and then turn to the portion of the book aligned with that developmental issue. To ease the organization and improve readability as a reference book, authors could implement an index in the back of the book. With an index by topic, readers could quickly turn to pages covering specific topics of interest. Additionally, the text structure could be improved by providing some guiding questions or reflection prompts for readers. This would provide signals for readers to stop and think about their comprehension of the material and would also benefit instructors using this textbook in classroom settings.

Interface rating: 4

The online interface for this textbook did not hinder readability or comprehension of the text. All information including photographs, charts, and diagrams appeared to be clearly depicted within this interface. To ease reading this text online authors should create a live table of contents with bookmarks to the beginning of chapters. This book does not offer such links and therefore the reader must scroll through the pdf to find each chapter or topic.

No grammatical errors were found in reviewing this textbook.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

Cultural diversity is represented throughout this text by way of the topics described and the images selected. The authors provide various perspectives that individuals or groups from multiple cultures may resonate with including parenting styles, developmental trajectories, sexuality, approaches to feeding infants, and the social emotional development of children. This text could expand in the realm of cultural diversity by addressing current issues regarding many of the hot topics in our society. Additionally, this textbook could include other types of cultural diversity aside from geographical location (e.g., religion-based or ability-based differences).

While this text lacks some of the features I would appreciate as an instructor (e.g., study guides, review questions, prompts for critical thinking/reflection) and it does not contain an index or glossary, it would be appropriate as an accessible resource for an introduction to child development. Students could easily access this text and find reliable and easily readable information to build basic content knowledge in this domain.

Reviewed by Caroline Taylor, Instructor, Virginia Tech on 12/30/21

Each chapter is comprehensively described and organized by the period of development. Although infancy and toddlerhood are grouped together, they are logically organized and discussed within each chapter. One helpful addition that would largely... read more

From my reading, the content is accurate and unbiased. However, it is difficult to confidently respond due to a lack of references. It is sometimes clear where the information came from, but when I followed one link to a citation the link was to another textbook. There are many citations embedded within the text, but it would be beneficial (and helpful for further reading) to have a list of references at the end of each chapter. The references used within the text are also older, so implementing updated references would also enhance accuracy. If used for a course, instructors will need to supplement the textbook readings with other materials.

This text can be implemented for many semesters to come, though as previously discussed, further readings and updated materials can be used to supplement this text. It provides a good foundation for students to read prior to lectures.

This text is unique in its writing style for a textbook. It is written in a way that is easily accessible to students and is also engaging. The text doesn't overly use jargon or provide complex, long-winded examples. The examples used are clear and concise. Many key terms are in bold which is helpful to the reader.

For the terms that are in bold, it would be helpful to have a definition of the term listed separately on the page within the side margins, as well as include the definition in a glossary at the end.

Each period of development is consistently described by first addressing physical development, cognitive development, and then social-emotional development.

This text is easily divisible to assign to students. There were few (if any) large blocks of texts without subheadings, graphs, or images. This feature not only improves modularity but also promotes engagement with the reading.

The organization of the text flows logically. I appreciate the order of the topics, which are clearly described in the first chapter by each period of development. Although infancy and toddlerhood are grouped into one period of development, development is appropriately described for both infants and toddlers. Key theories are discussed for infants and toddlers and clearly presented for the appropriate age.

There were no significant interface issues. No images or charts were distorted.

It would be helpful to the reader if the table of contents included a navigation option, but this doesn't detract from the overall interface.

I did not see any grammatical errors.

This text includes some cultural examples across each area of development, such as differences in first words, parenting styles, personalities, and attachments styles (to list a few). The photos included throughout the text are inclusive of various family styles, races, and ethnicities. This text could implement more cultural components, but does include some cultural examples. Again, instructors can supplement more cultural examples to bolster the reading.

This text is a great introductory text for students. The text is written in a fun, approachable way for students. Though the text is not as interactive (e.g., further reading suggestions, list of references, discussion points at the end of each chapter, etc.), this is a great resource to cover development that is open access.

Reviewed by Charlotte Wilinsky, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Holyoke Community College on 6/29/21

This text is very thorough in its coverage of child and adolescent development. Important theories and frameworks in developmental psychology are discussed in appropriate depth. There is no glossary of terms at the end of the text, but I do not... read more

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The citations throughout the textbook help to ensure its accuracy. However, the text could benefit from additional references to recent empirical studies in the developmental field.

It seems as if updates to this textbook will be relatively easy and straightforward to implement given how well organized the text is and its numerous sections and subsections. For example, a recent narrative review was published on the effects of corporal punishment (Heilmann et al., 2021). The addition of a reference to this review, and other more recent work on spanking and other forms of corporal punishment, could serve to update the text's section on spanking (pp. 223-224; p. 418).

The text is very clear and easily understandable.

Consistency rating: 4

There do not appear to be any inconsistencies in the text. The lack of a glossary at the end of the text may be a limitation in this area, however, since glossaries can help with consistent use of language or clarify when different terms are used.

This textbook does an excellent job of dividing up and organizing its chapters. For example, chapters start with bulleted objectives and end with a bulleted conclusion section. Within each chapter, there are many headings and subheadings, making it easy for the reader to methodically read through the chapter or quickly identify a section of interest. This would also assist in assigning reading on specific topics. Additionally, the text is broken up by relevant photos, charts, graphs, and diagrams, depending on the topic being discussed.

This textbook takes a chronological approach. The broad developmental stages covered include, in order, birth and the newborn, infancy and toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Starting with the infancy and toddlerhood stage, physical, cognitive, and social emotional development are covered.

There are no interface issues with this textbook. It is easily accessible as a PDF file. Images are clear and there is no distortion apparent.

I did not notice any grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

This text does a good job of including content relevant to different cultures and backgrounds. One example of this is in the "Cultural Influences on Parenting Styles" subsection (p. 222). Here the authors discuss how socioeconomic status and cultural background can affect parenting styles. Including references to specific studies could further strengthen this section, and, more broadly, additional specific examples grounded in research could help to fortify similar sections focused on cultural differences.

Overall, I think this is a terrific resource for a child and adolescent development course. It is user-friendly and comprehensive.

Reviewed by Lois Pribble, Lecturer, University of Oregon on 6/14/21

This book provides a really thorough overview of the different stages of development, key theories of child development and in-depth information about developmental domains. read more

This book provides a really thorough overview of the different stages of development, key theories of child development and in-depth information about developmental domains.

The book provides accurate information, emphasizes using data based on scientific research, and is stated in a non-biased fashion.

The book is relevant and provides up-to-date information. There are areas where updates will need to be made as research and practices change (e.g., autism information), but it is written in a way where updates should be easy to make as needed.

The book is clear and easy to read. It is well organized.

Good consistency in format and language.

It would be very easy to assign students certain chapters to read based on content such as theory, developmental stages, or developmental domains.

Very well organized.

Clear and easy to follow.

I did not find any grammatical errors.

General content related to culture was infused throughout the book. The pictures used were of children and families from a variety of cultures.

This book provides a very thorough introduction to child development, emphasizing child development theories, stages of development, and developmental domains.

Reviewed by Nancy Pynchon, Adjunct Faculty, Middlesex Community College on 4/14/21

Overall this textbook is comprehensive of all aspects of children's development. It provided a brief introduction to the different relevant theorists of childhood development . read more

Overall this textbook is comprehensive of all aspects of children's development. It provided a brief introduction to the different relevant theorists of childhood development .

Most of the information is accurately written, there is some outdated references, for example: Many adults can remember being spanked as a child. This method of discipline continues to be endorsed by the majority of parents (Smith, 2012). It seems as though there may be more current research on parent's methods of discipline as this information is 10 years old. (page 223).

The content was current with the terminology used.

Easy to follow the references made in the chapters.

Each chapter covers the different stages of development and includes the theories of each stage with guided information for each age group.

The formatting of the book makes it reader friendly and easy to follow the content.

Very consistent from chapter to chapter.

Provided a lot of charts and references within each chapter.

Formatted and written concisely.

Included several different references to diversity in the chapters.

There was no glossary at the end of the book and there were no vignettes or reflective thinking scenarios in the chapters. Overall it was a well written book on child development which covered infancy through adolescents.

Reviewed by Deborah Murphy, Full Time Instructor, Rogue Community College on 1/11/21

The text is excellent for its content and presentation. The only criticism is that neither an index nor a glossary are provided. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

The text is excellent for its content and presentation. The only criticism is that neither an index nor a glossary are provided.

The material seems very accurate and current. It is well written. It is very professionally done and is accessible to students.

This text addresses topics that will serve this field in positive ways that should be able to address the needs of students and instructors for the next several years.

Complex concepts are delivered accurately and are still accessible for students . Figures and tables complement the text . Terms are explained and are embedded in the text, not in a glossary. I do think indices and glossaries are helpful tools. Terminology is highlighted with bold fonts to accentuate definitions.

Yes the text is consistent in its format. As this is a text on Child Development it consistently addresses each developmental domain and then repeats the sequence for each age group in childhood. It is very logically presented.

Yes this text is definitely divisible. This text addresses development from conception to adolescents. For the community college course that my department wants to use it is very adaptable. Our course ends at middle school age development; our courses are offered on a quarter system. This text is adaptable for the content and our term time schedule.

This text book flows very clearly from Basic principles to Conception. It then divides each stage of development into Physical, Cognitive and Social Emotional development. Those concepts and information are then repeated for each stage of development. e.g. Infants and Toddler-hood, Early Childhood, and Middle Childhood. It is very clearly presented.

It is very professionally presented. It is quite attractive in its presentation .

I saw no errors

The text appears to be aware of being diverse and inclusive both in its content and its graphics. It discusses culture and represents a variety of family structures representing contemporary society.

It is wonderfully researched. It will serve our students well. It is comprehensive and constructed very well. I have enjoyed getting familiar with this text and am looking forward to using it with my students in this upcoming term. The authors have presented a valuable, well written book that will be an addition to our field. Their scholarly efforts are very apparent. All of this text earns high grades in my evaluation. My only criticism is, as mentioned above, is that there is not a glossary or index provided. All citations are embedded in the text.

Reviewed by Ida Weldon, Adjunct Professor, Bunker Hill Community College on 6/30/20

The overall comprehensiveness was strong. However, I do think some sections should have been discussed with more depth read more

The overall comprehensiveness was strong. However, I do think some sections should have been discussed with more depth

Most of the information was accurate. However, I think more references should have been provided to support some claims made in the text.

The material appeared to be relevant. However, it did not provide guidance for teachers in addressing topics of social justice, equality that most children will ask as they try to make sense of their environment.

The information was presented (use of language) that added to its understand-ability. However, I think more discussions and examples would be helpful.

The text appeared to be consistent. The purpose and intent of the text was understandable throughout.

The text can easily be divided into smaller reading sections or restructured to meet the needs of the professor.

The organization of the text adds to its consistency. However, some sections can be included in others decreasing the length of the text.

Interface issues were not visible.

The text appears to be free of grammatical errors.

While cultural differences are mentioned, more time can be given to helping teachers understand and create a culturally and ethnically focused curriculum.

The textbook provides a comprehensive summary of curriculum planing for preschool age children. However, very few chapters address infant/toddlers.

Reviewed by Veronica Harris, Adjunct Faculty, Northern Essex Community College on 6/28/20

This text explores child development from genetics, prenatal development and birth through adolescence. The text does not contain a glossary. However, the Index is clear. The topics are sequential. The text addresses the domains of physical, cognitive and social emotional development. It is thorough and easy to read. The theories of development are inclusive to give the reader a broader understanding on how the domains of development are intertwined. The content is comprehensive, well - researched and sequential. Each chapter begins with the learning outcomes for the upcoming material and closes with an outline of the topics covered. Furthermore, a look into the next chapter is discussed.

The content is accurate, well - researched and unbiased. An historical context is provided putting content into perspective for the student. It appears to be unbiased.

Updated and accurate research is evidenced in the text. The text is written and organized in such a way that updates can be easily implemented. The author provides theoretical approaches in the psychological domains with examples along with real - life scenarios providing meaningful references invoking understanding by the student.

The text is written with clarity and is easily understood. The topics are sequential, comprehensive and and inclusive to all students. This content is presented in a cohesive, engaging, scholarly manner. The terminology used is appropriate to students studying Developmental Psychology spanning from birth through adolescents.

The book's approach to the content is consistent and well organized. . Theoretical contexts are presented throughout the text.

The text contains subheadings chunking the reading sections which can be assigned at various points throughout the course. The content flows seamlessly from one idea to the next. Written chronologically and subdividing each age span into the domains of psychology provides clarity without overwhelming the reader.

The book begins with an overview of child development. Next, the text is divided logically into chapters which focus on each developmental age span. The domains of each age span are addressed separately in subsequent chapters. Each chapter outlines the chapter objectives and ends with an outline of the topics covered and share an idea of what is to follow.

Pages load clearly and consistently without distortion of text, charts and tables. Navigating through the pages is met with ease.

The text is written with no grammatical or spelling errors.

The text did not present with biases or insensitivity to cultural differences. Photos are inclusive of various cultures.

The thoroughness, clarity and comprehensiveness promote an approach to Developmental Psychology that stands alongside the best of texts in this area. I am confident that this text encompasses all the required elements in this area.

Reviewed by Kathryn Frazier, Assistant Professor, Worcester State University on 6/23/20

This is a highly comprehensive, chronological text that covers genetics and conception through adolescence. All major topics and developmental milestones in each age range are given adequate space and consideration. The authors take care to summarize debates and controversies, when relevant and include a large amount of applied / practical material. For example, beyond infant growth patterns and motor milestone, the infancy/toddler chapters spend several pages on the mechanics of car seat safety, best practices for introducing solid foods (and the rationale), and common concerns like diaper rash. In addition to being generally useful information for students who are parents, or who may go on to be parents, this text takes care to contextualize the psychological research in the lived experiences of children and their parents. This is an approach that I find highly valuable. While the text does not contain an index, the search & find capacity of OER to make an index a deal-breaker for me.

The text includes accurate information that is well-sourced. Relevant debates, controversies and historical context is also provided throughout which results in a rich, balanced text.

This text provides an excellent summary of classic and updated developmental work. While the majority of the text is skewed toward dated, classic work, some updated research is included. Instructors may wish to supplement this text with more recent work, particularly that which includes diverse samples and specifically addresses topics of class, race, gender and sexual orientation (see comment below regarding cultural aspects).

The text is written in highly accessible language, free of jargon. Of particular value are the many author-generated tables which clearly organize and display critical information. The authors have also included many excellent figures, which reinforce and visually organize the information presented.

This text is consistent in its use of terminology. Balanced discussion of multiple theoretical frameworks are included throughout, with adequate space provided to address controversies and debates.

The text is clearly organized and structured. Each chapter is self-contained. In places where the authors do refer to prior or future chapters (something that I find helps students contextualize their reading), a complete discussion of the topic is included. While this may result in repetition for students reading the text from cover to cover, the repetition of some content is not so egregious that it outweighs the benefit of a flexible, modular textbook.

Excellent, clear organization. This text closely follows the organization of published textbooks that I have used in the past for both lifespan and child development. As this text follows a chronological format, a discussion of theory and methods, and genetics and prenatal growth is followed by sections devoted to a specific age range: infancy and toddlerhood, early childhood (preschool), middle childhood and adolescence. Each age range is further split into three chapters that address each developmental domain: physical, cognitive and social emotional development.

All text appears clearly and all images, tables and figures are positioned correctly and free of distortion.

The text contains no spelling or grammatical errors.

While this text provides adequate discussion of gender and cross-cultural influences on development, it is not sufficient. This is not a problem unique to this text, and is indeed a critique I have of all developmental textbooks. In particular, in my view this text does not adequately address the role of race, class or sexual orientation on development.

All in all, this is a comprehensive and well-written textbook that very closely follows the format of standard chronologically-organized child development textbooks. This is a fantastic alternative for those standard texts, with the added benefit of language that is more accessible, and content that is skewed toward practical applications.

Reviewed by Tony Philcox, Professor, Valencia College on 6/4/20

The subject of this book is Child Growth and Development and as such covers all areas and ideas appropriate for this subject. This book has an appropriate index. The author starts out with a comprehensive overview of Child Development in the Introduction. The principles of development were delineated and were thoroughly presented in a very understandable way. Nine theories were presented which gave the reader an understanding of the many authors who have contributed to Child Development. A good backdrop to start a conversation. This book discusses the early beginnings starting with Conception, Hereditary and Prenatal stages which provides a foundation for the future developmental stages such as infancy, toddler, early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence. The three domains of developmental psychology – physical, cognitive and social emotional are entertained with each stage of development. This book is thoroughly researched and is written in a way to not overwhelm. Language is concise and easily understood.

This book is a very comprehensive and detailed account of Child Growth and Development. The author leaves no stone unturned. It has the essential elements addressed in each of the developmental stages. Thoroughly researched and well thought out. The content covered was accurate, error-free and unbiased.

The content is very relevant to the subject of Child Growth and Development. It is comprehensive and thoroughly researched. The author has included a number of relevant subjects that highlight the three domains of developmental psychology, physical, cognitive and social emotional. Topics are included that help the student see the relevancy of the theories being discussed. Any necessary updates along the way will be very easy and straightforward to insert.

The text is easily understood. From the very beginning of this book, the author has given the reader a very clear message that does not overwhelm but pulls the reader in for more information. The very first chapter sets a tone for what is to come and entices the reader to learn more. Well organized and jargon appropriate for students in a Developmental Psychology class.

This book has all the ingredients necessary to address Child Growth and Development. Even at the very beginning of the book the backdrop is set for future discussions on the stages of development. Theorists are mentioned and embellished throughout the book. A very consistent and organized approach.

This book has all the features you would want. There are textbooks that try to cover too much in one chapter. In this book the sections are clearly identified and divided into smaller and digestible parts so the reader can easily comprehend the topic under discussion. This book easily flows from one subject to the next. Blocks of information are being built, one brick on top of another as you move through the domains of development and the stages of development.

This book starts out with a comprehensive overview in the introduction to child development. From that point forward it is organized into the various stages of development and flows well. As mentioned previously the information is organized into building blocks as you move from one stage to the next.

The text does not contain any significant interface issued. There are no navigation problems. There is nothing that was detected that would distract or confuse the reader.

There are no grammatical errors that were identified.

This book was not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way.

This book is clearly a very comprehensive approach to Child Growth and Development. It contains all the essential ingredients that you would expect in a discussion on this subject. At the very outset this book went into detail on the principles of development and included all relevant theories. I was never left with wondering why certain topics were left out. This is undoubtedly a well written, organized and systematic approach to the subject.

Reviewed by Eleni Makris, Associate Professor, Northeastern Illinois University on 5/6/20

This book is organized by developmental stages (infancy, toddler, early childhood, middle childhood and adolescence). The book begins with an overview of conception and prenatal human development. An entire chapter is devoted to birth and expectations of newborns. In addition, there is a consistency to each developmental stage. For infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence, the textbook covers physical development, cognitive development, and social emotional development for each stage. While some textbooks devote entire chapters to themes such as physical development, cognitive development, and social emotional development and write about how children change developmentally in each stage this book focuses on human stages of development. The book is written in clear language and is easy to understand.

There is so much information in this book that it is a very good overview of child development. The content is error-free and unbiased. In some spots it briefly introduces multicultural traditions, beliefs, and attitudes. It is accurate for the citations that have been provided. However, it could benefit from updating to research that has been done recently. I believe that if the instructor supplements this text with current peer-reviewed research and organizations that are implementing what the book explains, this book will serve as a strong source of information.

While the book covers a very broad range of topics, many times the citations have not been updated and are often times dated. The content and information that is provided is correct and accurate, but this text can certainly benefit from having the latest research added. It does, however, include a great many topics that serve to inform students well.

The text is very easy to understand. It is written in a way that first and second year college students will find easy to understand. It also introduces students to current child and adolescent behavior that is important to be understood on an academic level. It does this in a comprehensive and clear manner.

This book is very consistent. The chapters are arranged by developmental stage. Even within each chapter there is a consistency of theorists. For example, each chapter begins with Piaget, then moves to Vygotsky, etc. This allows for great consistency among chapters. If I as the instructor decide to have students write about Piaget and his development theories throughout the life span, students will easily know that they can find this information in the first few pages of each chapter.

Certainly instructors will find the modularity of this book easy. Within each chapter the topics are self-contained and extensive. As I read the textbook, I envisioned myself perhaps not assigning entire chapters but assigning specific topics/modules and pages that students can read. I believe the modules can be used as a strong foundational reading to introduce students to concepts and then have students read supplemental information from primary sources or journals to reinforce what they have read in the chapter.

The organization of the book is clear and flows nicely. From the table of context students understand how the book is organized. The textbook would be even stronger if there was a more detailed table of context which highlights what topics are covered within each of the chapter. There is so much information contained within each chapter that it would be very beneficial to both students and instructor to quickly see what content and topics are covered in each chapter.

The interface is fine and works well.

The text is free from grammatical errors.

While the textbook does introduce some multicultural differences and similarities, it does not delve deeply into multiracial and multiethnic issues within America. It also offers very little comment on differences that occur among urban, rural, and suburban experiences. In addition, while it does talk about maturation and sexuality, LGBTQ issues could be more prominent.

Overall I enjoyed this text and will strongly consider using it in my course. The focus is clearly on human development and has very little emphasis on education. However, I intend to supplement this text with additional readings and videos that will show concrete examples of the concepts which are introduced in the text. It is a strong and worthy alternative to high-priced textbooks.

Reviewed by Mohsin Ahmed Shaikh, Assistant Professor, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania on 9/5/19

The content extensively discusses various aspects of emotional, cognitive, physical and social development. Examples and case studies are really informative. Some of the areas that can be elaborated more are speech-language and hearing development. Because these components contribute significantly in development of communication abilities and self-image.

Content covered is pretty accurate. I think the details impressive.

The content is relevant and is based on the established knowledge of the field.

Easy to read and follow.

The terminology used is consistent and appropriate.

I think of using various sections of this book in some of undergraduate and graduate classes.

The flow of the book is logical and easy to follow.

There are no interface issues. Images, charts and diagram are clear and easy to understand.

Well written

The text appropriate and do not use any culturally insensitive language.

I really like that this is a book with really good information which is available in open text book library.

Chapter 1: Introduction to Child Development
Chapter 2: Conception, Heredity, & Prenatal Development
Chapter 3: Birth and the Newborn
Chapter 4: Physical Development in Infancy & Toddlerhood
Chapter 5: Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
Chapter 6: Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
Chapter 7: Physical Development in Early Childhood
Chapter 8: Cognitive Development in Early Childhood
Chapter 9: Social Emotional Development in Early Childhood
Chapter 10: Middle Childhood - Physical Development
Chapter 11: Middle Childhood – Cognitive Development
Chapter 12: Middle Childhood - Social Emotional Development
Chapter 13: Adolescence – Physical Development
Chapter 14: Adolescence – Cognitive Development
Chapter 15: Adolescence – Social Emotional Development

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Welcome to Child Growth and Development. This text is a presentation of how and why children grow, develop, and learn. We will look at how we change physically over time from conception through adolescence. We examine cognitive change, or how our ability to think and remember changes over the first 20 years or so of life. And we will look at how our emotions, psychological state, and social relationships change throughout childhood and adolescence.

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Understanding Growth and Development Patterns of Infants

Authors as published.

Novella Ruffin, Family and Human Development Specialist, Virginia State University

assignment on growth and development of infant

Introduction

The first five years of life are a time of incredible growth and learning. An understanding of the rapid changes in a child’s developmental status prepares parents and caregivers to give active and purposeful attention to the preschool years and to guide and promote early learning that will serve as the foundation for later learning. Understanding child development is an important part of teaching young children.

Developmental change is a basic fact of human existence and each person is developmentally unique. Although there are universally accepted assumptions or principles of human development, no two children are alike. Children differ in physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth patterns. They also differ in the ways they interact with and respond to their environment as well as play, affection, and other factors. Some children may appear to be happy and energetic all the time while other children may not seem as pleasant in personality. Some children are active while others are typically quiet. You may even find that some children are easier to manage and like than others. Having an understanding of the sequence of development prepares us to help and give attention to all of these children.

Child Development

Development refers to change or growth that occurs in a child during the life span from birth to adolescence. This change occurs in an orderly sequence, involving physical, cognitive and emotional development . These three main areas of child development involve developmental changes which take place in a predictable pattern (age related), orderly, but with differences in the rate or timing of the changes from one person to another.

Physical Development

Physical development refers to physical changes in the body and involves changes in bone thickness, size, weight, gross motor, fine motor, vision, hearing, and perceptual development . Growth is rapid during the first two years of life. The child’s size, shape, senses, and organs undergo change. As each physical change occurs, the child gains new abilities. During the first year, physical development mainly involves the infant coordinating motor skills. The infant repeats motor actions which serve to build physical strength and motor coordination.

Infants at birth have reflexes as their sole physical ability. A reflex is an automatic body response to a stimulus that is involuntary; that is, the person has no control over this response. Blinking is a reflex which continues throughout life. There are other reflexes which occur in infancy and also disappear a few weeks or months after birth. The presence of reflexes at birth is an indication of normal brain and nerve development. When normal reflexes are not present or if the reflexes continue past the time they should disappear, brain or nerve damage is suspected.

Some reflexes, such as the rooting and sucking reflex, are needed for survival. The rooting reflex causes infants to turn their head toward anything that brushes their faces. This survival reflex helps them to find food such as a nipple. When an object is near a healthy infant’s lips, the infant will begin sucking immediately. This reflex also helps the child get food. This reflex usually disappears by three weeks of age.

The Moro reflex or “startle response” occurs when a newborn is startled by a noise or sudden movement. When startled, the infant reacts by flinging the arms and legs outward and extending the head. The infant then cries loudly, drawing the arms together. This reflex peaks during the first month and usually disappears after two months.

The Palmar grasp reflex is observed when the infant’s palm is touched and when a rattle or another object is placed across the palm. The infant’s hands will grip tightly. This reflex disappears the first three or four months after birth.

The Babinski reflex is present in normal babies of full term birth. When the sole of the infant’s foot is stroked on the outside from the heel to the toe, the infant’s toes fan out and curl and the foot twists in. This reflex usually lasts for the first year after birth.

The Stepping or walking reflex can also be observed in normal full term babies. When the infant is held so that the feet are flat on a surface, the infant will lift one foot after another in a stepping motion. This reflex usually disappears two months after birth and reappears toward the end of the first year as learned voluntary behavior.

Motor Sequence

Physical development is orderly and occurs in predictable sequence. For example, the motor sequence (order of new movements) for infants involves the following orderly sequence:

Head and trunk control (infant lifts head, watches a moving object by moving the head from side to side- occurs in the first few months after birth.
Infant rolls over turning from the stomach to the back first, then from back to stomach - four or five months of age.
Sit upright in a high chair (requires development of strength in the back and neck muscles) - four to six months of age.
Infant gradually is able to pull self into sitting positions.
Crawling - occurs soon after the child learns to roll onto the stomach by pulling with the arms and wiggling the stomach. Some infants push with the legs.
Hitching - infant must be able to sit without support; from the sitting position, they move their arms and legs, sliding the buttocks across the floor.
Creeping - As the arms and legs gain more strength, the infant supports his weight on hands and knees.
Stand with help - as arms and legs become stronger.
Stand while holding on to furniture.
Walk with help with better leg strength and coordination.
Pull self up in a standing position.
Stand alone without any support.
Walk alone without any support or help.

Changes in physical skills such as those listed above in the motor sequence, including hopping, running, and writing, fall into two main areas of development. Gross motor (large muscle) development refers to improvement of skills and control of the large muscles of the legs, arms, back and shoulders which are used in walking, sitting, running, jumping, climbing, and riding a bike. Fine motor (small muscle) development refers to use of the small muscles of the fingers and hands for activities such as grasping objects, holding, cutting, drawing, buttoning, or writing.

Early hand movements in infants are reflex movements. By three to four months, infants are still unable to grasp objects because they close their hands reflexively too early or too late, having no control over these movements. They will swipe at objects. By the age of nine months, infants improve eye-hand coordination which gives them the ability to pick up objects.

Children must have manual or fine motor (hand) control to hold a pencil or crayon in order for them to write, draw, or color. Infants have the fine motor ability to scribble with a crayon by about 16 to 18 months of age when they have a holding grip (all fingers together like a cup). By the end of the second year, infants can make simple vertical and horizontal figures. By two years of age, the child shows a preference for one hand; however, hand dominance can occur much later at around four years of age. By the age of four, children have developed considerable mastery of a variety of grips, so that they can wrap their fingers around the pencil. Bimanual control is also involved in fine motor development, which enables a child to use both hands to perform a task, such as holding a paper and cutting with scissors, and catching a large ball.

At birth, an infant’s vision is blurry. The infant appears to focus in a center visual field during the first few weeks after birth. In infants, near vision is better developed than their far vision. They focus on objects held 8 to 15 inches in front of them. As their vision develops, infants show preference for certain objects and will gaze longer at patterned objects (disks) of checks and stripes than disks of one solid color. Studies also show that infants prefer bold colors to soft pastel colors. They also show visual preference for faces more than objects. By two months of age, an infant will show preference (gaze longer) at a smiling face than at a face without expression.

As infants grow older they are more interested in certain parts of the face. At one month of age, their gaze is on the hairline of a parent or other caregiver. By two months of age, infants show more interest in the eyes of a face. At three months of age, the infant seems very interested in the facial expression of adults. These changes in the infant’s interest in facial parts indicate that children give thought to certain areas of the face that interest them.

Hearing also develops early in life, and even before birth. Infants, from birth, will turn their heads toward a source or direction of sound and are startled by loud noises. The startle reaction is usually crying. Newborns also are soothed to sleep by rhythmic sounds such as a lullaby or heartbeat. Infants will look around to locate or explore sources of sounds, such as a doorbell. They also show reaction to a human voice while ignoring other competing sounds. A newborn can distinguish between the mother’s and father’s voices and the voice of a stranger by three weeks old. At three to six months, vocalizations begin to increase. Infants will increase their vocalizations when persons hold or play with them.

To explore their world, young children use their senses (touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing) in an attempt to learn about the world. They also think with their senses and movement. They form perceptions from their sensory activities. Sensory-Perceptual development is the information that is collected through the senses, the ideas that are formed about an object or relationship as a result of what the child learns through the senses. When experiences are repeated, they form a set of perceptions. This leads the child to form concepts (concept formation) . For example, a child will see a black dog with four legs and a tail and later see a black cat with four legs and a tail and call it a dog. The child will continue to identify the cat as a dog until the child is given additional information and feedback to help him learn the difference between a dog and a cat. Concepts help children to group their experiences and make sense out of the world. Giving young children a variety of experiences helps them form more concepts.

Cognitive Development

Cognitive development refers to the ways children reason (think), develop language, solve problems, and gain knowledge. Identifying colors, completing a maze, knowing the difference between one and many, and knowing how things are similar are all examples of cognitive tasks. Children learn through their senses and through their interactions with people and things in the world. They interact with the world through the senses (see, touch, hear, smell, taste), and construct meaning and understanding of the world. As children gain understanding and meaning of the world, their cognitive development can be observed in the ways they play, use language, interact with others, and construct objects and materials. As children grow and interact with their world, they go through various stages of development. Although the stages are not precisely tied to a particular age, there are characteristics that describe children at different ages.

Sensorimotor Stage

The sensorimotor stage occurs in infancy from birth to about 12 months. Here, infants learn about the world through their senses, looking around constantly, looking at faces of caregivers, responding to smiling faces. Their eyes focus on bright colors and they respond to sounds by looking toward the sound. During this time of sensory learning, infants also show interest in light and movement, such as a mobile above the crib. Infants also begin to recognize their own name in this stage.

Infants also learn through communication. Their initial communication is through crying which is a general cry to bring attention to their needs. Later the cry changes and becomes different and more specific to identify what the baby needs or wants. The cry develops into gestures, and the beginning stages of language such as babbling, then monosyllables such as “ba” and “da” and later to single words put together to make a meaningful sentence. You can observe that infants also communicate through their motor actions. As they grow, they kick and use their arms to reach for people and things that are interesting to them. They respond to voices and seek to be picked up by reaching out. Infants make a very important learning discovery - that through their actions of reaching, making sounds, or crying, they cause others to respond in certain ways. It is very important that parents and other caregivers nurture and respond to the infant’s actions, to hold, carry the infant, sing to the infant, play with the infant, and meet his needs in other responsive and nurturing ways.

As infants continue to interact with their surroundings and make meaning out of their world, they also learn about themselves, their own bodies. Their hands and toes become body objects of interest. They suck on their hands and toes and may seem to be fascinated with their own hands. During this stage of sensory learning, infants reach for, hit at, and grasp objects that are within their reach, such as dangling jewelry and long hair. They also enjoy toys that rattle and squeak and will put any and all things in the mouth. These are all sensory ways that the infant learns; however, we must make sure that the objects are clean and safe for the baby to explore.

As infants master new developments in the motor sequence (creeping and crawling), they learn that they have more control over their world. They are no longer totally dependent on an adult to meet some of their needs. For example, if an infant sees a toy on the floor, or his bottle on a table within reach, he has the motor capacity to move toward it and reach for it. The infant’s increased freedom to move and have toys and objects within reach is very important. The task for adults, parents and other caregivers is to ensure that babies have a safe and clean environment in which they can move about and interact.

Understanding the characteristics of cognitive development gives us knowledge and insights into how children are developing, thinking, and learning. Principles of cognitive development provide us with a basis for understanding how to encourage exploration, thinking, and learning. As parents and caregivers, we can support cognitive development in infants and young children by providing a variety of appropriate and stimulating materials and activities that encourage curiosity, exploration, and opportunities for problem solving.

Object Permanence

Between the age of six to nine months the concept of object permanence develops. This is the infant’s understanding that an object continues to exist even if it is out of the infant’s sight. Prior to this time, the infant’s understanding is “out of sight, out of mind.” Objects cease to exist when the infant does not see them. For example, when an infant plays with a rattle or other toy and a blanket is placed over the rattle, the infant does not search for it because it does not exist in the mind of the infant. When object permanence is developed, the child begins to understand that the rattle is still there even though it is covered, out of sight.

The infant’s understanding of object permanence means that infants are developing memory and goal oriented thinking. Searching under a blanket for a rattle means that the child remembers that the rattle was there. It also means that the infant has a goal of finding the rattle and takes action to find it. Infants during this time will give up searching within a few seconds if they do not find the object.

Also important to object permanence is the understanding that other people exist all the time. Children begin to understand that they can cry not just to get needs met but as a means of calling parents or other caregivers. They know that even if a person is not within their reach or their sight, the person still exists. The cry will call the person to them. Also, crying to call a person is a sign that infants are learning to communicate.

Emotional Development/ Social-Emotional Development

The expression of feelings about self, others, and things describe emotional development . Learning to relate to others is social development . Emotional and social development are often described and grouped together because they are closely interrelated growth patterns. Feelings of trust, fear, confidence, pride, friendship, and humor are all part of social-emotional development. Other emotional traits are self concept and self esteem. Learning to trust and show affection to others is a part of social-emotional development. The child’s relationship to a trusting and caring adult is a foundation of emotional development and personality development. Furthermore, when a child has been neglected, rejected, and does not feel secure, he has difficulty developing skills to socialize with others.

Temperament

Children, from birth, differ in the ways they react to their environment. Temperament refers to the quality and degree or intensity of emotional reactions. Passivity, irritability, and activity are three factors that affect a child’s temperament. Passivity refers to how actively involved a child is with his or her environment or surroundings. A passive infant withdraws from or is otherwise not engaged with a new person or event. An active infant does something in response to a new person or event. There is also difference in the level of irritability (tendency to feel distressed) of infants. Some infants may cry easily and be difficult to comfort and soothe even if you hold them. Other infants may rarely cry and are not bothered as much by change. Caring for these infants is usually viewed as easier for adults. Activity levels or levels of movement also vary in infants. Some infants make few movements, are quiet, and when asleep, may hardly move. Other infants constantly move their limbs (arms and legs) and may be restless in sleep.

As caregivers, we need to nurture and give loving attention to all infants regardless of their temperament. We also need to adjust to the temperament of different children. Even very irritable infants can grow to be emotionally happy and well adjusted if caregivers are patient, responsive, and loving in their caregiving ways.

At birth, infants do not show a wide range of emotions. They use movements, facial expressions, and sounds to communicate basic comfort or discomfort. They coo to show comfort and cry to show that they are uncomfortable. In the first few months, infants display a range of emotions as seen through their facial expressions. Happiness is shown when the corners of the mouth are pulled back and the cheeks are raised. The infant will begin to show fear, anger, and anxiety between six and nine months of age. Signs of fear are the open mouth with the corners of the mouth pulled back, wide eyes, and raised eyebrows. By the end of the second year, children have developed many ways to express their emotions.

Socially, young children and particularly infants tend to focus on the adults who are close to them and become bonded to a small group of people early in life- mainly the people who care for them. This forms the basis for attachment which is the strong emotional tie felt between the infant and significant other. The quality of attachments depends upon the adults. When attachments are formed, young infants learn that they can depend on mothers, fathers, caregivers, or older siblings to make them feel better.

Attachment begins early in life and infants show several early attachment behaviors. Behaviors such as cooing, kicking, gurgling, smiling and laughing show that infants care for and respond early to people who are important to them. Crying and clinging are also attachment behaviors of infants which are used to signal others. Infants as early as one month old show signs of attachment in the form of anxiety if they are cared for by an unfamiliar person. They may show distress signs such as irregular sleeping or eating patterns.

Separation Anxiety

Separation anxiety is another attachment behavior of infants. This is when a child shows distress by often crying when unhappy because a familiar caregiver (parent or other caregiver) is leaving. The first signs of separation anxiety appear at about six months of age and are more clearly seen by nine months of age. Separation anxiety is very strong by 15 months of age and begins to gradually weaken around this time also. Parents and other caregivers need to understand and prepare for this attachment behavior (separation anxiety) in children by making transitions easier for the child. Children between the age of 9 and 18 months will usually have a lot of difficulty beginning a child care program. Parents can make the transition easier by bringing the child’s favorite toy or blanket along. It is also important to understand separation anxiety as a normal developmental process in which children are fearful because their familiar caregivers are leaving them. Children beginning a child care program are in an unfamiliar surrounding with unfamiliar people. Children will gradually show less distress as the setting, the people, and routines become more familiar to them.

An understanding of infant growth and development patterns and concepts is necessary for parents and caregivers to create a nurturing and caring environment which will stimulate young children’s learning. The growth and development of infants are periods of rapid change in the child’s size, senses, and organs. Each change brings about new abilities. An infant’s development in motor coordination, forming concepts, learning and using language, having positive feelings about self and others prepares them to build upon new abilities that will be needed for each change in a new stage of development. Caregivers can provide activities and opportunities for infants that encourage exploration and curiosity to enhance children’s overall development.

Publication Date

March 6, 2019

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Understanding Growth and Development Patterns of Infants (PDF)

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Novella J. Ruffin

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Virginia State University

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1 Chapter 1: Introduction to Child Development

Chapter objectives.

After this chapter, you should be able to:

Describe the principles that underlie development.
Differentiate periods of human development.
Evaluate issues in development.
Distinguish the different methods of research.
Explain what a theory is.
Compare and contrast different theories of child development.

Introduction

Welcome to Child Growth and Development. This text is a presentation of how and why children grow, develop, and learn.

We will look at how we change physically over time from conception through adolescence. We examine cognitive change, or how our ability to think and remember changes over the first 20 years or so of life. And we will look at how our emotions, psychological state, and social relationships change throughout childhood and adolescence. 1

Principles of Development

There are several underlying principles of development to keep in mind:

Development is lifelong and change is apparent across the lifespan (although this text ends with adolescence). And early experiences affect later development.
Development is multidirectional. We show gains in some areas of development, while showing loss in other areas.
Development is multidimensional. We change across three general domains/dimensions; physical, cognitive, and social and emotional.
The physical domain includes changes in height and weight, changes in gross and fine motor skills, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, as well as the propensity for disease and illness.
The cognitive domain encompasses the changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem-solving, memory, and language.
The social and emotional domain (also referred to as psychosocial) focuses on changes in emotion, self-perception, and interpersonal relationships with families, peers, and friends.

All three domains influence each other. It is also important to note that a change in one domain may cascade and prompt changes in the other domains.

Development is characterized by plasticity, which is our ability to change and that many of our characteristics are malleable. Early experiences are important, but children are remarkably resilient (able to overcome adversity).
Development is multicontextual. 2 We are influenced by both nature (genetics) and nurture (the environment) – when and where we live and our actions, beliefs, and values are a response to circumstances surrounding us. The key here is to understand that behaviors, motivations, emotions, and choices are all part of a bigger picture. 3

Now let’s look at a framework for examining development.

Periods of Development

Think about what periods of development that you think a course on Child Development would address. How many stages are on your list? Perhaps you have three: infancy, childhood, and teenagers. Developmentalists (those that study development) break this part of the life span into these five stages as follows:

Prenatal Development (conception through birth)
Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth through two years)
Early Childhood (3 to 5 years)
Middle Childhood (6 to 11 years)
Adolescence (12 years to adulthood)

This list reflects unique aspects of the various stages of childhood and adolescence that will be explored in this book. So while both an 8 month old and an 8 year old are considered children, they have very different motor abilities, social relationships, and cognitive skills. Their nutritional needs are different and their primary psychological concerns are also distinctive.

Prenatal Development

Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition, teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and labor and delivery are primary concerns.

Figure 1.1 – A tiny embryo depicting some development of arms and legs, as well as facial features that are starting to show. 4

Infancy and Toddlerhood

The two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers are also transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child.

Figure 1.2 – A swaddled newborn. 5

Early Childhood

Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years and consists of the years which follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a three to five-year-old, the child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not come quickly, however, and preschoolers may initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance such as fearing that they may go down the drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub or by demonstrating how long something will take by holding out their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler’s fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for action that brings the disapproval of others.

Figure 1.3 – Two young children playing in the Singapore Botanic Gardens 6

Middle Childhood

The ages of six through eleven comprise middle childhood and much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and by assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others. Schools compare students and make these comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. And children begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and fellow students.

Figure 1.4 – Two children running down the street in Carenage, Trinidad and Tobago 7

Adolescence

Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences. 8

Figure 1.5 – Two smiling teenage women. 9

There are some aspects of development that have been hotly debated. Let’s explore these.

Issues in Development

Nature and nurture.

Why are people the way they are? Are features such as height, weight, personality, being diabetic, etc. the result of heredity or environmental factors-or both? For decades, scholars have carried on the “nature/nurture” debate. For any particular feature, those on the side of Nature would argue that heredity plays the most important role in bringing about that feature. Those on the side of Nurture would argue that one’s environment is most significant in shaping the way we are. This debate continues in all aspects of human development, and most scholars agree that there is a constant interplay between the two forces. It is difficult to isolate the root of any single behavior as a result solely of nature or nurture.

Continuity versus Discontinuity

Is human development best characterized as a slow, gradual process, or is it best viewed as one of more abrupt change? The answer to that question often depends on which developmental theorist you ask and what topic is being studied. The theories of Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg are called stage theories. Stage theories or discontinuous development assume that developmental change often occurs in distinct stages that are qualitatively different from each other, and in a set, universal sequence. At each stage of development, children and adults have different qualities and characteristics. Thus, stage theorists assume development is more discontinuous. Others, such as the behaviorists, Vygotsky, and information processing theorists, assume development is a more slow and gradual process known as continuous development. For instance, they would see the adult as not possessing new skills, but more advanced skills that were already present in some form in the child. Brain development and environmental experiences contribute to the acquisition of more developed skills.

Figure 1.6 – The graph to the left shows three stages in the continuous growth of a tree. The graph to the right shows four distinct stages of development in the life cycle of a ladybug. 10

Active versus Passive

How much do you play a role in your own developmental path? Are you at the whim of your genetic inheritance or the environment that surrounds you? Some theorists see humans as playing a much more active role in their own development. Piaget, for instance believed that children actively explore their world and construct new ways of thinking to explain the things they experience. In contrast, many behaviorists view humans as being more passive in the developmental process. 11

How do we know so much about how we grow, develop, and learn? Let’s look at how that data is gathered through research

Research Methods

An important part of learning any science is having a basic knowledge of the techniques used in gathering information. The hallmark of scientific investigation is that of following a set of procedures designed to keep questioning or skepticism alive while describing, explaining, or testing any phenomenon. Some people are hesitant to trust academicians or researchers because they always seem to change their story. That, however, is exactly what science is all about; it involves continuously renewing our understanding of the subjects in question and an ongoing investigation of how and why events occur. Science is a vehicle for going on a never-ending journey. In the area of development, we have seen changes in recommendations for nutrition, in explanations of psychological states as people age, and in parenting advice. So think of learning about human development as a lifelong endeavor.

Take a moment to write down two things that you know about childhood. Now, how do you know? Chances are you know these things based on your own history (experiential reality) or based on what others have told you or cultural ideas (agreement reality) (Seccombe and Warner, 2004). There are several problems with personal inquiry. Read the following sentence aloud:

Paris in the

Are you sure that is what it said? Read it again:

If you read it differently the second time (adding the second “the”) you just experienced one of the problems with personal inquiry; that is, the tendency to see what we believe. Our assumptions very often guide our perceptions, consequently, when we believe something, we tend to see it even if it is not there. This problem may just be a result of cognitive ‘blinders’ or it may be part of a more conscious attempt to support our own views. Confirmation bias is the tendency to look for evidence that we are right and in so doing, we ignore contradictory evidence. Popper suggests that the distinction between that which is scientific and that which is unscientific is that science is falsifiable; scientific inquiry involves attempts to reject or refute a theory or set of assumptions (Thornton, 2005). Theory that cannot be falsified is not scientific. And much of what we do in personal inquiry involves drawing conclusions based on what we have personally experienced or validating our own experience by discussing what we think is true with others who share the same views.

Science offers a more systematic way to make comparisons guard against bias.

Scientific Methods

One method of scientific investigation involves the following steps:

Determining a research question
Reviewing previous studies addressing the topic in question (known as a literature review)
Determining a method of gathering information
Conducting the study
Interpreting results
Drawing conclusions; stating limitations of the study and suggestions for future research
Making your findings available to others (both to share information and to have your work scrutinized by others)

Your findings can then be used by others as they explore the area of interest and through this process a literature or knowledge base is established. This model of scientific investigation presents research as a linear process guided by a specific research question. And it typically involves quantifying or using statistics to understand and report what has been studied. Many academic journals publish reports on studies conducted in this manner.

Another model of research referred to as qualitative research may involve steps such as these:

Begin with a broad area of interest
Gain entrance into a group to be researched
Gather field notes about the setting, the people, the structure, the activities or other areas of interest
Ask open ended, broad “grand tour” types of questions when interviewing subjects
Modify research questions as study continues
Note patterns or consistencies
Explore new areas deemed important by the people being observed
Report findings

In this type of research, theoretical ideas are “grounded” in the experiences of the participants. The researcher is the student and the people in the setting are the teachers as they inform the researcher of their world (Glazer & Strauss, 1967). Researchers are to be aware of their own biases and assumptions, acknowledge them and bracket them in efforts to keep them from limiting accuracy in reporting. Sometimes qualitative studies are used initially to explore a topic and more quantitative studies are used to test or explain what was first described.

Let’s look more closely at some techniques, or research methods, used to describe, explain, or evaluate. Each of these designs has strengths and weaknesses and is sometimes used in combination with other designs within a single study.

Observational Studies

Observational studies involve watching and recording the actions of participants. This may take place in the natural setting, such as observing children at play at a park, or behind a one-way glass while children are at play in a laboratory playroom. The researcher may follow a checklist and record the frequency and duration of events (perhaps how many conflicts occur among 2-year-olds) or may observe and record as much as possible about an event (such as observing children in a classroom and capturing the details about the room design and what the children and teachers are doing and saying). In general, observational studies have the strength of allowing the researcher to see how people behave rather than relying on self-report. What people do and what they say they do are often very different. A major weakness of observational studies is that they do not allow the researcher to explain causal relationships. Yet, observational studies are useful and widely used when studying children. Children tend to change their behavior when they know they are being watched (known as the Hawthorne effect) and may not survey well.

Experiments

Experiments are designed to test hypotheses (or specific statements about the relationship between variables) in a controlled setting in efforts to explain how certain factors or events produce outcomes. A variable is anything that changes in value. Concepts are operationalized or transformed into variables in research, which means that the researcher must specify exactly what is going to be measured in the study.

Three conditions must be met in order to establish cause and effect. Experimental designs are useful in meeting these conditions.

The independent and dependent variables must be related. In other words, when one is altered, the other changes in response. (The independent variable is something altered or introduced by the researcher. The dependent variable is the outcome or the factor affected by the introduction of the independent variable. For example, if we are looking at the impact of exercise on stress levels, the independent variable would be exercise; the dependent variable would be stress.)

The cause must come before the effect. Experiments involve measuring subjects on the dependent variable before exposing them to the independent variable (establishing a baseline). So we would measure the subjects’ level of stress before introducing exercise and then again after the exercise to see if there has been a change in stress levels. (Observational and survey research does not always allow us to look at the timing of these events, which makes understanding causality problematic with these designs.)

The cause must be isolated. The researcher must ensure that no outside, perhaps unknown variables are actually causing the effect we see. The experimental design helps make this possible. In an experiment, we would make sure that our subjects’ diets were held constant throughout the exercise program. Otherwise, diet might really be creating the change in stress level rather than exercise.

A basic experimental design involves beginning with a sample (or subset of a population) and randomly assigning subjects to one of two groups: the experimental group or the control group. The experimental group is the group that is going to be exposed to an independent variable or condition the researcher is introducing as a potential cause of an event. The control group is going to be used for comparison and is going to have the same experience as the experimental group but will not be exposed to the independent variable. After exposing the experimental group to the independent variable, the two groups are measured again to see if a change has occurred. If so, we are in a better position to suggest that the independent variable caused the change in the dependent variable.

The major advantage of the experimental design is that of helping to establish cause and effect relationships. A disadvantage of this design is the difficulty of translating much of what happens in a laboratory setting into real life.

Case Studies

Case studies involve exploring a single case or situation in great detail. Information may be gathered with the use of observation, interviews, testing, or other methods to uncover as much as possible about a person or situation. Case studies are helpful when investigating unusual situations such as brain trauma or children reared in isolation. And they are often used by clinicians who conduct case studies as part of their normal practice when gathering information about a client or patient coming in for treatment. Case studies can be used to explore areas about which little is known and can provide rich detail about situations or conditions. However, the findings from case studies cannot be generalized or applied to larger populations; this is because cases are not randomly selected and no control group is used for comparison.

Figure 1.7 – Illustrated poster from a classroom describing a case study. 12

Surveys are familiar to most people because they are so widely used. Surveys enhance accessibility to subjects because they can be conducted in person, over the phone, through the mail, or online. A survey involves asking a standard set of questions to a group of subjects. In a highly structured survey, subjects are forced to choose from a response set such as “strongly disagree, disagree, undecided, agree, strongly agree”; or “0, 1-5, 6-10, etc.” This is known as Likert Scale . Surveys are commonly used by sociologists, marketing researchers, political scientists, therapists, and others to gather information on many independent and dependent variables in a relatively short period of time. Surveys typically yield surface information on a wide variety of factors, but may not allow for in-depth understanding of human behavior.

Of course, surveys can be designed in a number of ways. They may include forced choice questions and semi-structured questions in which the researcher allows the respondent to describe or give details about certain events. One of the most difficult aspects of designing a good survey is wording questions in an unbiased way and asking the right questions so that respondents can give a clear response rather than choosing “undecided” each time. Knowing that 30% of respondents are undecided is of little use! So a lot of time and effort should be placed on the construction of survey items. One of the benefits of having forced choice items is that each response is coded so that the results can be quickly entered and analyzed using statistical software. Analysis takes much longer when respondents give lengthy responses that must be analyzed in a different way. Surveys are useful in examining stated values, attitudes, opinions, and reporting on practices. However, they are based on self-report or what people say they do rather than on observation and this can limit accuracy.

Developmental Designs

Developmental designs are techniques used in developmental research (and other areas as well). These techniques try to examine how age, cohort, gender, and social class impact development.

Longitudinal Research

Longitudinal research involves beginning with a group of people who may be of the same age and background, and measuring them repeatedly over a long period of time. One of the benefits of this type of research is that people can be followed through time and be compared with them when they were younger.

Figure 1.8 – A longitudinal research design. 13

A problem with this type of research is that it is very expensive and subjects may drop out over time. The Perry Preschool Project which began in 1962 is an example of a longitudinal study that continues to provide data on children’s development.

Cross-sectional Research

Cross-sectional research involves beginning with a sample that represents a cross-section of the population. Respondents who vary in age, gender, ethnicity, and social class might be asked to complete a survey about television program preferences or attitudes toward the use of the Internet. The attitudes of males and females could then be compared, as could attitudes based on age. In cross-sectional research, respondents are measured only once.

Figure 1.9 – A cross-sectional research design. 14

This method is much less expensive than longitudinal research but does not allow the researcher to distinguish between the impact of age and the cohort effect. Different attitudes about the use of technology, for example, might not be altered by a person’s biological age as much as their life experiences as members of a cohort.

Sequential Research

Sequential research involves combining aspects of the previous two techniques; beginning with a cross-sectional sample and measuring them through time.

Figure 1.10 – A sequential research design. 15

This is the perfect model for looking at age, gender, social class, and ethnicity. But the drawbacks of high costs and attrition are here as well. 16

Table 1 .1 – Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Research Designs 17

Consent and Ethics in Research

Research should, as much as possible, be based on participants’ freely volunteered informed consent. For minors, this also requires consent from their legal guardians. This implies a responsibility to explain fully and meaningfully to both the child and their guardians what the research is about and how it will be disseminated. Participants and their legal guardians should be aware of the research purpose and procedures, their right to refuse to participate; the extent to which confidentiality will be maintained; the potential uses to which the data might be put; the foreseeable risks and expected benefits; and that participants have the right to discontinue at any time.

But consent alone does not absolve the responsibility of researchers to anticipate and guard against potential harmful consequences for participants. 18 It is critical that researchers protect all rights of the participants including confidentiality.

Child development is a fascinating field of study – but care must be taken to ensure that researchers use appropriate methods to examine infant and child behavior, use the correct experimental design to answer their questions, and be aware of the special challenges that are part-and-parcel of developmental research. Hopefully, this information helped you develop an understanding of these various issues and to be ready to think more critically about research questions that interest you. There are so many interesting questions that remain to be examined by future generations of developmental scientists – maybe you will make one of the next big discoveries! 19

Another really important framework to use when trying to understand children’s development are theories of development. Let’s explore what theories are and introduce you to some major theories in child development.

Developmental Theories

What is a theory.

Students sometimes feel intimidated by theory; even the phrase, “Now we are going to look at some theories…” is met with blank stares and other indications that the audience is now lost. But theories are valuable tools for understanding human behavior; in fact they are proposed explanations for the “how” and “whys” of development. Have you ever wondered, “Why is my 3 year old so inquisitive?” or “Why are some fifth graders rejected by their classmates?” Theories can help explain these and other occurrences. Developmental theories offer explanations about how we develop, why we change over time and the kinds of influences that impact development.

A theory guides and helps us interpret research findings as well. It provides the researcher with a blueprint or model to be used to help piece together various studies. Think of theories as guidelines much like directions that come with an appliance or other object that requires assembly. The instructions can help one piece together smaller parts more easily than if trial and error are used.

Theories can be developed using induction in which a number of single cases are observed and after patterns or similarities are noted, the theorist develops ideas based on these examples. Established theories are then tested through research; however, not all theories are equally suited to scientific investigation. Some theories are difficult to test but are still useful in stimulating debate or providing concepts that have practical application. Keep in mind that theories are not facts; they are guidelines for investigation and practice, and they gain credibility through research that fails to disprove them. 20

Let’s take a look at some key theories in Child Development.

Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

We begin with the often controversial figure, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud has been a very influential figure in the area of development; his view of development and psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the 1950s. His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children’s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for many years. We have only recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not always result in certain personality traits or emotional states. There is a growing body of literature addressing resilience in children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet develop without damaging emotional scars (O’Grady and Metz, 1987). Freud has stimulated an enormous amount of research and generated many ideas. Agreeing with Freud’s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of development.

Figure 1.11 – Sigmund Freud. 21

Freud’s theory of self suggests that there are three parts of the self.

The id is the part of the self that is inborn. It responds to biological urges without pause and is guided by the principle of pleasure: if it feels good, it is the thing to do. A newborn is all id. The newborn cries when hungry, defecates when the urge strikes.

The ego develops through interaction with others and is guided by logic or the reality principle. It has the ability to delay gratification. It knows that urges have to be managed. It mediates between the id and superego using logic and reality to calm the other parts of the self.

The superego represents society’s demands for its members. It is guided by a sense of guilt. Values, morals, and the conscience are all part of the superego.

The personality is thought to develop in response to the child’s ability to learn to manage biological urges. Parenting is important here. If the parent is either overly punitive or lax, the child may not progress to the next stage. Here is a brief introduction to Freud’s stages.

Table 1. 2 – Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory


	The lasts from birth until around age 2. The infant is all id. At this stage, all stimulation and comfort is focused on the mouth and is based on the reflex of sucking. Too much indulgence or too little stimulation may lead to fixation.
	The coincides with potty training or learning to manage biological urges. The ego is beginning to develop in this stage. Anal fixation may result in a person who is compulsively clean and organized or one who is sloppy and lacks self-control.
	The occurs in early childhood and marks the development of the superego and a sense of masculinity or femininity as culture dictates.
	occurs during middle childhood when a child’s urges quiet down and friendships become the focus. The ego and superego can be refined as the child learns how to cooperate and negotiate with others.
	The begins with puberty and continues through adulthood. Now the preoccupation is that of sex and reproduction.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory

Freud’s theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons. One is that it is very difficult to test scientifically. How can parenting in infancy be traced to personality in adulthood? Are there other variables that might better explain development? The theory is also considered to be sexist in suggesting that women who do not accept an inferior position in society are somehow psychologically flawed. Freud focuses on the darker side of human nature and suggests that much of what determines our actions is unknown to us. So why do we study Freud? As mentioned above, despite the criticisms, Freud’s assumptions about the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our psychological selves have found their way into child development, education, and parenting practices. Freud’s theory has heuristic value in providing a framework from which to elaborate and modify subsequent theories of development. Many later theories, particularly behaviorism and humanism, were challenges to Freud’s views. 22

Freud believed that:

Development in the early years has a lasting impact.

There are three parts of the self: the id, the ego, and the superego

People go through five stages of psychosexual development: the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stage, latency, and the genital stage

We study Freud because his assumptions the importance of early childhood experience provide a framework for later theories (the both elaborated and contradicted/challenged his work).

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Now, let’s turn to a less controversial theorist, Erik Erikson. Erikson (1902-1994) suggested that our relationships and society’s expectations motivate much of our behavior in his theory of psychosocial development. Erikson was a student of Freud’s but emphasized the importance of the ego, or conscious thought, in determining our actions. In other words, he believed that we are not driven by unconscious urges. We know what motivates us and we consciously think about how to achieve our goals. He is considered the father of developmental psychology because his model gives us a guideline for the entire life span and suggests certain primary psychological and social concerns throughout life.

Figure 1.12 – Erik Erikson. 23

Erikson expanded on his Freud’s by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968). He believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id. We make conscious choices in life and these choices focus on meeting certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems.

Erikson divided the lifespan into eight stages. In each stage, we have a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome. Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our lifespan as we face these challenges in living. Here is a brief overview of the eight stages:

Table 1. 3 – Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory


(0-1)	The infant must have basic needs met in a consistent way in order to feel that the world is a trustworthy place.
(1-2)	Mobile toddlers have newfound freedom they like to exercise and by being allowed to do so, they learn some basic independence.
(3-5)	Preschoolers like to initiate activities and emphasize doing things “all by myself.”
(6-11)	School aged children focus on accomplishments and begin making comparisons between themselves and their classmates
(adolescence)	Teenagers are trying to gain a sense of identity as they experiment with various roles, beliefs, and ideas.
(young adulthood)	In our 20s and 30s we are making some of our first long-term commitments in intimate relationships.
(middle adulthood)	The 40s through the early 60s we focus on being productive at work and home and are motivated by wanting to feel that we’ve made a contribution to society.
(late adulthood)	We look back on our lives and hope to like what we see-that we have lived well and have a sense of integrity because we lived according to our beliefs.

These eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the life span. Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy under certain circumstances. Erikson’s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all. For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices. 24

Erikson was a student of Freud but focused on conscious thought.

Behaviorism

While Freud and Erikson looked at what was going on in the mind, behaviorism rejected any reference to mind and viewed overt and observable behavior as the proper subject matter of psychology. Through the scientific study of behavior, it was hoped that laws of learning could be derived that would promote the prediction and control of behavior. 25

Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov (1880-1937) was a Russian physiologist interested in studying digestion. As he recorded the amount of salivation his laboratory dogs produced as they ate, he noticed that they actually began to salivate before the food arrived as the researcher walked down the hall and toward the cage. “This,” he thought, “is not natural!” One would expect a dog to automatically salivate when food hit their palate, but BEFORE the food comes? Of course, what had happened was . . . you tell me. That’s right! The dogs knew that the food was coming because they had learned to associate the footsteps with the food. The key word here is “learned”. A learned response is called a “conditioned” response.

Figure 1.13 – Ivan Pavlov. 26

Pavlov began to experiment with this concept of classical conditioning . He began to ring a bell, for instance, prior to introducing the food. Sure enough, after making this connection several times, the dogs could be made to salivate to the sound of a bell. Once the bell had become an event to which the dogs had learned to salivate, it was called a conditioned stimulus . The act of salivating to a bell was a response that had also been learned, now termed in Pavlov’s jargon, a conditioned response. Notice that the response, salivation, is the same whether it is conditioned or unconditioned (unlearned or natural). What changed is the stimulus to which the dog salivates. One is natural (unconditioned) and one is learned (conditioned).

Let’s think about how classical conditioning is used on us. One of the most widespread applications of classical conditioning principles was brought to us by the psychologist, John B. Watson.

John B. Watson

John B. Watson (1878-1958) believed that most of our fears and other emotional responses are classically conditioned. He had gained a good deal of popularity in the 1920s with his expert advice on parenting offered to the public.

Figure 1.14 – John B. Watson. 27

He tried to demonstrate the power of classical conditioning with his famous experiment with an 18 month old boy named “Little Albert”. Watson sat Albert down and introduced a variety of seemingly scary objects to him: a burning piece of newspaper, a white rat, etc. But Albert remained curious and reached for all of these things. Watson knew that one of our only inborn fears is the fear of loud noises so he proceeded to make a loud noise each time he introduced one of Albert’s favorites, a white rat. After hearing the loud noise several times paired with the rat, Albert soon came to fear the rat and began to cry when it was introduced. Watson filmed this experiment for posterity and used it to demonstrate that he could help parents achieve any outcomes they desired, if they would only follow his advice. Watson wrote columns in newspapers and in magazines and gained a lot of popularity among parents eager to apply science to household order.

Operant conditioning, on the other hand, looks at the way the consequences of a behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. So let’s look at this a bit more.

B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), who brought us the principles of operant conditioning, suggested that reinforcement is a more effective means of encouraging a behavior than is criticism or punishment. By focusing on strengthening desirable behavior, we have a greater impact than if we emphasize what is undesirable. Reinforcement is anything that an organism desires and is motivated to obtain.

Figure 1.15 – B. F. Skinner. 28

A reinforcer is something that encourages or promotes a behavior. Some things are natural rewards. They are considered intrinsic or primary because their value is easily understood. Think of what kinds of things babies or animals such as puppies find rewarding.

Extrinsic or secondary reinforcers are things that have a value not immediately understood. Their value is indirect. They can be traded in for what is ultimately desired.

The use of positive reinforcement involves adding something to a situation in order to encourage a behavior. For example, if I give a child a cookie for cleaning a room, the addition of the cookie makes cleaning more likely in the future. Think of ways in which you positively reinforce others.

Negative reinforcement occurs when taking something unpleasant away from a situation encourages behavior. For example, I have an alarm clock that makes a very unpleasant, loud sound when it goes off in the morning. As a result, I get up and turn it off. By removing the noise, I am reinforced for getting up. How do you negatively reinforce others?

Punishment is an effort to stop a behavior. It means to follow an action with something unpleasant or painful. Punishment is often less effective than reinforcement for several reasons. It doesn’t indicate the desired behavior, it may result in suppressing rather than stopping a behavior, (in other words, the person may not do what is being punished when you’re around, but may do it often when you leave), and a focus on punishment can result in not noticing when the person does well.

Not all behaviors are learned through association or reinforcement. Many of the things we do are learned by watching others. This is addressed in social learning theory.

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura (1925-) is a leading contributor to social learning theory. He calls our attention to the ways in which many of our actions are not learned through conditioning; rather, they are learned by watching others (1977). Young children frequently learn behaviors through imitation

Figure 1.16 – Albert Bandura. 29

Sometimes, particularly when we do not know what else to do, we learn by modeling or copying the behavior of others. A kindergartner on his or her first day of school might eagerly look at how others are acting and try to act the same way to fit in more quickly. Adolescents struggling with their identity rely heavily on their peers to act as role-models. Sometimes we do things because we’ve seen it pay off for someone else. They were operantly conditioned, but we engage in the behavior because we hope it will pay off for us as well. This is referred to as vicarious reinforcement (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1963).

Bandura (1986) suggests that there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. Parents not only influence their child’s environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, etc., but children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently with their first child than with their fourth. Perhaps they try to be the perfect parents with their firstborn, but by the time their last child comes along they have very different expectations both of themselves and their child. Our environment creates us and we create our environment. 30

Behaviorists look at observable behavior and how it can be predicted and controlled.

Theories also explore cognitive development and how mental processes change over time.

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is one of the most influential cognitive theorists. Piaget was inspired to explore children’s ability to think and reason by watching his own children’s development. He was one of the first to recognize and map out the ways in which children’s thought differs from that of adults. His interest in this area began when he was asked to test the IQ of children and began to notice that there was a pattern in their wrong answers. He believed that children’s intellectual skills change over time through maturation. Children of differing ages interpret the world differently.

Figure 1.17 – Jean Piaget. 32

Piaget believed our desire to understand the world comes from a need for cognitive equilibrium . This is an agreement or balance between what we sense in the outside world and what we know in our minds. If we experience something that we cannot understand, we try to restore the balance by either changing our thoughts or by altering the experience to fit into what we do understand. Perhaps you meet someone who is very different from anyone you know. How do you make sense of this person? You might use them to establish a new category of people in your mind or you might think about how they are similar to someone else.

A schema or schemes are categories of knowledge. They are like mental boxes of concepts. A child has to learn many concepts. They may have a scheme for “under” and “soft” or “running” and “sour”. All of these are schema. Our efforts to understand the world around us lead us to develop new schema and to modify old ones.

One way to make sense of new experiences is to focus on how they are similar to what we already know. This is assimilation . So the person we meet who is very different may be understood as being “sort of like my brother” or “his voice sounds a lot like yours.” Or a new food may be assimilated when we determine that it tastes like chicken!

Another way to make sense of the world is to change our mind. We can make a cognitive accommodation to this new experience by adding new schema. This food is unlike anything I’ve tasted before. I now have a new category of foods that are bitter-sweet in flavor, for instance. This is accommodation . Do you accommodate or assimilate more frequently? Children accommodate more frequently as they build new schema. Adults tend to look for similarity in their experience and assimilate. They may be less inclined to think “outside the box.”

Piaget suggested different ways of understanding that are associated with maturation. He divided this into four stages:

Table 1.4 – Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development


	During the s children rely on use of the senses and motor skills. From birth until about age 2, the infant knows by tasting, smelling, touching, hearing, and moving objects around. This is a real hands on type of knowledge.
	In the , children from ages 2 to 7, become able to think about the world using symbols. A is something that stands for something else. The use of language, whether it is in the form of words or gestures, facilitates knowing and communicating about the world. This is the hallmark of preoperational intelligence and occurs in early childhood. However, these children are preoperational or pre-logical. They still do not understand how the physical world operates. They may, for instance, fear that they will go down the drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub, even though they are too big.
	Children in the stage, ages 7 to 11, develop the ability to think logically about the physical world. Middle childhood is a time of understanding concepts such as size, distance, and constancy of matter, and cause and effect relationships. A child knows that a scrambled egg is still an egg and that 8 ounces of water is still 8 ounces no matter what shape of glass contains it.
	During the stage children, at about age 12, acquire the ability to think logically about concrete and abstract events. The teenager who has reached this stage is able to consider possibilities and to contemplate ideas about situations that have never been directly encountered. More abstract understanding of religious ideas or morals or ethics and abstract principles such as freedom and dignity can be considered.

Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory

Piaget has been criticized for overemphasizing the role that physical maturation plays in cognitive development and in underestimating the role that culture and interaction (or experience) plays in cognitive development. Looking across cultures reveals considerable variation in what children are able to do at various ages. Piaget may have underestimated what children are capable of given the right circumstances. 33

Piaget, one of the most influential cognitive theorists, believed that

Children’s understanding of the world of the world changes are their cognitive skills mature through 4 stages: sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concreate operational stage, and formal operational stage.

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who wrote in the early 1900s but whose work was discovered in the United States in the 1960s but became more widely known in the 1980s. Vygotsky differed with Piaget in that he believed that a person not only has a set of abilities, but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the proper guidance from others. His sociocultural theory emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities. He believed that through guided participation known as scaffolding, with a teacher or capable peer, a child can learn cognitive skills within a certain range known as the zone of proximal development . 34 His belief was that development occurred first through children’s immediate social interactions, and then moved to the individual level as they began to internalize their learning. 35

Figure 1.18- Lev Vygotsky. 36

Have you ever taught a child to perform a task? Maybe it was brushing their teeth or preparing food. Chances are you spoke to them and described what you were doing while you demonstrated the skill and let them work along with you all through the process. You gave them assistance when they seemed to need it, but once they knew what to do-you stood back and let them go. This is scaffolding and can be seen demonstrated throughout the world. This approach to teaching has also been adopted by educators. Rather than assessing students on what they are doing, they should be understood in terms of what they are capable of doing with the proper guidance. You can see how Vygotsky would be very popular with modern day educators. 37

Vygotsky concentrated on the child’s interactions with peers and adults. He believed that the child was an apprentice, learning through sensitive social interactions with more skilled peers and adults.

Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky

Vygotsky concentrated more on the child’s immediate social and cultural environment and his or her interactions with adults and peers. While Piaget saw the child as actively discovering the world through individual interactions with it, Vygotsky saw the child as more of an apprentice, learning through a social environment of others who had more experience and were sensitive to the child’s needs and abilities. 38

Like Vygotsky’s, Bronfenbrenner looked at the social influences on learning and development.

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) offers us one of the most comprehensive theories of human development. Bronfenbrenner studied Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and learning theorists and believed that all of those theories could be enhanced by adding the dimension of context. What is being taught and how society interprets situations depends on who is involved in the life of a child and on when and where a child lives.

Figure 1.19 – Urie Bronfenbrenner. 39

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model explains the direct and indirect influences on an individual’s development.

Table 1.5 – Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model


	impact a child directly. These are the people with whom the child interacts such as parents, peers, and teachers. The relationship between individuals and those around them need to be considered. For example, to appreciate what is going on with a student in math, the relationship between the student and teacher should be known.
	are interactions between those surrounding the individual. The relationship between parents and schools, for example will indirectly affect the child.
	Larger institutions such as the mass media or the healthcare system are referred to as the . These have an impact on families and peers and schools who operate under policies and regulations found in these institutions.
	We find cultural values and beliefs at the level of . These larger ideals and expectations inform institutions that will ultimately impact the individual.
	All of this happens in an historical context referred to as the . Cultural values change over time, as do policies of educational institutions or governments in certain political climates. Development occurs at a point in time.

For example, in order to understand a student in math, we can’t simply look at that individual and what challenges they face directly with the subject. We have to look at the interactions that occur between teacher and child. Perhaps the teacher needs to make modifications as well. The teacher may be responding to regulations made by the school, such as new expectations for students in math or constraints on time that interfere with the teacher’s ability to instruct. These new demands may be a response to national efforts to promote math and science deemed important by political leaders in response to relations with other countries at a particular time in history.

Figure 1.20 – Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. 40

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model challenges us to go beyond the individual if we want to understand human development and promote improvements. 41

After studying all of the prior theories, Bronfenbrenner added an important element of context to the discussion of influences on human development.

In this chapter we looked at:

underlying principles of development

the five periods of development

three issues in development

Various methods of research

important theories that help us understand development

Next, we are going to be examining where we all started with conception, heredity, and prenatal development.

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StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

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Human growth and development.

Palanikumar Balasundaram ; Indirapriya Darshini Avulakunta .

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Last Update: March 8, 2023 .

Continuing Education Activity

Evaluation of growth and development is a crucial element in the physical examination of a patient. A piece of good working knowledge and the skill to evaluate growth and development are necessary for any patient's diagnostic workup. The early recognition of growth or developmental failure helps for effective intervention in managing a patient's problem. This activity reviews the various aspects of human growth and development and highlights the interprofessional team's role in assessing the kids for growth and developmental delay.

Describe the stages of growth and development.
Review the factors affecting growth and development.
Outline the methods for growth measurements and standard screening tools for developmental assessment.
Explain how interprofessional collaboration and communication can improve patient outcomes when assessing a patient's physical development.
Introduction

In the context of childhood development, growth is defined as an irreversible constant increase in size, and development is defined as growth in psychomotor capacity. Both processes are highly dependent on genetic, nutritional, and environmental factors. Evaluation of growth and development is a crucial element in the physical examination of a patient. A piece of good working knowledge and the skills to evaluate growth and development are necessary for any patient's diagnostic workup. The early recognition of growth or developmental failure helps for effective intervention in managing a patient's problem.

Stages in Human Growth and Development

Fetal stage: Fetal health issues can have detrimental effects on postnatal growth. One-third of neonates with intrauterine growth retardation might have curtailed postnatal growth. [1] Good perinatal care is an essential factor in promoting fetal health and indirectly postnatal growth.
Infancy (neonate and up to one year age)
Toddler ( one to five years of age)
Childhood (three to eleven years old) - early childhood is from three to eight years old, and middle childhood is from nine to eleven years old.
Adolescence or teenage (from 12 to 18 years old)

Factors Affecting Growth and Development

The growth and development are positively influenced by factors, like parental health and genetic composition, even before conception. [3]

Genetic factors play a primary role in growth and development. The genetic factors influencing height is substantial in the adolescence phase. [4] A large longitudinal cohort study of 7755 Dutch twin pairs has suggested that the additive genetic factors predominantly explained the phenotypic correlations across the ages for height and body mass index. [5]
Fetal health has a highly influential role in achieving growth and development. Any stimulus or insult during fetal development causes developmental adaptations that produce permanent changes in the latter part of life.
After birth, the environmental factors may exert either a beneficial or detrimental effect on growth. [6]
Socioeconomic factors: Children of higher socio-economical classes are taller than the children of the same age and sex in the lower socioeconomic groups. Urbanization has positively influenced growth. The secular trend is observed in growth where the kids grow taller and mature more rapidly than the previous generation. This secular trend is observed significantly in developed countries like North America.
The family characteristics: Higher family education levels have a positive impact on growth. The inadequate emotional support and inadequate developmental stimulus, including language training, might cause growth and development deterioration.
The human-made environment influences human growth and development significantly. Certain ongoing studies have proven the relationship of pollutants in sexual maturation, obesity, and thyroid function. [7] The excess lead exposure antenatally significantly associates with low birth weight. Noise pollution due to transportation sources also has an association with reduced prenatal growth.
Nutrition
Malnutrition plays a detrimental role in the process of growth and development.
Deficiencies of trace minerals can affect growth and development. [8] Iron deficiency usually affects psychomotor development and does not affect growth. Zinc deficiency might cause growth retardation and developmental delay. Selenium, iodine, manganese, and copper also play a significant role.
Growth faltering or rapid weight gain in early childhood influences health in the later part of life. The diet in early childhood has a strong association with the likelihood of obesity later in life. 'Early Protein Hypothesis' shows that lowering the protein supply during infancy helps achieve normal growth and reduce obesity in early childhood. [9] This concept of the early protein hypothesis helps in improving the food products for children.
Genetic and environmental factors influence the growth and development in a perplexing interrelated pathway. Genetic and environmental risk factors are not mutually exclusive. Plasticity is the potential of a specific genotype to bring out diversified phenotypes in response to diverse environmental factors. [10] The developmental plasticity can happen from the embryonic stage to adolescence and can be passed onto the next generation.
Role of experience during early childhood: Exposure to adverse experiences in early childhood might hinder development. Profound neglect during early childhood can impair development. Children adopted before six months of age have similar development when compared to their non-adoptive siblings. If children adopted after six months have a high risk of cognition deficits, behavioral issues, autism, and hyperactivity. [11] Early intervention for children with adverse experiences is the pillar in healthy development.
Issues of Concern

Measurement of Growth

Anthropometry is the gold standard by which clinicians can assess nutritional status. The major anthropometric measurements for age up to 2 years are weight, length, weight for length, and head circumference. The major measurements used for children above two years are weight, height, body mass index (BMI), and head circumference for the 2-3 years age group.

Length or height: For children less than two years or children with severe cerebral palsy, the length is the ideal way of measuring stature. Length is measured by placing the child supine on an infant measuring board. For children aged more than two years, standing height is measured in the stadiometer after removing shoes. The supine length is usually 1 cm higher than standing height. Length and height can be documented to the closest 0.1 cm. For children with severe cerebral palsy or spinal deformities, upper arm length, tibial length, and knee height can be useful to assess stature. [12]
Weight: The kids below one year are weighed on a scale after removing the clothes, shoes, diaper, and documented to the closest 0.01 kg. The kids outside the infancy phase should be measured without shoes, with little or no outer clothing, and documented to the closest 0.1 kg.
Head circumference or occipitofrontal circumference: Head circumference is assessed by measuring the largest area from the prominent site at the back (occiput) to the frontal prominence above the supraorbital ridge. Brain growth is maximum in the first three years of life, so head circumference is used in children less than three years. It is measured as the maximum diameter through the supraorbital ridge to the occiput and documented to the closest 0.01 cm. Microcephaly is more than two standard deviations below the mean. Macrocephaly is more than two standard deviations above the mean.
< 5th percentile - underweight
5th to 84th percentile - normal
85th to 95th percentile - overweight
95th to 98th percentile - obesity
More than 99th percentile - severe obesity
The weight to length ratio is an alternative for body mass index in predicting adiposity in less than two years.
Self-assessment of the hip to waist ratio can help to guide the measure of central adiposity,
Triceps and subscapular skinfolds can also be a useful measure of adiposity. [13]
The upper segment to lower segment (U/L) ratio is 1.7 at birth, 1.3 at three years, and reaches 1.0 at greater than seven years. A higher U/L ratio is a feature in short-limb dwarfism.
Arm span to height ratio is a fixed ratio across all ages. The ratio of more than 1.05:1 is suggestive of Marfan syndrome. [14]
Sexual maturity: Tanner's stage can be used to assess sexual maturity.
Skeletal maturity: Bone age can be determined by doing Hand & Wrist radiographs from 3 to 18 years of age.
Dental assessment: Primary tooth eruption begins with the central incisors at six months. No single tooth by 13 months of age is of concern. Permanent tooth eruption starts at six years of age and continues up to 18 years of age.

Growth Velocity

The growth velocity is different at different stages of life. Also, different tissues grow at different rates at the same stage of life. The lymphoid tissues can exceed adult size at six years of age. Girls are taller than boys at 12 to 14 years, but later they will not grow taller than their boy's counterpart. Growth velocity is maximum during infancy and adolescence. The head circumference reaches closer to adult size by six years of age. The prepubertal height velocity of less than 4 cm per year is of concern. During puberty, the height velocity is 10 to 12 cm per year in boys and 8 to 10 cm per year in girls. The prepubertal weight velocity of less than 1 kg per year is of concern. Weight velocity is highest during puberty, up to 8 kg per year.

Stages of Development

Development is a continuous process from neonatal to adulthood. Though the growth ceases after adolescence, adolescence is not the end for development. Each developmental stage has a new set of challenges and opportunities.

Infancy : Development progress in cephalo-caudal direction and also from the midline to the lateral direction. A three to four-month variation can be there in achieving the developmental milestone. Social development is a cortical function that develops earlier than motor skills. Lack of social smile by four weeks is of concern. At birth, the infant is equipped with primitive reflexes. Certain primitive reflexes help in the normal physiology of infants. Sucking and rooting reflex helps inefficient feeding. Most of the primitive reflex disappears to facilitate the mature development process. For example, the grasp reflex disappears by six months, and the child develops mature grasp development from 6-12 months.
Early and late childhood: Between ages 1 and 3 years, locomotion and language are crucial. The best predictor of cognitive function is language. Fine motor skills are related to self-help skills. The most common development in early childhood is to establish self-identity. A child may have independent existence by three years of age. The kids learn independent existence skills like feeding behavior, toilet training, and self dressing during this stage of early and late childhood. Questioning skills develop during early childhood development.
Adolescence: Adolescence is hallmarked by puberty changes, which occur two years earlier in females than in males. Puberty changes are assessed using the Tanner staging. Acceptance of a new body and separation from home, and establishing oneself as an independent adult in society are the significant challenges in puberty.

Psychosocial Development

Erikson has postulated eight stages of psychosocial development.

Trust and mistrust in infancy (< 1 year): Infants develop trust with a warm response from the caretaker.
Autonomy and doubt in the toddler age group ( one to three years): Children feel autonomous if caregivers encourage independence. Otherwise, they will doubt their abilities.
Initiative and guilt in the preschool age group (three to six years): By imaginative play, kids experiment with their ambitions. If parents do not encourage their initiative, the kids will feel guilt.
Industry and inferiority in early school years: In school, children learn to work as a group. They will have inferiority feelings if the peer environment is hostile.
Identity and role confusion in adolescence: Self-identity is a significant development during adolescence.
Intimacy and isolation in early adulthood: Those who cannot establish relationships or intimacy are prone to be socially isolated.
Generativity and stagnation in middle adulthood: Parenting is the best example to guide the younger generation.
Ego integrity and despair in late adulthood: People who are not satisfied with what they did during their lifetime will be in despair.
Clinical Significance

Understanding normal growth and development milestones are important for a clinician evaluating pediatric patients. It isn't easy to recognize aberrance if you are not familiar with normal. By using growth charts and doing the developmental screening, oftentimes, challenges in care can be identified early.

Growth Charts

The CDC charts include children raised in a variety of nutritional conditions in the United States. In the CDC charts, the normal range between 5th and 95th percentiles.
The WHO growth chart describes children from birth to five years raised under optimal environmental conditions. The normal range is expressed as a Z score between -2.0 and +2.0, corresponding to 2 and 98 percentiles. Z-scores are the number of Standard deviations from the mean.
The WHO growth charts represent a growth standard, whereas the CDC growth chart represents a growth reference. WHO growth charts are used for children under two years of age, and the CDC growth charts are used in children for more than two years.
When using the WHO charts, the prevalence of short stature and obesity is similar to the CDC charts, but the underweight prevalence was lower than the CDC charts. [15] [16]
Preterm infants
During the stay in the neonatal intensive care unit, preterm growth charts like Fenton growth charts are used for all preterm infants less than 37 weeks gestational age. Fenton charts can be used from 22 weeks gestational age and up to ten weeks post-term.
WHO charts are useful to monitor the growth of preterm infants less than 37 weeks after discharge. The corrected postnatal age is used for up to two years. Corrected age for preterm kids is calculated as actual age in weeks - (40 weeks - gestational age at birth in weeks). [17]

Developmental Screening

Only 20% of the children with developmental delay in the United States receive early intervention before three years. Early intervention is useful in high-risk children to improve their cognitive and academic performance. Less than 50 % of clinicians are only using standardized screening tools in practice. Time constraints, lack of training are essential barriers in using the developmental screening tool. The Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ), the Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status, and the Child Development Inventory are standard screening tools used in practice. ASQ tool can be used for up to 66 months. The PEDS tool can be used up to eight years of age. Gross and fine motor milestones are assessed at every well-child visit in the first four years. Standardized developmental assessments using ASQ are mandatory at 9, 18, and 24 or 30 months. [18]

The clinician may screen more frequently if there are risk factors like prematurity, lead exposure, or low birth weight. Autism screening needs to be done at 18 and 24 months of age. If the screening tool reveals developmental delay, the child needs referrals to developmental pediatricians. Children up to three years with developmental delay are referred to early intervention programs, and children above three years of age are referred to special education services.

Red Flags in Growth and Development

Red flag signs in motor development are persistent fisting for more than three months, the persistence of primitive reflexes and rolling before two months, and hand dominance before 18 months.
No babbling by twelve months, no single words by sixteen months, no two-word sentences by two years, and loss of language skills are red flags.
Children whose height or weight readings below the 5th percentile, above the 95th percentile, or cross two major centile lines need further evaluation.
Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

The health care team should understand the developmental stages that their patients go through during early childhood. We should increase the awareness of health care professionals about the importance of standardized growth monitoring and the appropriate use of growth charts. Also, they need adequate training for using standard developmental screening tools.

Every clinician and nurse managing pediatric patients should have appropriate awareness of referral service to early intervention for eligible patients. Interprofessional collaboration between clinicians, mid-level practitioners, and nurses can improve patient outcomes as developmental delays require prompt intervention when caught, and earlier is always better. Children up to three years with developmental delay are referred to early intervention programs, and children above three years of age are referred to special education services.

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Disclosure: Palanikumar Balasundaram declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Indirapriya Darshini Avulakunta declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

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Published: 29 July 2024

Effects of feeding patterns during the first 6 months on weight development of infants ages 0–12 months: a longitudinal study

Chun-ying Zhang 1 , 2 ,
Wei Zhao 1 ,
Xiao-ping Pan 1 &
Ai-qun Huang 1

Scientific Reports volume 14 , Article number: 17451 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Epidemiology
Medical research
Paediatric research

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of feeding patterns during the first 6 months on weight development of infants ages 0–12 months. Using monitoring data from the Maternal and Child Health Project conducted by the National Center for Women and Children’s Health of the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention from September 2015 to June 2019, we categorized feeding patterns during the first 6 months as exclusive breastfeeding, formula feeding, or mixed feeding. We calculated weight-for-age Z scores (WAZ) according to the World Health Organization’s (WHO) 2006 Child Growth Standard using WHO Anthro version 3.2.2. A multilevel model was used to analyze the effect of feeding patterns during the first 6 months on the WAZ of infants ages 0–12 months in monitoring regions. Length of follow-up (age of infants) was assigned to level 1, and infants was assigned to level 2. Characteristics of infants, mothers, and families and region of the country were adjusted for in the model. The average weight of infants ages 0–12 months in our study (except the birth weights of boys who were formula fed or mixed fed) was greater than the WHO growth standard. After we adjusted for confounding factors, the multilevel model showed that the WAZ of exclusively breastfed and mixed-fed infants were statistically significantly higher than those of formula-fed infants (coefficients = 0.329 and 0.159, respectively; P < 0.05), and there was a negative interaction between feeding patterns and age (both coefficients = − 0.020; P < 0.05). Infants who were exclusively breastfed were heavier than formula-fed infants from birth until 12 months of age. Mixed-fed infants were heavier than formula-fed infants before 8 months, after which the latter overtook the former. Infants’ weight development may be influenced by feeding patterns during the first 6 months. Exclusive breastfeeding during the first 6 months may be beneficial for weight development of infants in infancy.

Infant feeding and growth trajectories in early childhood: the application and comparison of two longitudinal modelling approaches

Infant feeding practices associated with adiposity peak and rebound in the EDEN mother–child cohort

Higher fat mass and fat mass accretion during the first six months of life in exclusively breastfed infants

Introduction.

Since early 2000s, the prevalence of overweight and obesity among children has increased sharply in China with the Chinese diet habits and lifestyle changing. According to the figure derived from the World Health Organization (WHO), there was a dramatic increase by 30% in overweight and obesity of those aged under 5 years from 2000 to 2020 1 . Furthermore, Childhood obesity may track into adulthood and increase the risk of type 2 Diabetes, hypertension or other chronic diseases in later life, which is difficult to reverse and bring considerable burden to patients, their families and society 2 . Therefore, how to prevent and control the overweight and obesity during childhood phase has become an urgent public health problem in China 3 .

Early life, especially infancy, is a critical period for growth and development. It is well known that breast milk is the best source of nutrients for newborns. The bioactivity in breast milk (e.g., human milk oligosaccharides) protects infants against diarrhea, pneumonia, and other infectious diseases and reduces infant mortality 4 , 5 . In addition, breastfeeding may reduce the incidence of breast cancer and ovarian cancer among mothers 6 , 7 . Improving breastfeeding worldwide could save the lives of more than 82,000 children younger than 5 years old as well as prevent the deaths of 20,000 mothers from breast cancer each year 8 . Furthermore, breastfeeding plays an important role in narrowing the gap between rich and poor regions 9 . Therefore, breastfeeding has been promoted all around the world in recent years. The World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF recommend exclusive breastfeeding until 6 months of age, with continued breastfeeding to 2 years of age or beyond 10 . Nevertheless, because of insufficient breast milk, physical disease in the mother, or concerns about nutrition or other factors, the use of formula to supplement or substitute for breast milk 11 , 12 , 13 is a universal phenomenon in China.

Body weight is one of the most sensitive and important parameters reflecting the nutritional status and health of infants. Weight-for-age Z scores (WAZ) can be calculated to reflect growth status according to the WHO standard for children with an optimal environment for growth 14 , 15 . Although several studies have focused on the influence of breastfeeding on the physical growth of infants, the relationship between feeding patterns and the weight/WAZ of infants is inconsistent and unclear. A previous study reported that infants who were exclusively breastfed were heavier than mixed-fed infants from birth until 12 months of age 16 , whereas other research showed that mixed-fed and formula-fed infants were heavier than exclusively breastfed infants after 6 months 17 , 18 , 19 . Finally, a longitudinal study in China showed no significant difference in WAZ between exclusively breastfed and formula-fed infants before 6 months after matching on covariates 20 .

Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the effects of feeding patterns during the first 6 months on weight development of infants ages 0–12 months to provide data for promoting nutrition and the health of infants.

Data used in this study were from the Maternal and Child Health Monitoring Project conducted by the National Center for Women and Children’s Health of the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention from September 2015 to June 2019. In the project, five districts in four provinces (Hebei, Liaoning, Fujian, and Hunan) were selected as monitoring sites. These districts were selected based on their good compliance and their existing management systems for child health according to the requirements of the National Basic Public Health Service Project covering the whole area. Pregnant women in their third trimester were recruited as participants, and their children were followed for 3 years. To be included in the study, pregnant women had to (1) have a gestational age between 28 and 36 weeks, (2) have a singleton birth, (3) live in the monitoring site for more than half a year or be a member of the registered population, (4) expect to live in the monitoring site until their child was 3 years of age and present their child to receive routine child health care, (5) have an established handbook of maternal health care with complete records of antenatal examination, and (6) agree to participate in the entire follow-up and provide informed consent. Pregnant women with mental illness or brain disease were excluded. Ultimately, a total of 2731 mother–infant pairs were included in this project.

Participants

Study subjects were 2731 infants in the aforementioned project ages 0–12 months. To ensure homogeneity of infant growth and development, 297 infants were excluded based on gestational age of delivery < 37 weeks (n = 97), neonatal asphyxia (n = 20), birth defects (n = 10), low birth weight (n = 35), or macrosomia (n = 135). An additional 45 infants were excluded because of missing information on breastfeeding. Ultimately 2389 eligible infants contributed to this study.

Data collection

Anthropometric measurements.

Infants’ birth length and birth weight were both obtained from midwifery institutions. Data on length and weight were collected by specially trained investigators at five follow-up time points (ages 1, 3, 6, 8, and 12 months). The investigators complied with the requirements of the National Basic Public Health Service Standards.

Questionnaire

A questionnaire was designed and revised several times by experts at the National Center for Women and Children’s Health. Data on characteristics of mothers and families, such as sociodemographic characteristics and diet and lifestyle during pregnancy, were collected by investigators in face-to-face interviews with pregnant women in their third trimester. Information on infants, such as sociodemographic characteristics and feeding status, was acquired by investigators at face-to-face physical examinations of infants at three follow-up time points (ages 1, 6, and 12 months) at the same time.

Calculation of Z scores

WHO Anthro version 3.2.2 was used to calculate WAZ according to infants’ gender, age, and weight measurements.

Definition of feeding patterns during the first 6 months

Based on feeding information obtained by the Maternal and Child Health Monitoring Project at 6 months, feeding patterns of infants during the first 6 months were classified into three types: exclusive breastfeeding (i.e., infants were not weaned or given any other drink, except water, or any complementary foods at 6 months), formula feeding (i.e., infants were not breastfed at 6 months), or mixed feeding (i.e., infants received both breast milk and formula at 6 months).

We controlled for potential confounders that may be related to the physical growth and development of infants, including characteristics of infants (including gender, birth weight, and timing for starting complementary foods), characteristics of mothers and families (including maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index [BMI], maternal education, paternal BMI, and annual family income), and region of the country. The timing for starting complementary food was classified as ≤ 6 months or > 6 months. Based on guidelines for the prevention and control of overweight and obesity in Chinese adults 21 , both maternal pre-pregnancy BMI and paternal BMI were divided into three classes: underweight (< 18.5 kg/m 2 ), normal weight (18.5–23.9 kg/m 2 ), and overweight/obese (≥ 24.0 kg/m 2 ). Maternal education was classified as less than college or college or higher. Annual family income was categorized as < 4107 dollars or ≥ 4107 dollars. Region of the country was categorized as northern or southern China.

Statistical analysis

Continuous variables are presented as means and standard deviations, and categorical variables are presented as frequencies and proportions (%). The chi-square test and t test were used to compare baseline characteristics between boys and girls.

Construction of a multilevel model

Multilevel models, also called “random effect models,” “random coefficient models,” and “mixed-effects models,” show the inherent connections and time-varying regularity of research characteristics in the same subject across different follow-up points. They also show interactions between influencing factors (research variables and other confounders) and time. In addition, these models allow the use of data in unbalanced designs with different follow-up intervals or times or missing data at follow-up points 22 . For this reason they have been widely used to deal with unbalanced repeated measures and longitudinal data in the field of the growth and development of children 23 , 24 , 25 . Therefore, we used a two-level growth model to analyze the association between feeding patterns during the first 6 months and the WAZ of infants ages 1–12 months. Length of follow-up (age of infants) was assigned to level 1, and infants was assigned to level 2. We took the WAZ of infants ages 1, 3, 6, 8, and 12 months as the outcome variable; age (length of follow-up), feeding patterns, and the interaction between age and feeding patterns as fixed effects; and age and infants as random effects. Because there is a nonlinear relationship between age and WAZ, a polynomial of time was added to the model. (The model was best-fitted when fixed coefficient of age was up to and including the cubic term and random coefficient at level 2 was liner according to Akaike’s information criterion and the Bayesian information criterion, χ 2 = 8932.33, P < 0.05; Akaike’s information criterion and the Bayesian information criterion were 22,219.60 and 22,242.70, respectively.) All data analyses were performed in SAS version 9.4. P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Ethics statement

The Maternal and Child Health Monitoring Project was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of the National Center for Women and Children’s Health, China CDC (record no. FY2015-012). All of pregnant woman signed informed consent before enrollment. And all research was performed in accordance with relevant guidelines/regulations.

Baseline characteristics of the study subjects

Among the 2389 infants included in this study, there were slightly more boys (52.53%) than girls (47.47%); the ratio was about 1.11:1.00. The birth weight and birth length of boys were significantly greater than those of girls. Most (69.82%) infants were mixed fed during the first 6 months; 16.12% and 14.06% of infants were exclusively breastfed and formula fed, respectively, during the first 6 months. About 80% of infants received complementary food before 6 months. The average delivery age was 28.80 years. Moreover, 19.62% and 17.18% of mothers were underweight and overweight/obese, respectively; 4.86% and 44.76% of fathers were underweight and overweight/obese, respectively. The majority of mothers had less than a college education. Among the majority of families, the annual family income was more than 30,000 yuan. Finally, 56.43% and 43.57% of infants lived in the north and south of the country, respectively (Table 1 ).

The weight development of infants ages 0–12 by feeding pattern

As shown in Table 2 , the average weight of infants ages 0–12 months in our study (except the birth weights of boys who were formula fed or mixed fed) was greater than the WHO growth standard.

As shown in Figs. 1 , 2 , 3 , and 4 , the weight/WAZ of exclusively breastfed infants at the five follow-up points (except boys age 12 months) were higher than those of formula-fed and mixed-fed infants according to the anthropometric data.

The growth curve of follow-up data of weight of boys with different feeding patterns [(Mean ± SD) kg].

The growth curve of follow-up data of weight of girls with different feeding patterns [(Mean ± SD) kg].

The schematic diagrams of the WAZ values and changes of boys aged 0–12 months with feeding patterns.

The schematic diagrams of the WAZ values and changes of girls aged 0–12 months with feeding patterns.

The association between feeding patterns and the WAZ of infants ages 0–12 months

As shown in Table 3 after we adjusted for confounding factors, the multilevel model showed that the WAZ of exclusively breastfed and mixed-fed infants were statistically significantly higher than those of formula-fed infants (coefficients = 0.329 and 0.159, respectively), and there was a negative interaction between feeding patterns and age (both coefficients = − 0.020; P < 0.05). Infants who were exclusively breastfed were heavier than formula-fed infants from birth to 12 months of age. Mixed-fed infants were heavier than formula-fed infants before 8 months, after which the latter overtook the former.

Moreover, infant birth weight was positively associated with WAZ, which increased by about 1.216 units for every 1-unit increase in birth weight. The WAZ of girls were higher than those of boys. The WAZ of infants in northern China were higher than those of infants in southern China. Compared to infants who started complementary food before 6 months, infants who started after 6 months had lower WAZ. Infants were more likely to have lower WAZ if their mothers were underweight and were more likely to have higher WAZ if their fathers were overweight/obese. Infants whose mothers had a college education or higher had higher WAZ compared to infants whose mothers had less than a college education (Table 3 ).

Our study shows that breastfeeding is the main feeding pattern during the first 6 months in these monitoring regions. However, the prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding is quite low. The 2013 Chinese National Nutrition and Health Survey showed that the prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding before 6 months was only 20.7% 26 , which is consistent with this study. This suggests that health guidelines and education should continue to be strengthened in monitoring regions to reduce the use of and dependence on formula and increase the prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding within the first 6 months of age.

The average weight of infants at the five follow-up time points in our study was greater than the WHO standard, which demonstrates that infants with all three feeding patterns can achieve good growth, a result also found in other Chinese research 27 , 28 . The WAZ-curve declined after 8 months for all feeding patterns, which are consistent with previous research 29 . This suggests that with the rapid economic development and improvement in living conditions, as well as effective actions for the promotion of breastfeeding have been taken in recent years, infants in early infancy are in a good physical growth status. However, the inappropriate complementary feeding behavior (e.g., complementary foods with a poor nutritional quality) is very common in rural and urban in China, which may associate with lower growth velocity of infants 30 , 31 .

The multilevel model in this study showed a positive association between exclusive breastfeeding or mixed feeding and weight development of infants. However, a negative interaction between feeding patterns and age was observed at the same time. This suggests that breastfeeding is beneficial for weight development of infants, especially in early infancy, although complementary food should replace human breast milk and become the main source of nutrients for infants as they age 32 . Thus, great attention should be paid to the timely and scientific addition of complementary food, while breastfeeding should be promoted in the meantime. Our findings show that infants who were exclusively breastfed were heavier than formula-fed infants from birth to 12 months of age, which might imply that exclusive breastfeeding before 6 months promotes infants’ physical growth and development better compared to formula that gradually improving its nutritional composition and ratio of nutrient. Similar findings have been reported in previous research carried out by Eriksen et al. in Gambia 16 , Kuchenbecker et al. in Malawi 33 , and Wright et al. in The Philippines 34 . Previous research has determined that breast milk contains rich nutrients and compared to formula is better absorbed to satisfy the nutritional requirements of infants 35 , 36 . The majority content of essential components in commercial infant formulas in China adequate the new national standard requirements, however, a few essential nutrient (e.g., vitamin D) in the formula products cannot meet with the new national standard requirements 37 .There were significant differences in the content and stereochemical structure of Triacylglycerols (TAGs) between commercial infant formulas and breast milk 38 . Moreover, exclusive breastfeeding may protect infants against gastrointestinal, respiratory, and other infections, enhance maternal-infant attachment, and contribute to facilitate the consumption of more vegetables in later childhood in obesity prone normal weight children 39 , 40 . A study in Belarus reported that breastfeeding infants who were lighter at a previous visit were significantly more likely to have been weaned by a subsequent visit, especially at 2–6 months of age, which suggests that the growth status of infants may also affect feeding behaviors 41 .

In addition, our study found associations between gender, birth weight, paternal BMI, complementary food, and region of the country and the WAZ of infants. Our findings are consistent with previous research 42 , 43 .These may indicate that different regions may difference in lifestyle habits, eating habits and customs, and the growth and development of infants result from a combination of genetic, geographic, nutritional, and other environmental factors. It is difficult to change genetic and geographic factors, and therefore persistent exclusive breastfeeding during the first 6 months may be of great importance to promoting weight growth of infants.

Limitations

The present study has some limitations. Our study was conducted in five monitoring sites in four provinces of China, and thus the results cannot be generalized to China as a whole. The classification of feeding patterns during the first 6 months was based on feeding information collected at a follow-up point (6 months of age), which may have affected the feeding rate. In addition, some research suggests that complementary food should be added at 4–6 months of age. However, the definition of exclusive breastfeeding in this study was that infants were not given any complementary foods at 6 months, and thus the prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding in this study may have been low. Furthermore, this multilevel model adjusted for only the timing for starting complementary food, not the types or frequency of complementary food. Besides, amount of sleep and other lifestyle factors that may affect the growth of infants were not considered, which may have affected the accuracy of the results. Finally, compared to WAZ, weight-for-length Z scores (WLZ) can better reflect the nutritional status of infants by controlling for the influence of length on weight, so the associations between feeding patterns and WLZ after adjusting for characteristics of infants, mothers, and families and region of the country need to be further studied in the future.

Conclusions

Infants’ weight development may be influenced by different feeding patterns during the first 6 months. Exclusive breastfeeding during the first 6 months is beneficial for weight development of infants in infancy. It is difficult to change genetic and geographic factors, and therefore persistent exclusive breastfeeding during the first 6 months may be of great importance to promoting weight development of infants.

Data availability

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to the protection for the privacy of participants but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

World Health Organization

Weight-for-age Z score

Weight-for-length Z score

Body mass index

Akaike’s information criterion

Bayesian information criterion

Standard deviation

Standard error

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Acknowledgements

We sincerely appreciate the support of the administrators, child health physicians, and investigators in the five monitoring regions and greatly appreciate the support of all the families that participated in this research project.

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Chun-ying Zhang, Wei Zhao, Xiao-ping Pan & Ai-qun Huang

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The data analysis and writing of the manuscript were completed by C.Z. Data quality control was performed by W.Z. and A.H., X.P. and A.H. reviewed the first draft of the manuscript and helped with revisions. All authors approved the final manuscript as submitted and agreed to be held accountable for all aspects of the work.

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Zhang, Cy., Zhao, W., Pan, Xp. et al. Effects of feeding patterns during the first 6 months on weight development of infants ages 0–12 months: a longitudinal study. Sci Rep 14 , 17451 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58164-x

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Table of Contents

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About the Contributors

Understanding Growth and Development Patterns of Infants

Introduction

Physical Development

Motor Sequence

Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Stage

Object Permanence

Emotional Development/ Social-Emotional Development

Temperament

Separation Anxiety

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1 Chapter 1: Introduction to Child Development

Introduction

Principles of Development

Periods of Development

Prenatal Development

Infancy and Toddlerhood

Early Childhood

Middle Childhood

Adolescence

Issues in Development

Continuity versus Discontinuity

Active versus Passive

Research Methods

Scientific Methods

Observational Studies

Experiments

Case Studies

Developmental Designs

Longitudinal Research

Cross-sectional Research

Sequential Research

Consent and Ethics in Research

Developmental Theories

Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Behaviorism

Ivan Pavlov

John B. Watson

B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning

Social Learning Theory

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model

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