analysis part of case study

Main Tips On How To Write Case Study Analysis

Table of contents

• 1 What is a Case Study Analysis?
• 2 Difference Between Research Paper and Case Study
• 3 Types of Case Studies
• 4 Writing a Case Study Draft
• 5 How to Write a Case Study Outline
• 6 How to Write a Case Study
• 7 How to Analyze a Case Study
• 8.1 Tips for a Successful Case Analysis
• 9 How to Format a Case Study
• 10 How to Create a Title Page and Cite a Case Study

Many students struggle with how to do a case study analysis. Writing such an assignment is always daunting, as it requires you to analyze something and form conclusions based on your research.

It usually focuses on phenomena you can’t study in a typical way. Therefore, when writing such a text, you have to prepare thoughtfully. In the  PapersOwl article, you will find out what this academic writing is and how to write a case analysis.

What is a Case Study Analysis?

A case study analysis is a form of writing that analyzes a specific situation, event, object, person, or even place. The said analysis should be written and structured to lead to a conclusion. Typically, you cannot analyze the subject of this essay via quantitative methods.

Note that such studies can be used in various fields and require the use of many theories that can give you a unique approach to the matter. For example, you can write a paper like this about social sciences, business, medicine, and many other fields. Each of these will require a particular approach.

Difference Between Research Paper and Case Study

Both research papers and case studies share common features, yet they also differ in several key aspects. Hence, knowing these parallels and distinctions, you will be able to learn how to write a case study assignment correctly.

A case study introduction can present the topic but does not require a citation of other similar works or the writer’s opinion. In contrast, a research paper requires citations right from the introduction, as it builds on the research of others.

Furthermore, authors of case studies should share their insights and perspectives on the case they study. A major difference is that  research papers  concentrate on a specific issue and use solid evidence. In contrast, case studies examine a subject in depth, offer detailed information, and help develop critical thinking skills.

Types of Case Studies

When it comes to writing case study analysis, there are five types you must learn to differentiate. That is important because whether you get such an assignment, you will have to understand the task first and then start with the writing.

Here are the types of case studies which you will encounter most often:

• Problem-oriented – this type focuses on real-life situations or theoretical issues and aims to solve them. For example, “World Hunger.”
• The second type is critical , also known as innate . The goal is to investigate a specific case, particularly its effects and what causes them – “Why Toys Remain Gender Stereotyped.”

Historical case studies focus on events from our past. The text should contain information about a specific historical period of this type. Your goal will be to provide different perspectives of an event and parallel them to current-day issues. An example of such a topic is “Racism During Ancient Times – Roman Empire.”

• The illustrative or Instrumental type focuses on describing a particular event. Here you have to explain the event’s outcome and what you have learned from it. A sample of such a topic is “The Effects of Dance Therapy in Depressed Adolescents.”
• Collective case studies are the fifth type. They include a collection of data about a specific case you will use to compare. E.g., “The Management Leadership at Work.”
• Exploratory Case Studies . This type often applies in new fields of study or in cases where little data exists. An example of this type is “Initial Insights into Behavioral Trends in Cryptocurrency Trading.”

Writing a Case Study Draft

Creating a rough draft is the foremost step to take while writing such a paper. It is an essential step you must take, no matter how experienced you are. By doing it, you will be able to get more creative. In addition, you can explore options and decide on what to focus on more precisely, which will eventually result in a higher grade for your work.

So, sit down in a quiet place, bring an old-fashioned pen and paper, and start drafting ideas. Read them briefly while sipping on your tea and edit. After you have decided where your focus will lay, you have to develop these ideas and thoughts a bit more, then pick the best one.

How to Write a Case Study Outline

Creating a case study outline is an essential step in the writing process using the case study research method. Here’s how you can structure this preparation effectively:

• Conduct Research: Begin by using academic search engines like Google Scholar, or refer to books and published materials to gather relevant data. This research will help clarify the structure of your case study and determine the main points that need addressing.
• Formulate Your Thesis Statement: Develop a clear thesis statement that will guide the narrative of your case study. This statement should be based on the specific topic you have chosen.
• Outline Preparation
• Review Case Details: Thoroughly review the case you are analyzing to ensure a deep understanding of the subject.
• Note-taking and Question Formulation: Write down important notes and questions that arise during your review. Highlight relevant facts and critical data points that will support your analysis.
• Identify Problems and Causes: Identify the main problems and consider what their causes might be. This includes figuring out who is responsible and how these problems impact the company.
• Preliminary Research: Perform initial research to discover if similar problems have occurred previously and how they were resolved. This can offer insights into possible solutions and strategies for your case study.

The outline for your case study paper is essential to your writing process. It lets your professor assess your understanding of the topic, the correctness of your format, and the structure of your paper. They can spot any potential problems with your work. Having an outline serves as a guide for both you and your professor, making it easier to plan and write your paper . With the help of a well-crafted outline, your professor can navigate your paper more easily and spot any issues before they arise. Writing a case study can be challenging, but having a strong outline makes the process simpler.

A case study outline will most likely consist of the following sections and information:

• Case study title;
• Student’s name;
• Educational instructor’s name;
• Course name.

Introduction/Summary

• It briefly overviews your case study, thesis statement, and essential findings.

Main Body Paragraphs – usually three to five

• Literature Review/Background Information;
• Method/Findings;
• Discussion/Solutions/Recommendations.
• Repeat a paraphrased version of your thesis;
• Summarize your case study key points;
• Finish with a statement that can recommend the audience to read further by giving them thoughts to contemplate and develop new ideas.

Reference List or Bibliography

• List all the sources of evidence used to create your case study in your educational organization’s required citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard, Turabian, etc.).

How to Write a Case Study

The way to write a case study is by strictly following the main idea of your thesis. You already know that a study’s main body consists of an introduction, literature review, method, discussion, and conclusion sections. Thus, all that is left is to focus on these parts and understand how to make them perfect.

• The Introduction/Summary: The introduction of a case study should start with a solid first sentence that will hook the reader. Afterward, you must explain the question you will be answering and why you are doing it. You should include some of the topic’s relevant history and details here. Also, you should explain how your case study will enrich the available information. Also, briefly summarize your literature review, which your findings will use as a base. Try to finish positively and make the reader see the benefits of reading your work.

• Background Information/Literature Review: ‍Structure and present the data from your academic sources . This section will show the reader how vital your work is and the basis for it.
• Method/Findings: This part aims to explain the case you selected, how it connects to the issue, and why you chose them. You can also add what methods you use. Here you must note that the data collection methods are qualitative, not quantitative, for case studies. That means the data is not random but well-structured and chronically taken from interviews, focus groups, and other sources.
• Discussion/Solutions: Restate your thesis but rephrase it, then draw your conclusions from what you have discovered via your research and link to your statement. Inform the audience of your main findings and define why the results are relevant to the field. Think about the following questions:

Were the results unexpected? Why/Why not?

How do your findings compare to previous similar case studies in your literature review?

Do your findings correlate to previous results, or do they contradict them?

Are your findings helpful in deepening the current understanding of the topic?

Next, explore possible alternative explanations or interpretations of your findings. Be subjective and explain your paper’s limitations. End with some suggestions for further exploration based on the limits of your work. ‍

• Conclusion: Inform the reader precisely why your case study and findings are relevant, and restate your thesis and main results. Give a summary of previous studies you reviewed and how you contributed to expanding current knowledge. The final should explain how your work can be helpful and implemented in future research.

Your instructor should have an excellent example they can show you, so feel free to ask. They will surely want to help you learn how to write a case study!

How to Analyze a Case Study

Analyzing a case study involves a structured approach that simulates real-life scenarios and is key to developing actionable insights. Here is a step-by-step guide adapted from Ellet, W. (2007) to help you effectively analyze a case study:

• Identify the Type of Case Study

Begin by determining the type of case study you are examining. This could be:

• Problems: Where something significant has occurred, and the cause is unknown.
• Decisions : Where a clear decision needs making, requiring options, criteria, and relevant evidence.
• Evaluations : Where you assess the effectiveness of a performance or outcome.
• Rules : These involve using quantitative methods to analyze a business area.
• Develop a Hypothesis

From the perspective of the protagonist, formulate a hypothesis to address the dilemma. Consider what you need to know about the situation:

• For problems: Understand the aspects, significance, and responsible parties.
• For decisions: Identify the options available, the stakes involved, and the decision-making criteria.
• For evaluations: Determine who or what is evaluated, the stakes, and the key evaluation criteria.
• Evidence and Alternatives

Evaluate your hypothesis by considering:

• The evidence supporting your hypothesis and any additional evidence needed.
• The weaknesses of your hypothesis and possible alternatives.

Writing a Case Analysis

Writing a case analysis involves a structured approach that enables you to communicate your understanding and analytical skills effectively. Here’s how you can craft your analysis to be insightful and comprehensive:

• Start with a Clear Definition or Position Statement

Begin your case analysis by stating your main conclusion, which serves as the answer to “What?” This initial statement should clearly outline what you have concluded from your analysis of the case.

• Build a Strong Argument with Evidence

Support your position statement with solid evidence, which answers “Why?” This evidence can be quantitative (numerical data) or qualitative (observations and interviews). The purpose here is to provide a foundation for your conclusions, showing how you arrived at them through logical reasoning.

• Outline a Chronological Action Plan

Detail the steps necessary to solve the problem, implement a decision, or enhance performance. This section answers “How?” and should include specific, realistic steps that address any major risks associated with your plan.

Tips for a Successful Case Analysis

• Aim to deliver concise and clear results of your analytical process rather than a simple summary or a complete transcript of your thoughts.
• Ensure your reader understands and is persuaded by your analysis by linking your conclusions directly to credible evidence.
• Discuss the advantages and also acknowledge any disadvantages of your conclusions to provide a balanced view.

How to Format a Case Study

Knowing how a case study analysis format should look is crucial. Therefore, you must know what the text structure should look like. The standard one contains about eight sections:

• Introduction/The Executive Summary: As the first part here, you have to hook the reader’s attention, so the introduction of the case study is the most important part of the writing.  Then present them with a brief overview of your case study analyses and their findings. Make sure to form a good thesis statement , as this is the pivotal point of your work.
• Literary Review/Background information: Similarly to other papers, in this part, you have to write your most important facts or findings while identifying the case issue.
• Method/Findings/Discussion: This section can be written separately based on how your text flows. Here you will have to explore more about the case and its findings. Allow yourself to go into more detail instead of just briefly covering them.
• Solutions/Recommendations/Implementation Part: You have to discuss the answers you came up with. Basically, you say why they are fit to solve the case and how you think they can be used in practice. Note that you must write only realistic and practical solutions for the problem. It’s possible to write testable evidence that can support your recommendations.
• Conclusion: Here, you are supposed to cover your whole paper briefly and even repeat the thesis (rephrased). Make sure to highlight the critical points of your case study.
• References or Bibliography: This section must include the sources from which you collected data or whom you consulted. Usually, this part is on a separate page, and the listing should be according to your academic institution’s requirements.
• Appendices (include only if applicable): It is usual for some parts of your materials to be too lengthy or unfit for the other sections of the case study. Therefore, you have to include them here. That can be pictures, raw data of statistics, graphs, notes, etc. The appendix section is strictly for subsidiary materials, do not put the most relevant ones here.
• Author Note: Remember that all educational institutions have their requirement for a case study format. The abovementioned is an example; thus, you may see a section or another is missing, or there are additional ones.

How to Create a Title Page and Cite a Case Study

A case study in APA format for students can differ from one institution to another. So, knowing your college or school requirements is crucial before you start writing. Nonetheless, the general one should look like this:

• Title – A header no longer than nine words has “Case Study” and reflects the content and the idea behind it yet is engaging to read;
• Write your full name;
• The name of your course/class;
• Next is your professor or instructor name;
• The university/school name;
• The date of submission.

When citing in your paper, you must ensure it is done accurately and in your academic style. If you are unsure how to do it, research the requirements and google “How to do a case study analysis in Harvard”, for example. Note that short citations can be in your text, but longer ones should be in the bibliography section.

Hruby, A. (2018). Hruby, A., & Hu, F. B. (2015). The epidemiology of obesity: a big picture. Pharmacoeconomics, 33(7), 673-689. www.sciepub.com. http://www.sciepub.com/reference/254744

Case studies strive to analyze an event, location, case, or person. They can be similar to research papers, so you must pay close attention to the structure and what your professor has requested from you.

Finally, the process of writing can be overwhelming due to the many sections. However, if you take the process step by step and do your preparations properly, you will have an easy time writing the paper. You can also look for assistance online – many services offer to order case study online help . With the right kind of assistance, you can be sure that your paper is of high quality and is due on time!

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• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

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Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

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Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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Sales CRM Terms

What is Case Study Analysis? (Explained With Examples)

Oct 11, 2023

Case Study Analysis is a widely used research method that examines in-depth information about a particular individual, group, organization, or event. It is a comprehensive investigative approach that aims to understand the intricacies and complexities of the subject under study. Through the analysis of real-life scenarios and inquiry into various data sources, Case Study Analysis provides valuable insights and knowledge that can be used to inform decision-making and problem-solving strategies.

1°) What is Case Study Analysis?

Case Study Analysis is a research methodology that involves the systematic investigation of a specific case or cases to gain a deep understanding of the subject matter. This analysis encompasses collecting and analyzing various types of data, including qualitative and quantitative information. By examining multiple aspects of the case, such as its context, background, influences, and outcomes, researchers can draw meaningful conclusions and provide valuable insights for various fields of study.

When conducting a Case Study Analysis, researchers typically begin by selecting a case or multiple cases that are relevant to their research question or area of interest. This can involve choosing a specific organization, individual, event, or phenomenon to study. Once the case is selected, researchers gather relevant data through various methods, such as interviews, observations, document analysis, and artifact examination.

The data collected during a Case Study Analysis is then carefully analyzed and interpreted. Researchers use different analytical frameworks and techniques to make sense of the information and identify patterns, themes, and relationships within the data. This process involves coding and categorizing the data, conducting comparative analysis, and drawing conclusions based on the findings.

One of the key strengths of Case Study Analysis is its ability to provide a rich and detailed understanding of a specific case. This method allows researchers to delve deep into the complexities and nuances of the subject matter, uncovering insights that may not be captured through other research methods. By examining the case in its natural context, researchers can gain a holistic perspective and explore the various factors and variables that contribute to the case.

1.1 - Definition of Case Study Analysis

Case Study Analysis can be defined as an in-depth examination and exploration of a particular case or cases to unravel relevant details and complexities associated with the subject being studied. It involves a comprehensive and detailed analysis of various factors and variables that contribute to the case, aiming to answer research questions and uncover insights that can be applied in real-world scenarios.

When conducting a Case Study Analysis, researchers employ a range of research methods and techniques to collect and analyze data. These methods can include interviews, surveys, observations, document analysis, and experiments, among others. By using multiple sources of data, researchers can triangulate their findings and ensure the validity and reliability of their analysis.

Furthermore, Case Study Analysis often involves the use of theoretical frameworks and models to guide the research process. These frameworks provide a structured approach to analyzing the case and help researchers make sense of the data collected. By applying relevant theories and concepts, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the underlying factors and dynamics at play in the case.

1.2 - Advantages of Case Study Analysis

Case Study Analysis offers numerous advantages that make it a popular research method across different disciplines. One significant advantage is its ability to provide rich and detailed information about a specific case, allowing researchers to gain a holistic understanding of the subject matter. Additionally, Case Study Analysis enables researchers to explore complex issues and phenomena in their natural context, capturing the intricacies and nuances that may not be captured through other research methods.

Moreover, Case Study Analysis allows researchers to investigate rare or unique cases that may not be easily replicated or studied through experimental methods. This method is particularly useful when studying phenomena that are complex, multifaceted, or involve multiple variables. By examining real-world cases, researchers can gain insights that can be applied to similar situations or inform future research and practice.

Furthermore, this research method allows for the analysis of multiple sources of data, such as interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which can contribute to a comprehensive and well-rounded examination of the case. Case Study Analysis also facilitates the exploration and identification of patterns, trends, and relationships within the data, generating valuable insights and knowledge for future reference and application.

1.3 - Disadvantages of Case Study Analysis

While Case Study Analysis offers various advantages, it also comes with certain limitations and challenges. One major limitation is the potential for researcher bias, as the interpretation of data and findings can be influenced by preconceived notions and personal perspectives. Researchers must be aware of their own biases and take steps to minimize their impact on the analysis.

Additionally, Case Study Analysis may suffer from limited generalizability, as it focuses on specific cases and contexts, which might not be applicable or representative of broader populations or situations. The findings of a case study may not be easily generalized to other settings or individuals, and caution should be exercised when applying the results to different contexts.

Moreover, Case Study Analysis can require significant time and resources due to its in-depth nature and the need for meticulous data collection and analysis. This can pose challenges for researchers working with limited budgets or tight deadlines. However, the thoroughness and depth of the analysis often outweigh the resource constraints, as the insights gained from a well-conducted case study can be highly valuable.

Finally, ethical considerations also play a crucial role in Case Study Analysis, as researchers must ensure the protection of participant confidentiality and privacy. Researchers must obtain informed consent from participants and take measures to safeguard their identities and personal information. Ethical guidelines and protocols should be followed to ensure the rights and well-being of the individuals involved in the case study.

2°) Examples of Case Study Analysis

Real-world examples of Case Study Analysis demonstrate the method's practical application and showcase its usefulness across various fields. The following examples provide insights into different scenarios where Case Study Analysis has been employed successfully.

2.1 - Example in a Startup Context

In a startup context, a Case Study Analysis might explore the factors that contributed to the success of a particular startup company. It would involve examining the organization's background, strategies, market conditions, and key decision-making processes. This analysis could reveal valuable lessons and insights for aspiring entrepreneurs and those interested in understanding the intricacies of startup success.

2.2 - Example in a Consulting Context

In the consulting industry, Case Study Analysis is often utilized to understand and develop solutions for complex business problems. For instance, a consulting firm might conduct a Case Study Analysis on a company facing challenges in its supply chain management. This analysis would involve identifying the underlying issues, evaluating different options, and proposing recommendations based on the findings. This approach enables consultants to apply their expertise and provide practical solutions to their clients.

2.3 - Example in a Digital Marketing Agency Context

Within a digital marketing agency, Case Study Analysis can be used to examine successful marketing campaigns. By analyzing various factors such as target audience, message effectiveness, channel selection, and campaign metrics, this analysis can provide valuable insights into the strategies and tactics that contribute to successful marketing initiatives. Digital marketers can then apply these insights to optimize future campaigns and drive better results for their clients.

2.4 - Example with Analogies

Case Study Analysis can also be utilized with analogies to investigate specific scenarios and draw parallels to similar situations. For instance, a Case Study Analysis could explore the response of different countries to natural disasters and draw analogies to inform disaster management strategies in other regions. These analogies can help policymakers and researchers develop more effective approaches to mitigate the impact of disasters and protect vulnerable populations.

In conclusion, Case Study Analysis is a powerful research method that provides a comprehensive understanding of a particular individual, group, organization, or event. By analyzing real-life cases and exploring various data sources, researchers can unravel complexities, generate valuable insights, and inform decision-making processes. With its advantages and limitations, Case Study Analysis offers a unique approach to gaining in-depth knowledge and practical application across numerous fields.

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What is a case study?

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Case Study Analysis: Examples + How-to Guide & Writing Tips

A case study analysis is a typical assignment in business management courses. The task aims to show high school and college students how to analyze a current situation, determine what problems exist, and develop the best possible strategy to achieve the desired outcome.

Many students feel anxious about writing case analyses because being told to analyze a case study and provide a solution can seem like a big task. That is especially so when working with real-life scenarios. However, you can rest assured writing a case analysis paper is easier than you think. Just keep reading this article and you will find case study examples for students and the advice provided by Custom-writing experts!

• 👣 Main Steps
• 🕵 Preparing the Case

🔬 Analyzing the Case

• 📑 Format & Structure
• 🙅 Things to Avoid
• 🏁 Conclusion

🔗 References

👣 writing a case study analysis: main steps.

Business management is built on case analysis. Every single economic result shows that the methods and instruments employed were either well-timed and expedient, in the event of success, or not, in case of failure. These two options indicate whether the strategy is efficient (and should be followed) or requires corrections (or complete change). Such an approach to the case study will make your writing piece more proficient and valuable for the reader. The following steps will direct your plan for writing a case study analysis.

Step 1: Preliminary work

• Make notes and highlight the numbers and ideas that could be quoted.
• Single out as many problems as you can, and briefly mark their underlying issues. Then make a note of those responsible. In the report, you will use two to five of the problems, so you will have a selection to choose from.
• Outline a possible solution to each of the problems you found. Course readings and outside research shall be used here. Highlight your best and worst solution for further reference.

Step 2: Drafting the Case

• Provide a general description of the situation and its history.
• Name all the problems you are going to discuss.
• Specify the theory used for the analysis.
• Present the assumptions that emerged during the analysis, if any.
• Describe the detected problems in more detail.
• Indicate their link to, and effect on, the general situation.
• Explain why the problems emerged and persist.
• List realistic and feasible solutions to the problems you outlined, in the order of importance.
• Specify your predicted results of such changes.
• Support your choice with reliable evidence (i.e., textbook readings, the experience of famous companies, and other external research).
• Define the strategies required to fulfill your proposed solution.
• Indicate the responsible people and the realistic terms for its implementation.
• Recommend the issues for further analysis and supervision.

Step 3: Finalizing the Case

Like any other piece of writing, a case analysis requires post-editing. Carefully read it through, looking for inconsistencies and gaps in meaning. Your purpose is to make it look complete, precise, and convincing.

🕵 Preparing a Case for Analysis

Your professor might give you various case study examples from which to choose, or they may just assign you a particular case study. To conduct a thorough data analysis, you must first read the case study. This might appear to be obvious. However, you’d be surprised at how many students don’t take adequate time to complete this part.

Read the case study very thoroughly, preferably several times. Highlight, underline, flag key information, and make notes to refer to later when you are writing your analysis report.

If you don’t have a complete knowledge of the case study your professor has assigned, you won’t conduct a proper analysis of it. Even if you make use of a business case study template or refer to a sample analysis, it won’t help if you aren’t intimately familiar with your case study.

You will also have to conduct research. When it comes to research, you will need to do the following:

• Gather hard, quantitative data (e.g. 67% of the staff participated in the meeting).
• Design research tools , such as questionnaires and surveys (this will aid in gathering data).
• Determine and suggest the best specific, workable solutions.

It would be best if you also learned how to analyze a case study. Once you have read through the case study, you need to determine the focus of your analysis. You can do this by doing the following:

Compare your chosen solutions to the solutions offered by the experts who analyzed the case study you were given or to online assignments for students who were dealing with a similar task. The experts’ solutions will probably be more advanced than yours simply because these people are more experienced. However, don’t let this discourage you; the whole point of doing this analysis is to learn. Use the opportunity to learn from others’ valuable experience, and your results will be better next time.

If you are still in doubt, the University of South Carolina offers a great guide on forming a case study analysis.

📑 Case Analysis Format & Structure

When you are learning how to write a case study analysis, it is important to get the format of your analysis right. Understanding the case study format is vital for both the professor and the student. The person planning and handing out such an assignment should ensure that the student doesn’t have to use any external sources .

In turn, students have to remember that a well-written case analysis provides all the data, making it unnecessary for the reader to go elsewhere for information.

Regardless of whether you use a case study template, you will need to follow a clear and concise format when writing your analysis report. There are some possible case study frameworks available. Still, a case study should contain eight sections laid out in the following format:

• Describe the purpose of the current case study;
• Provide a summary of the company;
• Briefly introduce the problems and issues found in the case study
• Discuss the theory you will be using in the analysis;
• Present the key points of the study and present any assumptions made during the analysis.
• Present each problem you have singled out;
• Justify your inclusion of each problem by providing supporting evidence from the case study and by discussing relevant theory and what you have learned from your course content;
• Divide the section (and following sections) into subsections, one for each of your selected problems.
• Present a summary of each problem you have identified;
• Present plausible solutions for each of the problems, keeping in mind that each problem will likely have more than one possible solution;
• Provide the pros and cons of each solution in a way that is practical.
• Conclusion . This is a summary of your findings and discussion.
• Decide which solution best fits each of the issues you identified;
• Explain why you chose this solution and how it will effectively solve the problem;
• Be persuasive when you write this section so that you can drive your point home;
• Be sure to bring together theory and what you have learned throughout your course to support your recommendations.
• Provide an explanation of what must be done, who should take action, and when the solution should be carried out;
• Where relevant, you should provide an estimate of the cost in implementing the solution, including both the financial investment and the cost in terms of time.
• References. While you generally do not need to refer to many external sources when writing a case study analysis, you might use a few. When you do, you will need to properly reference these sources, which is most often done in one of the main citation styles, including APA, MLA, or Harvard. There is plenty of help when citing references, and you can follow these APA guidelines , these MLA guidelines , or these Harvard guidelines .
• Appendices. This is the section you include after your case study analysis if you used any original data in the report. These data, presented as charts, graphs, and tables, are included here because to present them in the main body of the analysis would be disruptive to the reader. The University of Southern California provides a great description of appendices and when to make use of them.

When you’ve finished your first draft, be sure to proofread it. Look not only for potential grammar and spelling errors but also for discrepancies or holes in your argument.

You should also know what you need to avoid when writing your analysis.

🙅 Things to Avoid in Case Analysis

Whenever you deal with a case study, remember that there are some pitfalls to avoid! Beware of the following mistakes:

• Excessive use of colloquial language . Even though it is a study of an actual case, it should sound formal.
• Lack of statistical data . Give all the important data, both in percentages and in numbers.
• Excessive details. State only the most significant facts, rather than drowning the reader in every fact you find.
• Inconsistency in the methods you have used . In a case study, theory plays a relatively small part, so you must develop a specific case study research methodology.
• Trivial means of research . It is critical that you design your own case study research method in whatever form best suits your analysis, such as questionnaires and surveys.

It is useful to see a few examples of case analysis papers. After all, a sample case study report can provide you with some context so you can see how to approach each aspect of your paper.

👀 Case Study Examples for Students

It might be easier to understand how a case study analysis works if you have an example to look at. Fortunately, examples of case studies are easy to come by. Take a look at this video for a sample case study analysis for the Coca-Cola Company.

If you want another example, then take a look at the one below!

Business Case Analysis: Example

CRM’s primary focus is customers and customer perception of the brand or the company. The focus may shift depending on customers’ needs. The main points that Center Parcs should consider are an increase in customer satisfaction and its market share. Both of these points will enhance customer perception of the product as a product of value. Increased customer satisfaction will indicate that the company provides quality services, and increased market share can reduce the number of switching (or leaving) customers, thus fostering customer loyalty.

Case Study Topics

• Equifax case study: the importance of cybersecurity measures. 
• Study a case illustrating ethical issues of medical research.
• Examine the case describing the complications connected with nursing and residential care.
• Analyze the competitive strategy of Delta Airlines .
• Present a case study of an ethical dilemma showing the conflict between the spirit and the letter of the law.  
• Explore the aspects of Starbucks’ marketing strategyin a case study.  
• Research a case of community-based clinic organization and development.
• Customer service of United Airlines: a case study .
• Analyze a specific schizophrenia case and provide your recommendations.
• Provide a case study of a patient with hyperglycemia.
• Examine the growth strategy of United Healthcare.
• Present a case study demonstrating ethical issues in business.
• Study a case of the 5% shareholding rule application and its impact on the company.
• Case study of post-traumatic stress disorder .
• Analyze a case examining the issues of cross-cultural management .
• Write a case study exploring the ethical issues the finance manager of a long-term care facility can face and the possible reaction to them.
• Write a case study analyzing the aspects of a new president of a firm election.
• Discuss the specifics of supply chain management in the case of Tehindo company.
• Study a case of a life crisis in a family and the ways to cope with it.
• Case study of Tea Leaves and More: supply chain issues.   
• Explore the case of ketogenic diet implementation among sportspeople.  
• Analyze the case of Webster Jewelry shop and suggest some changes.  
• Examine the unique aspects of Tea and More brand management.  
• Adidas case study: an ethical dilemma .
• Research the challenges of Brazos Valley Food Bank and suggest possible solutions.  
• Describe the case of dark web monitoring for business.  
• Study a case of permissive parenting style .
• Case study of Starbucks employees.
• Analyze a case of workplace discrimination and suggest a strategy to avoid it.
• Examine a case of the consumer decision-making process and define the factors that influence it.
• Present a case study of Netflix illustrating the crucial role of management innovation for company development.  
• Discuss a case describing a workplace ethical issue and propose ways to resolve it.
• Case study of the 2008 financial crisis: Graham’s value investing principles in the modern economic climate.
• Write a case study analyzing the harmful consequences of communication issues in a virtual team.
• Analyze a case that highlights the importance of a proper functional currency choice. 
• Examine the case of Hitachi Power Systems management.  
• Present a case study of medication research in a healthcare facility.
• Study the case of Fiji Water and the challenges the brand faces.  
• Research a social problem case and suggest a solution.
• Analyze a case that reveals the connection between alcohol use and borderline personality disorder.
• Transglobal Airline case study: break-even analysis.
• Examine the case of Chiquita Brands International from the moral and business ethics points of view.
• Present a case study of applying for Social Security benefits. 
• Study the case of a mass hacker attack on Microsoft clients and suggest possible ways to prevent future attacks.
• Case study of leadership effectiveness. 
• Analyze a case presenting a clinical moral dilemma and propose ways to resolve it. 
• Describe the case of Cowbell Brewing Company and discuss the strategy that made them successful.
• Write a case study of WeWork company and analyze the strengths and weaknesses of its strategy.
• Case study of medical ethical decision-making.
• Study the case of The Georges hotel and suggest ways to overcome its managerial issues.

🏁 Concluding Remarks

Writing a case study analysis can seem incredibly overwhelming, especially if you have never done it before. Just remember, you can do it provided you follow a plan, keep to the format described here, and study at least one case analysis example.

If you still need help analyzing a case study, your professor is always available to answer your questions and point you in the right direction. You can also get help with any aspect of the project from a custom writing company. Just tackle the research and hand over the writing, write a rough draft and have it checked by a professional, or completely hand the project off to an expert writer.

Regardless of the path you choose, you will turn in something of which you can be proud!

✏️ Case Study Analysis FAQ

Students (especially those who study business) often need to write a case study analysis. It is a kind of report that describes a business case. It includes multiple aspects, for example, the problems that exist, possible solutions, forecasts, etc.

There should be 3 main points covered in a case study analysis:

• The challenge(s) description,
• Possible solutions,
• Outcomes (real and/or foreseen).

Firstly, study some examples available online and in the library. Case study analysis should be a well-structured paper with all the integral components in place. Thus, you might want to use a template and/or an outline to start correctly.

A case study analysis is a popular task for business students. They typically hand it in the format of a paper with several integral components:

• Description of the problem
• Possible ways out
• Results and/or forecasts

Students sometimes tell about the outcome of their research within an oral presentation.

• Case Study: Academia
• Windows of vulnerability: a case study analysis (IEEE)
• A (Very) Brief Refresher on the Case Study Method: SAGE
• The case study approach: Medical Research Methodology
• Strengths and Limitations of Case Studies: Stanford University
• A Sample APA Paper: Radford University
• How to Write a Case Study APA Style: Seattle PI
• The Case Analysis: GVSU
• How to Outline: Purdue OWL
• Incorporating Interview Data: UW-Madison Writing Center
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This article was very helpful, even though I’ll have a clearer mind only after I do the case study myself but I felt very much motivated after reading this, as now I can at least have a plan of what to do compared to the clueless me I was before I read it. I hope if I have any questions or doubts about doing a case study I can clear it out here.

How to Write a Case Study Analysis

Step-By-Step Instructions

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When writing a business case study analysis , you must first have a good understanding of the case study . Before you begin the steps below, read the business case carefully, taking notes all the while. It may be necessary to read the case several times to get all of the details and fully grasp the issues facing the group, company, or industry.

As you are reading, do your best to identify key issues, key players, and the most pertinent facts. After you are comfortable with the information, use the following step-by-step instructions (geared toward a single-company analysis) to write your report. To write about an industry, just adapt the steps listed here to discuss the segment as a whole.

Step 1: Investigate the Company’s History and Growth

A company’s past can greatly affect the present and future state of the organization. To begin, investigate the company’s founding, critical incidents, structure, and growth. Create a timeline of events, issues, and achievements. This timeline will come in handy for the next step. 

Step 2: Identify Strengths and Weaknesses

Using the information you gathered in step one, continue by examining and making a list of the value creation functions of the company. For example, the company may be weak in product development but strong in marketing. Make a list of problems that have occurred and note the effects they have had on the company. You should also list areas where the company has excelled. Note the effects of these incidents as well.

You're essentially conducting a partial SWOT analysis to get a better understanding of the company's strengths and weaknesses. A SWOT analysis involves documenting things like internal strengths (S) and weaknesses (W) and external opportunities (O) and threats (T). 

Step 3: Examine the External Environment

The third step involves identifying opportunities and threats within the company’s external environment. This is where the second part of the SWOT analysis (the O and the T) comes into play. Special items to note include competition within the industry, bargaining powers, and the threat of substitute products. Some examples of opportunities include expansion into new markets or new technology. Some examples of threats include increasing competition and higher interest rates.

Step 4: Analyze Your Findings

Using the information in steps 2 and 3, create an evaluation for this portion of your case study analysis. Compare the strengths and weaknesses within the company to the external threats and opportunities. Determine if the company is in a strong competitive position, and decide if it can continue at its current pace successfully.

Step 5: Identify Corporate-Level Strategy

To identify a company’s corporate-level strategy, identify and evaluate the company’s mission , goals, and actions toward those goals. Analyze the company’s line of business and its subsidiaries and acquisitions. You also want to debate the pros and cons of the company strategy to determine whether or not a change might benefit the company in the short or long term.​

Step 6: Identify Business-Level Strategy

Thus far, your case study analysis has identified the company’s corporate-level strategy. To perform a complete analysis, you will need to identify the company’s business-level strategy. (Note: If it is a single business, without multiple companies under one umbrella, and not an industry-wide review, the corporate strategy and the business-level strategy are the same.) For this part, you should identify and analyze each company’s competitive strategy, marketing strategy, costs, and general focus.

Step 7: Analyze Implementations

This portion requires that you identify and analyze the structure and control systems that the company is using to implement its business strategies. Evaluate organizational change, levels of hierarchy, employee rewards, conflicts, and other issues that are important to the company you are analyzing.

Step 8: Make Recommendations

The final part of your case study analysis should include your recommendations for the company. Every recommendation you make should be based on and supported by the context of your analysis. Never share hunches or make a baseless recommendation.

You also want to make sure that your suggested solutions are actually realistic. If the solutions cannot be implemented due to some sort of restraint, they are not realistic enough to make the final cut.

Finally, consider some of the alternative solutions that you considered and rejected. Write down the reasons why these solutions were rejected. 

Step 9: Review

Look over your analysis when you have finished writing. Critique your work to make sure every step has been covered. Look for grammatical errors , poor sentence structure, or other things that can be improved. It should be clear, accurate, and professional.

Business Case Study Analysis Tips

Keep these strategic tips in mind:

• Know the case study ​backward and forward before you begin your case study analysis.
• Give yourself enough time to write the case study analysis. You don't want to rush through it.
• Be honest in your evaluations. Don't let personal issues and opinions cloud your judgment.
• Be analytical, not descriptive.
• Proofread your work, and even let a test reader give it a once-over for dropped words or typos that you no longer can see.
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15.7 Evaluation: Presentation and Analysis of Case Study

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Revise writing to follow the genre conventions of case studies.
• Evaluate the effectiveness and quality of a case study report.

Case studies follow a structure of background and context , methods , findings , and analysis . Body paragraphs should have main points and concrete details. In addition, case studies are written in formal language with precise wording and with a specific purpose and audience (generally other professionals in the field) in mind. Case studies also adhere to the conventions of the discipline’s formatting guide ( APA Documentation and Format in this study). Compare your case study with the following rubric as a final check.

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Blog Beginner Guides 6 Types of Case Studies to Inspire Your Research and Analysis

6 Types of Case Studies to Inspire Your Research and Analysis

Written by: Ronita Mohan Sep 20, 2021

Case studies have become powerful business tools. But what is a case study? What are the benefits of creating one? Are there limitations to the format?

If you’ve asked yourself these questions, our helpful guide will clear things up. Learn how to use a case study for business. Find out how cases analysis works in psychology and research.

We’ve also got examples of case studies to inspire you.

Haven’t made a case study before? You can easily  create a case study  with Venngage’s customizable case study templates .

Click to jump ahead:

What is a case study?

6 types of case studies, what is a business case study, what is a case study in research, what is a case study in psychology, what is the case study method, benefits of case studies, limitations of case studies, faqs about case studies.

A case study is a research process aimed at learning about a subject, an event or an organization. Case studies are use in business, the social sciences and healthcare.

A case study may focus on one observation or many. It can also examine a series of events or a single case. An effective case study tells a story and provides a conclusion.

Healthcare industries write reports on patients and diagnoses. Marketing case study examples , like the one below, highlight the benefits of a business product.

Now that you know what a case study is, let’s look at the six different types of case studies next.

There are six common types of case reports. Depending on your industry, you might use one of these types.

Descriptive case studies

Explanatory case studies, exploratory case reports, intrinsic case studies, instrumental case studies, collective case reports.

We go into more detail about each type of study in the guide below.

Related:  15+ Professional Case Study Examples [Design Tips + Templates]

When you have an existing hypothesis, you can design a descriptive study. This type of report starts with a description. The aim is to find connections between the subject being studied and a theory.

Once these connections are found, the study can conclude. The results of this type of study will usually suggest how to develop a theory further.

A study like the one below has concrete results. A descriptive report would use the quantitative data as a suggestion for researching the subject deeply.

When an incident occurs in a field, an explanation is required. An explanatory report investigates the cause of the event. It will include explanations for that cause.

The study will also share details about the impact of the event. In most cases, this report will use evidence to predict future occurrences. The results of explanatory reports are definitive.

Note that there is no room for interpretation here. The results are absolute.

The study below is a good example. It explains how one brand used the services of another. It concludes by showing definitive proof that the collaboration was successful.

Another example of this study would be in the automotive industry. If a vehicle fails a test, an explanatory study will examine why. The results could show that the failure was because of a particular part.

Related: How to Write a Case Study [+ Design Tips]

An explanatory report is a self-contained document. An exploratory one is only the beginning of an investigation.

Exploratory cases act as the starting point of studies. This is usually conducted as a precursor to large-scale investigations. The research is used to suggest why further investigations are needed.

An exploratory study can also be used to suggest methods for further examination.

For example, the below analysis could have found inconclusive results. In that situation, it would be the basis for an in-depth study.

Intrinsic studies are more common in the field of psychology. These reports can also be conducted in healthcare or social work.

These types of studies focus on a unique subject, such as a patient. They can sometimes study groups close to the researcher.

The aim of such studies is to understand the subject better. This requires learning their history. The researcher will also examine how they interact with their environment.

For instance, if the case study below was about a unique brand, it could be an intrinsic study.

Once the study is complete, the researcher will have developed a better understanding of a phenomenon. This phenomenon will likely not have been studied or theorized about before.

Examples of intrinsic case analysis can be found across psychology. For example, Jean Piaget’s theories on cognitive development. He established the theory from intrinsic studies into his own children.

Related: What Disney Villains Can Tell Us About Color Psychology [Infographic]

This is another type of study seen in medical and psychology fields. Instrumental reports are created to examine more than just the primary subject.

When research is conducted for an instrumental study, it is to provide the basis for a larger phenomenon. The subject matter is usually the best example of the phenomenon. This is why it is being studied.

Take the example of the fictional brand below.

Assume it’s examining lead generation strategies. It may want to show that visual marketing is the definitive lead generation tool. The brand can conduct an instrumental case study to examine this phenomenon.

Collective studies are based on instrumental case reports. These types of studies examine multiple reports.

There are a number of reasons why collective reports are created:

• To provide evidence for starting a new study
• To find pattens between multiple instrumental reports
• To find differences in similar types of cases
• Gain a deeper understanding of a complex phenomenon
• Understand a phenomenon from diverse contexts

A researcher could use multiple reports, like the one below, to build a collective case report.

Related: 10+ Case Study Infographic Templates That Convert

A business or marketing case study aims at showcasing a successful partnership. This can be between a brand and a client. Or the case study can examine a brand’s project.

There is a perception that case studies are used to advertise a brand. But effective reports, like the one below, can show clients how a brand can support them.

Hubspot created a case study on a customer that successfully scaled its business. The report outlines the various Hubspot tools used to achieve these results.

Hubspot also added a video with testimonials from the client company’s employees.

So, what is the purpose of a case study for businesses? There is a lot of competition in the corporate world. Companies are run by people. They can be on the fence about which brand to work with.

Business reports  stand out aesthetically, as well. They use  brand colors  and brand fonts . Usually, a combination of the client’s and the brand’s.

With the Venngage  My Brand Kit  feature, businesses can automatically apply their brand to designs.

A business case study, like the one below, acts as social proof. This helps customers decide between your brand and your competitors.

Don’t know how to design a report? You can learn  how to write a case study  with Venngage’s guide. We also share design tips and examples that will help you convert.

Related: 55+ Annual Report Design Templates, Inspirational Examples & Tips [Updated]

Research is a necessary part of every case study. But specific research fields are required to create studies. These fields include user research, healthcare, education, or social work.

For example, this UX Design  report examined the public perception of a client. The brand researched and implemented new visuals to improve it. The study breaks down this research through lessons learned.

Clinical reports are a necessity in the medical field. These documents are used to share knowledge with other professionals. They also help examine new or unusual diseases or symptoms.

The pandemic has led to a significant increase in research. For example,  Spectrum Health  studied the value of health systems in the pandemic. They created the study by examining community outreach.

The pandemic has significantly impacted the field of education. This has led to numerous examinations on remote studying. There have also been studies on how students react to decreased peer communication.

Social work case reports often have a community focus. They can also examine public health responses. In certain regions, social workers study disaster responses.

You now know what case studies in various fields are. In the next step of our guide, we explain the case study method.

In the field of psychology, case studies focus on a particular subject. Psychology case histories also examine human behaviors.

Case reports search for commonalities between humans. They are also used to prescribe further research. Or these studies can elaborate on a solution for a behavioral ailment.

The American Psychology Association  has a number of case studies on real-life clients. Note how the reports are more text-heavy than a business case study.

Famous psychologists such as Sigmund Freud and Anna O popularised the use of case studies in the field. They did so by regularly interviewing subjects. Their detailed observations build the field of psychology.

It is important to note that psychological studies must be conducted by professionals. Psychologists, psychiatrists and therapists should be the researchers in these cases.

Related: What Netflix’s Top 50 Shows Can Teach Us About Font Psychology [Infographic]

The case study method, or case method, is a learning technique where you’re presented with a real-world business challenge and asked how you’d solve it.

After working through it independently and with peers, you learn how the actual scenario unfolded. This approach helps develop problem-solving skills and practical knowledge.

This method often uses various data sources like interviews, observations, and documents to provide comprehensive insights. The below example would have been created after numerous interviews.

Case studies are largely qualitative. They analyze and describe phenomena. While some data is included, a case analysis is not quantitative.

There are a few steps in the case method. You have to start by identifying the subject of your study. Then determine what kind of research is required.

In natural sciences, case studies can take years to complete. Business reports, like this one, don’t take that long. A few weeks of interviews should be enough.

The case method will vary depending on the industry. Reports will also look different once produced.

As you will have seen, business reports are more colorful. The design is also more accessible . Healthcare and psychology reports are more text-heavy.

Designing case reports takes time and energy. So, is it worth taking the time to write them? Here are the benefits of creating case studies.

• Collects large amounts of information
• Helps formulate hypotheses
• Builds the case for further research
• Discovers new insights into a subject
• Builds brand trust and loyalty
• Engages customers through stories

For example, the business study below creates a story around a brand partnership. It makes for engaging reading. The study also shows evidence backing up the information.

We’ve shared the benefits of why studies are needed. We will also look at the limitations of creating them.

Related: How to Present a Case Study like a Pro (With Examples)

There are a few disadvantages to conducting a case analysis. The limitations will vary according to the industry.

• Responses from interviews are subjective
• Subjects may tailor responses to the researcher
• Studies can’t always be replicated
• In certain industries, analyses can take time and be expensive
• Risk of generalizing the results among a larger population

These are some of the common weaknesses of creating case reports. If you’re on the fence, look at the competition in your industry.

Other brands or professionals are building reports, like this example. In that case, you may want to do the same.

What makes a case study a case study?

A case study has a very particular research methodology. They are an in-depth study of a person or a group of individuals. They can also study a community or an organization. Case reports examine real-world phenomena within a set context.

How long should a case study be?

The length of studies depends on the industry. It also depends on the story you’re telling. Most case studies should be at least 500-1500 words long. But you can increase the length if you have more details to share.

What should you ask in a case study?

The one thing you shouldn’t ask is ‘yes’ or ‘no’ questions. Case studies are qualitative. These questions won’t give you the information you need.

Ask your client about the problems they faced. Ask them about solutions they found. Or what they think is the ideal solution. Leave room to ask them follow-up questions. This will help build out the study.

How to present a case study?

When you’re ready to present a case study, begin by providing a summary of the problem or challenge you were addressing. Follow this with an outline of the solution you implemented, and support this with the results you achieved, backed by relevant data. Incorporate visual aids like slides, graphs, and images to make your case study presentation more engaging and impactful.

Now you know what a case study means, you can begin creating one. These reports are a great tool for analyzing brands. They are also useful in a variety of other fields.

Use a visual communication platform like Venngage to design case studies. With Venngage’s templates, you can design easily. Create branded, engaging reports, all without design experience.

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Case Study Format

Following are the main Components/Parts of a Case Study;

Executive Summary

Introduction, alternatives and decision criteria, recommendations and implementation plan, conclusion and references, citing sources.

Writing a case study is not a simple process as it can take several months to write it successfully. There are many stages you need to complete first and after that, you finally come at the stage of writing your case study like selecting the topic, a lot of research ( qualitative research, quantitative research or interview with subjects etc), etc. While writing a case study, bear in mind that all the case studies aren’t the same for sure and vary largely in size, type, and design. It is necessary for a writer to follow a proper case study format while writing it, no matter what.

If you are going to write your very first case study, you need to know that every case study has a specific format, as mentioned above. Students or businesses all over the globe must follow that format in order to make their case study successful. However, one may choose to be a little bit different but the basics remain the same for everyone. Here we are going to discuss different case study sections. The purpose of every section in case study format is different from other and comprise of several unique key elements.

You may also study: How To Write a Case Study

It will definitely assist you to write your own case study with the utmost ease. The sections that are included in the case study are executive summary, introduction, analysis, alternatives and decision criteria, recommendations and implementation plan, conclusions and references, citing sources.

Before moving towards a detailed view of the case study format , let us have a look at the case study benefits.

Value of Case Study

Have you ever think why case studies are developed? This is the question you must ask yourself before writing your very first case study. Knowing the answers and keeping all that stuff in mind will let you write a successful and worth-reading case study.

It is the best way to put the students or learners in an active learning mode. Instead of just testing their memory, case study challenges the students to test their learning via practice, which is usually the easiest approach. In short, case studies proffer students a great opportunity to analyze and resolve the real-world problem with a practical approach. It makes the interpretation as well as problem-solving tasks easy for the learners.

A detailed look at the Case Study Format

Executive summary for a case study is usually similar to the general summary. It is basically a short snapshot that shed the image of your entire case precisely, which consists of a page, most of the time. It doesn’t include too much detail about your case but focuses on key elements or main highlights of your case study. Reading the executive summary of your case study must give the reader an idea about the entire case study and its key elements. There are two approaches adopted to write case studies.

• The first approach is to write the case study’s executive summary in short paragraphs.
• On the other hand, the second approach is to write it in form of points.

Key Points to Cover in an Executive Summary

There are a few things which are necessary to include in your case study’s executive summary i.e. problem statement, recommendation, evidence and supporting arguments, and last but not the least conclusion.

All these things comprise to form a perfect executive summary, which let the reader walk through the entire case study, just by reading it.

• The first thing to include in a case study format is an executive summary, as mentioned above. The very first thing to add in executive summary is problem statement. It let the reader know about the key issue discussed in the entire case in just a few lines. Problem statement usually comprises of one or two statement but may vary according to the case.
• The second thing to add is recommendation after stating the problem statement. What is this recommendation about? It presents one or a few ideas to resolve the problem stated in problem statement.
• The next thing to add in the executive summary is supporting arguments and evidence. It is all about highlighting key areas of your entire case and the arguments of the case. Moreover, it also states one or a few pieces of evidence that support your recommendation section.
• This is the last thing to add in the executive summary is conclusion that definitely concludes everything stated here in this portion. You must let the reader know the key message you want to deliver. Also, state why it is essential to resolve this problem and what are the expected outcomes if the reader follows your recommendations you stated in your case study.

The introduction section of the case study is somehow different from the introduction section of research paper . What is this section intended to have? It is usually here to formulate the stage for your entire case study. It must not only introduce the report of your case but also should state the key problem being faced and discussed thoroughly in a clear and accurate tone.

One thing which is worth-mentioning here is that case study is not like a scientific research report, which is only read by the experts or scientists. It must be written in such a way that a layperson could read and understand it well. Reading the introduction section of case study must let the user know about full case study i.e. what it is about, what are the key areas discussed in this and how the reader will get benefit from it etc. It must not be short enough to miss the necessary details. On the other hand, it must not be long enough that it becomes boring.

Don’t include irrelevant or unnecessary details in it. Just be precise and accurate, and try to include the following:

• A perfect and well-written introductory sentence.
• A short but precise problem statement.
• All necessary problem details.
• The best recommendations for the stated problem.
• And last but not the least: roadmap of the entire case study.

The next section of the case study, when it comes to case study format is analysis. It is usually a detailed section of your case study and it is supposed to examine the problem (which is identified in the previous section) in detail.

When it comes to the right way to structure the analysis section, make sure to ask from your instructor about this, whether there is any format to follow specifically when writing it i.e. SWOT or PEST etc? If your instructor tells you to write it generally, here are a few important things you need to know.

• Start with examining the problem and try to focus on its most crucial or sensitive parts. Here, you are not meant to include any irrelevant or unnecessary details. Your main focus should be the main problem and its critical areas.
• Make sure to mention the causes as well as effects, or any other detail you think is necessary to include. Also, make use of headings to highlight every single portion.
• Here, you are also meant to provide a meaningful conclusion to your analysis. It must conclude all the points, ideas and thoughts you discussed previously into some meaningful ending.

This section of the case study format addresses two key areas. The first one is alternatives and the second one is the decision criteria.

As the name suggests, alternatives must mention all the potential ways the identified problem can be addressed. It let the reader think about the different directions (which are successful as well) to solve the problem. Knowing all the alternatives or the available options to solve the problem, the reader can definitely identify the best possible solution to the problem, as per knowledge and thinking criteria.

One thing which is worth mentioning here is that all the presented solutions to the problems in the alternatives portion must be mutually exclusive. Why is it important to present the mutually exclusive alternatives? What are basically mutually exclusive alternatives?

Mutually exclusive alternatives refer to the situation in which selecting one alternative eliminate all others. There is a specific and a single solution to the identified problem. Mutually exclusive alternatives prevent a scenario in which it becomes essential to implement several available alternatives. When the alternatives will be mutually exclusive, it means that choosing one will eliminate the chances of selection of all others and thus, one alternative will be implemented.

The second thing which needs to be stated here in this portion is decision criteria. It means that you must state precisely your decisive factor i.e. key requirements one need to meet successfully for solving the problem. It is the most important thing here in this portion and you must state it in easy to read and simple words so that the reader could understand it well.

In this section of the case study format , the reader is well aware of all the recommendations for sure. So, there is no need to introduce the reader to the basics of the recommendations again. Rather, you are supposed to let the reader know the specifics of recommendation for solving the identified problem. In this regard, the reader will automatically get all the aspects of the recommended solution to the problem and will see how it will take you to the path of success i.e. towards the path of resolving the problem. For executing the recommendation in a successful manner, here you need to proffer the reader a well thought-out and a comprehensive implementation plan so that the reader could execute the recommended solution, making sure the success.

The recommendations and implementation plan is supposed to include a few things must, which are the following:

A detailed overview of what your recommendation entails, which are necessary steps to follow to implement this successfully and also, the required expertise or a list of equipment needed.

When it comes to the implementation plan, here are a few things which are essential to state here:

• The most important parts of the entire plan of implementation, and who will be accountable for those parts separately.
• Whether it is short term, long term or medium term implementation plan.
• The overall cost required to implement the recommendation.
• The effects of the implementation of recommendation on the entire organization.
• The last but not the least thing to mention here is the potential things which could fail while implementation and plan to recover that failure, if any.

This is the portion of your case study where you are going to make a final ending note for your reader in a few easy to understand yet powerful statements. These statements must emphasize the proposed recommendations. As per common observation, a few instructors don’t suggest you to include this portion of conclusion in your case study but it is helpful in providing a strong endnote to your case study.

There are a few things which are essential to add in this conclusion section, which are the following:

• If the purpose of your case is complex, make sure to summarize it here, in point form, so that the reader could have a review at the entire case again, before approaching the conclusion.
• If you haven’t yet stated the importance of your findings, make sure to do it here in this conclusion section.
• A few concluding sentences that shed the case’s summary and let the reader know what he has learned from this. Moreover, choose to finalize with a few memorable and impactful sentences.

However, the conclusion is the most important section of your case study as you are going to give your entire case an end note, so here are a few things you must keep in your mind while writing this portion.

• A few people give an abrupt ending to the case study, which is one of the biggest mistakes ever. The reason is that the ending must be impactful and must not leave the reader disappointed. So, formulate a few sentences to create a path towards a natural close.
• While stating your recommendation, try to summarize the ways problem will be resolved at hand.
• Make sure everything you write in conclusion portion is convincing enough to persuade the reader to believe that the recommended solution will work the best for solving the particular problem.

As per universal rule, you must cite any idea, though, or expression that is not yours and is presented by someone else. These citations are must to include at the end of your case study. The plagiarism policies or academic misconduct policies vary from one institute to another so you must familiarize yourself with the ones of your institute. Other than this, try your level best to make your case study written in a perfect manner and make sure to cite all of the following:

• Ideas presented by others, which are originally not by you.
• Use of quotations is not recommended while writing the case study. But, if you do, make sure to cite it properly.
• Any summarized work by any other writer.
• Definitions, models or theories etc presented by others must also be properly cited.
• Any information from company websites, annual reports, or press releases must also be cited in a proper manner.

What is the Proper Way to Write Citations?

If you are going to write the citation for the very first time, you need to know that these aren’t written generally. Rather, there is a specific format to follow while writing them. There are a few citations styles which are used by the students universally but before finalizing, you must ask your instructor to suggest you the best one.

A few most commonly used citation styles are the following:

An Ideal Case Study should be LOGICAL, ALL INCLUSIVE & THOROUGH

There are a few characteristics your case study must possess, which are the following:

The first and foremost thing is that each and every section or part of your case study must be logical. Any guesses or estimations must not be included in your case study as everything is supposed to be logical and authentic. However, you can choose to write your observation generally in your case study but it must not state any sort of assumptions made from that.

All INCLUSIVE

The next thing is that your case study must not miss any data or findings. It should be all inclusive i.e. you aren’t given the authority to choose data or findings to include or skip. You are liable to put everything in it. Otherwise, it could fail to be a successful case study.

The last thing to mention here is that your case study must be thorough. You aren’t just meant to write down all the observations during your research but rather, you must proffer the in-depth detail to every observation as well.

So, this is all about writing your case study as well as the right case study format to follow while writing it. Keep all the above-listed things in mind and start your writing process now.

Case Study Format Example 01:

Case study format example 02:, case study format example 03:.

Lots of Luck!

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• FOUND Trial: randomised controlled trial study protocol for case finding of obstructive sleep apnoea in primary care using a novel device
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• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6696-0923 Michelle A Miller 1 ,
• Ly-Mee Yu 2 ,
• Asad Ali 3 ,
• Patricia Apenteng 4 ,
• Peter Auguste 1 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9256-3553 Jeremy Dale 1 ,
• Kath Hope 5 ,
• Milensu Shanyinde 2 ,
• Jenna Grabey 2 ,
• Emma Scott 1 ,
• Anne Smith 2 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7842-5493 Francesco P Cappuccio 1 , 6
• the FOUND Trial study group
• 1 Warwick Medical School , University of Warwick , Coventry , UK
• 2 Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Sciences , University of Oxford , Oxford , UK
• 3 Respiratory and Sleep Sciences , University Hospitals Coventry and Warwickshire NHS Trust , Coventry , UK
• 4 Primary Care Clinical Sciences , University of Birmingham , Birmingham , UK
• 5 Hope2Sleep , East Yorkshire , UK
• 6 University Hospitals Coventry and Warwickshire (UHCW) , Coventry , UK
• Correspondence to Professor Michelle A Miller; michelle.miller{at}warwick.ac.uk

Introduction Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is a common, but underdiagnosed, sleep disorder. If untreated, it leads to poor health outcomes, including Alzheimer’s disease, cancer, cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality. Our aim is to determine the feasibility and cost-effectiveness of moving the testing for OSA into general practice and how general practitioner (GP)-based screening affects overall detection rates.

Methods and analysis Randomised controlled trial of case finding of OSA in general practice using a novel Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency-registered device (AcuPebble SA100) compared with usual care with internal feasibility phase. A diverse sample of general practices (approximately 40) from across the West Midlands Clinical Research Network will identify participants from their records. Eligible participants will be aged 50–70 years with body mass index >30 kg/m 2 and diabetes (type 1 or 2) and/or hypertension (office blood pressure >145/90 mm Hg or on treatment). They will exclude individuals with known OSA or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or those they deem unable to take part. After eligibility screening, consent and baseline assessment, participants will be randomised to either the intervention or control group. Participants in the intervention arm will receive by post the AcuPebble sleep test kit. Those in the control arm will continue with usual care. Follow-up questionnaires will be completed at 6 months. The study is powered (90%) to detect a 5% difference and will require 606 patients in each arm (713 will be recruited to each arm to allow for attrition). Due to the nature of the intervention, participants and GPs will not be blinded to the allocation.

Outcomes Primary: Detection rate of moderate-to-severe OSA in the intervention group versus control group. Secondary: Time to diagnosis and time to treatment for intervention versus control group for mild, moderate and severe OSA; cost-effectiveness analysis comparing the different testing pathways.

Ethics and dissemination The trial started on 1 November 2022. Ethical approval was granted from the South Central Oxford A Research Ethics Committee on 9 June 2023 (23/SC/0188) (protocol amendment version 1.3; update with amendment and approval to renumber to V2.0 on 29 August 2023). Patient recruitment began on 7 January 2024; initial planned end date will be on 31 April 2025.

Results will be uploaded to the ISRCTN register within 12 months of the end of the trial date, presented at conferences, submitted to peer-reviewed journals and distributed via our patient and public involvement networks.

The University of Warwick will act as the trial sponsor. The trial will be conducted in accordance with the Sponsor and Primary Care Clinical Trials Unit standard operating procedures.

Trial registration number ISRCTN 16982033.

• SLEEP MEDICINE
• Randomized Controlled Trial
• Primary Health Care
• RESPIRATORY MEDICINE (see Thoracic Medicine)
• HEALTH ECONOMICS

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported (CC BY 4.0) license, which permits others to copy, redistribute, remix, transform and build upon this work for any purpose, provided the original work is properly cited, a link to the licence is given, and indication of whether changes were made. See:  https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-090000

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STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY

This study uses a randomised controlled trial protocol which is written in accordance with the Standard Protocol Items: Recommendations for Interventional Trials.

The study will examine multiple outcomes, including effectiveness of case finding for obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) in general practice, time to diagnosis in both arms and associated full health economic analysis.

The study uses a novel OSA testing device which is automatic and intended to speed up testing and analysis time.

The study is limited in that only those individuals currently defined as being at high risk of OSA (obese with hypertension and/or diabetes) are eligible to take part.

Due to the nature of the study, general practitioners and patients cannot be blinded to the randomisation.

Introduction

The problem.

Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA), often referred to as obstructive sleep apnoea/hypopnoea, is a common sleep disorder, which if untreated leads to poor health outcomes, including Alzheimer’s disease, cancer, cardiovascular disease (CVD) and all-cause mortality. 1–3 Although in the UK it is estimated that 1.5 million adults are living with OSA, up to 85% of cases remain undiagnosed. 4 Characterised by repetitive partial or complete blockages of the airway during sleep, it leads to interruptions in breathing, raised heart rate, raised blood pressure (BP), blood oxygen desaturation and arousals. In about 60% of patients, OSA is associated with excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) and is known as obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome (OSAS). 5 OSAS has a negative impact on quality of life and increases the risk of road traffic accidents (RTAs) by 1.3–7 times. 6

Recent National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines recognise the need for improved recognition, diagnostic testing and treatment for this condition, with testing being offered to all people with suspected OSA. 7 However, there is no systematic approach to identifying patients with OSA in the general population. Not all patients with OSA experience characteristic symptoms, including poor sleep quality, snoring, impaired alertness, cognitive impairment, nocturia, morning headaches, sexual dysfunction and EDS. 8 Many rely on their partner’s observations of breathing during sleep, and 42% of people who snore or whose partner snores have not heard of OSA and would not discuss these symptoms with their general practitioner (GP). 4 In the UK, suspected cases are currently diagnosed with sleep studies through specialist hospital referrals but there is a mismatch between healthcare requirements and sleep service delivery. 9 For example, at the University Hospital Coventry and Warwickshire National Health Service (NHS) Trust, prior to the pandemic, the time to treatment was much longer than 4 months. Nationally, the backlog of patients awaiting a sleep study was exacerbated during the pandemic, with many sleep service clinical leads being redeployed to COVID-19 duties and sleep testing protocols redesigned. 10 11

This study aims to address the need for high-throughput COVID safe testing by evaluating the feasibility and effectiveness of a novel OSA diagnostic device in a general practice setting with individuals who are at high risk for OSA.

Why is this research important?

Treatment of moderate-to-severe OSA with continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) improves the health and well-being of patients and the management and control in those with moderate-to-severe hypertension. It reduces CVD risk markers 12 and associated adverse CVD outcomes. 13 CVD accounts for 42% of deaths in people with untreated OSA compared with 26% of people without it. 14 Healthcare costs associated with CVD are high and could be reduced by increased detection and treatment of moderate-to-severe OSA. 4 15 EDS accounts for ~20% of all RTAs; many of these involve drivers with undiagnosed OSAS and hence might be preventable. In a national survey, at the time of OSA diagnosis, 22% had been doing a job requiring them to drive regularly (27% professionally) and 11% had fallen asleep driving. 4 As well as personal costs, each fatal accident costs society around £1.5 million. 4

Review of the evidence

In OSA, complete closure (obstruction) of the airway during sleep stops airflow (apnoea), whereas partial obstruction decreases airflow (hypopnoea) resulting in episodes of brief awakening from sleep (arousals) to restore normal breathing. 16 The number of apnoeas/hypopnoeas per hour of sleep defines the apnoea-hypopnoea index (AHI) and gives an indication of disease severity. 17 In 1993, the prevalence of OSA was 4% in middle-aged men and 2% in middle-aged women (ages 30–60 years). 14 In 2019, Benjafield et al estimated that 425 million adults aged 30–69 have moderate-to-severe sleep apnoea globally. 18 In a study published in 2021, using the Clinical Practice Research Datalink, which represents 8.5% of primary care practices in the UK, the prevalence of OSA in obese patients was 8.4% in men and 3.7% in women. 19 Male sex, high body mass index (BMI), hypertension and diabetes were the most common risk factors. 19 The new NICE guidance recognises that OSA is also highly prevalent in individuals with other conditions like polycystic ovary syndrome, atrial fibrillation and hypothyroidism. 7 Higher prevalence rates have been reported in some high-income countries. 20 21 OSA is associated with both type 1 and type 2 diabetes 19 22 23 and increased BMI, 19 24 and is a frequent cause of resistant hypertension. 25–27

Current NICE guidelines recommend that adults who are sleepy while driving or working with machinery, are employed in hazardous occupations (eg, pilot, bus or lorry driver) or show signs of respiratory or heart failure (with symptoms suggestive of OSA) should be referred urgently to sleep centres. 28 However, GPs may not always ask sleep-related questions, and information received may not be followed up or acted on. 29 Indeed, 20% of people with OSA had visited their GP on three or more occasions with symptoms and no action was taken in 11%. 4

The most common form of treatment is CPAP, 2 although other treatments are used. 30 Treating moderate-to-severe OSA can generate health benefits and improve the quality of life of patients, especially those with OSAS who experience an improvement in EDS, and a reduction in risk of RTAs. 31 32 CPAP is also an effective management in patients with resistant hypertension. 4

In 2008, NICE appraised the use of CPAP compared with lifestyle management and dental devices for the treatment of adults with moderate-to-severe OSA. It concluded that CPAP is cost-effective with a cost per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained below £5000. 3 Following a more recent evidence review, NICE guidelines (2021) currently suggest that people with mild OSAS (ie, those with EDS) should also be offered treatment using a fixed-level CPAP. 7 It also recommends that people’s sleep history should be assessed in individuals with two or more of nine listed common features of OSA which include snoring, witnessed apnoeas and unrefreshing sleep. 7

Few studies have attempted a targeted case finding approach for OSA in primary care. In Canada, researchers asked family doctors to identify patients at high risk (BMI≥30, type 2 diabetes, treated hypertension or ischaemic heart disease). The prevalence of undetected OSA was high (71% had mild OSA defined as AHI ≥5 to <15/hour; 33% had moderate AHI defined as ≥15 to <30/hour; 16% had severe AHI defined as ≥30/hour). 33 However, a suggestion that OSA screening could move into general practice has not been formally tested or evaluated in the UK. 34 35

Current practice varies across the UK with complex referral pathways; some sleep services offer a simple overnight oxygen test (oximetry) as a first-line test; others offer home respiratory polygraphy (RP). Polysomnography is rarely used, requiring overnight admission to a secondary care sleep facility. For example, in Coventry and Warwickshire, patients referred by GPs are currently required to visit a hospital to be trained how to use the sleep study device (eg, NOX T3 (ResMed)). This takes the form of a 30 min appointment with further written and online instructions for patients to follow. Having slept overnight with the device’s set of wired sensors at home, the patient brings the equipment back to the sleep centre for the data recorded to be uploaded and analysed. The multiple arrays of equipment must then be decontaminated with respect to COVID-19 procedures. Around 15–20% of sleep tests need repeating due to incorrect sensor placement. 36 A sleep/respiratory specialist spends about 2 hours manually scoring each test for diagnosis.

Implementation of the latest NICE recommendations in England will substantially raise the number of people being referred to sleep services. There is, therefore, an even greater and more urgent need for a new, rapid and cost-effective way to diagnose moderate-to-severe OSA, to produce health gains from the use of effective treatments and to tackle the increasing waiting lists for diagnosis.

A new medical device

The Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA)-registered AcuPebble SA100 (referred to as AcuPebble) from Acurable provides a simple and potentially cost-effective option. Its patented technology derives from over 10 years of research at Imperial College London 37 (see figure 1 ).

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AcuPebble SA100 device (scale in centimetre). Image created by M A Miller.

It is clinically validated and has been found to be acceptable to patients. 38 It is equivalent to current ambulatory gold standard (multichannel RP with manual specialist interpretation) based on recommended American Academy of Sleep Medicine AHI criteria with a positive predictive value of 94.4% and a negative predictive value of 95.83%. 36 The system is easy to use; 100% of 150 patients recruited for the clinical validation were able to follow the simple accompanying instructions. 38 The AcuPebble is equivalent to home RP, the NICE-recommended test, with the additional benefits to the patient that it can be deployed in a faster and COVID-secure way. No hospital attendance is required, it is posted to patients and its use does not require training, saving patients’ time and travel costs. The test is comfortable, non-invasive, using a small device attached to the neck over the throat and so allows more natural sleep, without being attached to leads or wires.

There are benefits for healthcare providers and the NHS. Staff no longer need to prepare equipment, train patients or manually interpret recorded signals. The AcuPebble SA100 employs fully automated diagnosis, and its ease of use can release over 1500 hours annually of clinical staff time (based on an average unit seeing 1000 patients annually) (Acurable in-house data). The number of tests that need repeating is significantly lower (less than 1%) than the current approaches to home testing, so helping to cut the excessive waiting times to achieve the recommended 4-week referral-to-treatment NHS target. 39

This protocol is written in accordance with the Standard Protocol Items: Recommendations for Interventional Trials. Any amendments to the protocol will be reported in the study article.

Please see online supplemental appendix 1 for a full list of abbreviations used in this protocol.

Supplemental material

Aims and objectives.

The aim of this randomised controlled trial is to test the feasibility of moving the testing for OSA into a general practice setting using the AcuPebble device and to trial a targeted moderate-to-severe OSA case finding programme. Our objectives are (1) to determine if using this device would increase the detection of moderate-to-severe OSA in high-risk groups within general practice, (2) to assess the cost-effectiveness of screening for moderate-to-severe OSA with AcuPebble in primary care versus usual care in people at high risk and (3) to compare a new general practice-based route for the diagnosis of moderate-to-severe OSA with the standard hospital-based referral pathway.

Methods and analysis

Trial design.

We are conducting a multicentre, pragmatic, individually randomised, parallel-group, superiority trial and economic evaluation to determine the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of using a novel MHRA-registered device (AcuPebble SA100) to detect moderate-to-severe OSA in a high-risk group compared with usual care.

The study includes a 2-month internal feasibility phase, in which ‘Stop-Go’ criteria will be used to evaluate the implementation of AcuPebble SA100, recruitment and adherence to the intervention.

Study setting and recruitment

Participants will be recruited from participating UK general practices in the West Midlands Clinical Research Network (CRN) region (Warwickshire, West Midlands, Worcestershire, Herefordshire, Shropshire and Staffordshire). General practices will be recruited to include different practice types according to list size (small <6000 to large >12 000 patients), deprivation index, rural/urban location and practice type (group practice, etc). Participating general practices, supported by the local CRN and research team, will search their records to identify and invite eligible patients meeting the inclusion criteria.

Eligibility

Inclusion criteria.

Adults aged between 50 and 70 years with BMI≥30 kg/m 2 as of GP records in the last 3 years AND documented (a) diabetes (type 1 or 2) OR (b) hypertension (office BP>145/90 mm Hg or on treatment) OR (c) both (hypertension and diabetes).

Exclusion criteria

Patients with known OSA, with known moderate-to-severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and those deemed unable to take part by their GP (eg, terminally ill, unable to give consent, etc). Patients with known allergy to acrylate.

Intervention arm

Participants randomised to the intervention arm will receive the overnight sleep testing AcuPebble device from Acurable by post. Simple participant instructions, including how and where the device is placed, are given via a dedicated mobile app (phone supplied with app if required). Should the test fail, a new test code will be sent to the participant enabling a repeat test before the device is returned in prepaid addressed envelope. When the test is complete, the test data are automatically uploaded directly to Acurable’s secure platform, allowing them to provide the diagnosis, as validated in their study, using their algorithm.

The sleep study platform will include the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) and an optional brief questionnaire to assess acceptability of the intervention. The number of completed/valid tests, number of failed tests and returned devices will be an indication of feasibility. Participants are expected to perform the sleep testing within a week of receipt of the AcuPebble device. Participants will be followed up remotely 6 months from the date of randomisation. Data will be collected both from participants and medical notes review.

The results of the sleep studies will be reviewed by our sleep consultant to confirm any diagnoses of OSA. He will notify the participant’s GP of the results and advise whether the patient needs to be referred to the sleep clinic for treatment or further investigation.

Control arm

Participants randomised to the control arm will continue with usual care provided by their GP. Patients presenting to the GP with symptoms of OSA will be referred for assessment through their local usual care pathway as per the NICE guidelines. Participants will be followed up remotely 6 months from the date of randomisation. Outcome data will be collected both from participants and medical notes review.

Trial procedures

Informed consent.

Written informed consent (see online supplemental appendix 2 ) will be obtained by appropriately trained members of the research team. Potential participants are contacted via post; if they express interest, the research team will explain the study and answer any questions; and if they are willing to continue, they are asked to complete a consent form. The original signed copy will be kept in a locked filing cabinet in the dedicated locked trial office.

Baseline assessments

Following informed consent and before randomisation, participants will be asked to complete the following questionnaires: EuroQol Heath Status Questionnaire (EQ-5D-5L) with visual analogue scale (VAS) 40 and Client Service Receipt Inventory (CSRI).

Randomisation and blinding

Figure 2 shows the design of the study. Participants will be randomised (1:1) to receive the intervention or usual care using a validated web-based randomisation programme (sortition). Randomisation will be minimised with a non-deterministic minimisation algorithm to ensure site, age (<60/≥60 years), sex (F/M) and ethnicity (White/Other) are balanced across the two groups. Individual randomisation is appropriate because the risk of contamination is very low, since the device is sent to participants directly and the assessment of the primary outcome (diagnosis of moderate-to-severe OSA) will be automated (unbiased).

Trial flow diagram. BMI, body mass index; BP, blood pressure; CRN, Clinical Research Network; GP, general practitioner; OSA, obstructive sleep apnoea.

Due to the nature of the intervention, participants and their GPs will not be blinded to the allocation of intervention. But the primary outcome can be considered blinded as it is fully automated. The statisticians will remain blinded to the allocation when performing data analysis.

Participants will be followed up at 6 months from point of randomisation. All participants will be asked to complete repeat measures of the EQ-5D-5L with VAS, CSRI and a short OSA questionnaire. Two reminders will be sent, but any participants who have not returned their completed questionnaires within 1 month of the date of posting will be considered non-responders and their questionnaires considered missing.

The GP notes of all participants in the usual care group will be reviewed to identify any diagnoses of OSA since randomisation (primary outcome) and for those with a positive diagnosis, time to diagnosis, time to commencement of treatment and type of treatment prescribed.

For those in the intervention group diagnosed with OSA since randomisation, their GP notes will be reviewed to determine time to commencement of treatment and type of treatment prescribed. The GP notes of those who were referred for further investigation will also be reviewed to confirm whether a subsequent diagnosis of moderate-to-severe OSA was made, and if so, details of any treatment started.

Reviewing the GP notes of those in the intervention group who tested negative for OSA and needed no further follow-up is considered unnecessary, as no further information is required for this trial, and hence there is no justification for accessing participants’ medical information. A variety of means of communication will be used to both raise awareness in the practice and to gain a response or to send invitations. Texts and emails will also be used where appropriate.

Any subsequent post-trial visits and treatment by the GP or sleep clinic are not part of the research and represent a return to the usual care pathway after diagnosis.

Primary outcomes

Participants diagnosed with moderate-to-severe OSA, defined as an AHI reading of 15–30 (moderate) or >30 (severe) episodes per hour.

The AcuPebble report for those in the intervention group and the GP notes review for those in the usual care group will be reviewed 6 months after randomisation to identify any diagnoses of moderate-to-severe OSA since randomisation.

Secondary outcomes

Time to completion of testing from randomisation, time to diagnosis from randomisation and time to treatment from randomisation for new pathway (intervention group) versus usual care. For those diagnosed with moderate-to-severe OSA (as detailed above for both the intervention and usual care groups) and OSAS, their AcuPebble or GP notes will be reviewed 6 months after randomisation to determine time to completion of testing, time to diagnosis, time to commencement of treatment and type of treatment prescribed. For the usual care pathway, we will also look at the individual components of the usual referral pathway, that is, time to test from referral, time to diagnosis from referral, time to treatment from referral. Date of referral is defined as date when the patient was referred.

Detection of participants diagnosed with any OSA (mild, moderate, severe), defined as an AHI reading of ≥5 to <15 (mild), ≥15 to <30 (moderate) or ≥30 (severe) episodes per hour for new (intervention) versus usual care pathway. This will be determined from the AcuPebble report for those in the intervention group and the GP notes review for those in the usual care group.

Detection of participants diagnosed with OSAS, defined as those with OSA (mild, moderate, severe (as above)) and with evidence of EDS (ESS score >11) for new (intervention) versus usual care pathway. This will be determined from the AcuPebble report for those in the intervention group and the GP notes review for those in the usual care group.

Health-related quality of life associated with new and current pathways. QALYs will be calculated based on information collected from participants at baseline and 6 months using the EQ-5D-5L.

Cost-effectiveness analysis comparing new and current pathways. All participants will be sent follow-up questionnaires either by email or post (as detailed above); these will include the EQ-5D-5L with VAS, CSRI and information about procedures undertaken to diagnose or treat moderate-to-severe OSA since randomisation. Further data on health service usage will be obtained from the participant notes review undertaken at 6-month follow-up. This review will collect data on service usage related to sleep issues in the 6 months prior to date of randomisation to provide a baseline value and during the 6 months after randomisation to provide follow-up data.

Feasibility and acceptability of new sleep study testing to be tested against the following criteria in the feasibility phase: (1) the number of GP practices recruited and set up (four required for feasibility; No-Go criteria: only one practice recruited); (2) to recruit 80 patients within 2 months of the first patient recruited (No-Go: <50% recruited); (3) AcuPebble testing successfully implemented; (4) at least 90% intervention completion (No-Go: <50% completion). Participants using the AcuPebble also have the option to complete a brief survey about their experience of using the AcuPebble on the AcuPebble app, following the completion of their sleep study. These are standard questions currently asked and analysed by Acurable for all AcuPebble users.

Schedule of delivery of intervention and data collection

The trial events’ schedule and data assessments are summarised in table 1 .

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Trial schedule of events and data collection

Discontinuation/withdrawal of participants from study

If the participant wishes to withdraw from follow-up, we will use their data up to the point that they discontinue from the trial. No participants will be replaced if they are discontinued or withdraw. Participants will only be withdrawn from the intervention by the research team should the intervention be deemed unsafe, or withdrawn from the trial if participant subsequently found to be ineligible. Reasons for withdrawal will be captured and recorded in the trial database.

End of study

The end of the trial is the final data capture of the last participant’s GP notes review.

Adverse event management

The safety reporting window for the trial will be defined as the period between randomisation and 6-month follow-up of each participant in the trial.

This trial will only collect adverse events (AEs) potentially related to the AcuPebble device. Hence, participants will be encouraged to self-report any AEs and serious adverse events in the 4 weeks following randomisation directly to the trial office and will be reviewed and reported on as per the Good Clinical Practice (GCP).

Data management

Details of the data management procedure are documented in a trial-specific data management plan reviewed and signed by all applicable parties prior to the first participant being enrolled. The data management will be run in accordance with the Primary Care Clinical Trials Unit (PC-CTU) standard operating procedures (SOPs), which are fully compliant with GCP. The trial will comply with the UK General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and Data Protection Act 2018, which require data to be anonymised as soon as it is practical to do so.

AcuPebble SA100 is a registered NHS device and data will be stored in the UK. The AcuPebble data will be downloaded in .csv format from the AcuPebble SA100 web application, and then uploaded to the clinical database that is managed and hosted by the University of Oxford PC-CTU. Pseudonymised study data, only accessible by relevant members of the data management team, are stored on regularly backed-up, VPN secure network drives in accordance with the GDPR and participants’ consent.

Data sharing plan

Due to the sensitive nature of the medical data collected for this trial (ie, individual risk factors and disease diagnosis), the full data set will not be placed in a public access repository but will be available, on request, from the lead author.

Sample size determination

The detection rate of new cases of moderate-to-severe OSA using usual care is estimated at <5% per year. Given the previously observed rates of hypertension (39%), obesity (34%) and diabetes mellitus (15%) in individuals with OSA, we would expect that the targeted case finding intervention would yield a detection rate of 10% or more in the high-risk groups. The study has been powered (90%) at 5% two-sided significance level to detect a 5% difference in rate of new cases of moderate-to-severe OSA between intervention and usual care. The study will require 606 participants in each arm. To allow for 15% attrition and lost to follow-up, it is anticipated that 713 in each arm need to be recruited.

Statistical methods

Feasibility outcomes will be assessed descriptively and reported to the data monitoring and safety committee and trial steering committee.

The study results will be reported in accordance with the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials 2010 reporting guidelines ( www.consort-statement.org/downloads/consort-statements ) and a statistical analysis plan will be prepared before recruitment starts.

Baseline variables will be presented by randomised group descriptively. Trial results presented as comparative summary statistics with 95% CIs. All tests will be done at a 5% two-sided significance level.

The primary analysis will include all randomised participants, as defined by protocol eligibility criteria, regardless of what intervention they actually received or compliance of intervention. The primary analysis of the primary outcome (detection of moderate-to-severe OSA) will be performed using a logistic generalised linear mixed effects model, adjusting for minimisation factors (age, sex and ethnicity) as fixed effect and general practices as random effect. A similar approach will be used for other secondary binary outcomes. Time-to-event outcomes will be analysed using a Cox regression model with similar adjustment as the primary analysis. Secondary analysis of time to starting treatment will include the primary analysis population who were diagnosed with moderate-to-severe OSA and individuals with evidence of EDS/OSAS. Participants not starting treatment will be censored at last contact date.

Missing data will be reported and the missing data pattern will be explored. Additional sensitivity analysis using imputation methods will be performed. Safety outcomes of the intervention will be descriptive.

Health economic evaluation

A trial-based economic analysis will be undertaken to assess the cost-effectiveness of the use of AcuPebble in general practice compared with GP referral to hospital for the diagnosis of people with moderate-to-severe OSA. Information about resource use will be collected using resource use questionnaires and notes review, which will include equipment (AcuPebble and home sleep RP) required, staff required and healthcare resource while participants are awaiting referral and treatment. Resource use will be valued using national sources. 41

Additionally, we will conduct a systematic literature review to identify existing economic evidence regarding OSA diagnosis and in individuals with evidence of EDS/OSAS and treatment. Insights from this and input from clinical experts will inform the model structure. In the model, we will include a ‘no screening’ strategy to model the natural history of people living with OSA, in addition to the two screening approaches: using AcuPebble in general practice and GP referral to hospital-based standard care (home sleep RP). We envisage the economic model will comprise two stages. In the first stage, we will use a decision tree illustrative structure to model the short-term costs and benefits associated with identifying people living with OSA and in individuals with evidence of EDS/OSAS following screening. In the second stage, we will use a state transition Markov structure to model the progression of events associated with moderate-to-severe OSA (eg, stroke, CVD, myocardial infarction), and RTAs in those with individuals with evidence of EDS/OSAS, then the long-term costs and benefits associated with treatment following the screening/no screening strategies.

The economic model will require clinical and cost inputs related to the strategies. Clinical inputs (eg, time to test, time to diagnosis and time to treat) will be obtained from the clinical trial and supplemented with information from the literature (eg, rate of moderate-to-severe people with OSA experiencing a stroke, associated costs and utility values). The cost associated with using AcuPebble will be obtained from Acurable and costs for GP referral to hospital-based standard care will encompass all resource use and costs for GP referral using the home sleep RP. Resource use questionnaire will be developed using the CSRI to capture healthcare associated with diagnosis and patient management while awaiting referral and treatment (eg, healthcare professional visits, inpatient/outpatient visits and medication) with information collected at baseline and 6 months. Resource use will be valued using unit costs from national sources. Where costs are not available, these will be obtained from published literature and adjusted using appropriate indexes. All costs included will be those directly related to the UK NHS and personal social services.

Outcomes in the form of QALYs will be calculated using data collected from the EQ-5D-5L. The health-related quality of life information collected will enable us to estimate the short-term impact of being screened on the participants’ quality of life. The EQ-5D is a widely used generic measure of health-related quality of life that enables the calculation of QALYs and is recommended for use in economic evaluations in healthcare. 42 The EQ-5D-5L will comprise the descriptive section and the accompanying VAS, which ask participants about their quality of life on a specific day.

In line with NICE recommendations, 42 costs incurred and benefits accrued will be discounted at 3.5% per annum, and the findings will be presented as an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio in terms of costs per additional life-year and QALY associated with each of the screening options over a lifetime horizon. Additionally, we will present results to show the short-term (eg, additional cases of moderate-to-severe OSA and in individuals with evidence of EDS/OSAS detected following each screening strategy) and the long-term benefits of screening and treatment (eg, reduction in strokes, CVDs and myocardial infarction). Several sensitivity and scenario analyses will be undertaken to estimate the impact to the base case cost-effectiveness results. The model will form the basis for conducting value of information analysis, which will quantify the total expected cost due to the remaining uncertainty around the cost-effectiveness of introducing screening for OSA/OSAS.

Oversight, monitoring and quality assurance

The trial will be conducted in accordance with the current approved protocol, GCP, relevant regulations, the Sponsor and Oxford PC-CTU’s SOPs and study-specific working instructions. All principal investigators, coordinating centre staff and site staff will receive training in trial procedures according to GCP where required. Regular monitoring will be performed according to GCP using a risk-based approach. Data will be evaluated for compliance with the protocol and accuracy in relation to source documents where possible.

The composition, roles and responsibilities of various management committees are detailed in their respective charters. These include the Trial Management Group ( TMG ) which will be responsible for the monitoring of all aspects of the trial’s conduct and progress and will ensure that the protocol is adhered to, and that appropriate action is taken to safeguard participants and the quality of the trial itself, and the Research Steering Group ( RSG ) which will provide oversight of the research and will operate as the key forum through which the funder shall be informed as regards progress and outcomes. An independent Trial Steering Committee ( TSC ) will provide an overall supervision of the trial and ensure it is being conducted in accordance with the principles of GCP. An independent Data Monitoring and Ethics Committee will review and monitor the accruing data to ensure the rights, safety and well-being of the trial participants. An Innovation and Implementation Monitoring Team will be established to assist Acurable in the development and commercialisation of the product to this new market—GPs/primary care.

Patient and public involvement

The study has collaboratively involved patients in the design and delivery of the research. The research proposal was developed with input from the founder of Hope2Sleep and the managing secretary of the Sleep Apnoea Trust Association. Once the study was funded, a third patient was recruited to form a patient and public involvement (PPI) panel. The role of the PPI panel is to work with the PPI lead to ensure that the patient perspective is taken into consideration throughout the study. For example, the PPI group contributed to the development of the study protocol and study documentation and are actively involved in the study management committees (TMG, TSC, Research Steering Committee). They will be instrumental in the interpretation of study findings and ensuring that the findings reach a wide range of people.

All involvement activities will align with the UK Standards for Public Involvement, and training and support will be provided where necessary. The public contributors will be offered honoraria and expenses in line with recommendations from the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Centre for Engagement and Dissemination. The PPI lead will be responsible for capturing the impact of involvement throughout the project and reporting activities using the Guidance for Reporting Involvement of Patients and the Public framework. 43

Ethics and dissemination

Sponsor and governance arrangements.

The University of Warwick will act as trial sponsor (SOC.09/22-23; [email protected]), which will be conducted by the Oxford PC-CTU. The trial will be conducted in accordance with the Sponsor and PC-CTU’s SOPs. The study sponsor and funders have no influence or authority over the study design, data collection, analysis, reporting, etc.

Ethical approvals and reporting

The investigators will ensure that this trial is conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and with GCP.

Ethical approval was granted from the South Central Oxford A Research Ethics Committee on 9 June 2023 (23/SC/0188) (protocol amendment version 1.3; update with amendment and approval to renumber to V2.0 on 29 August 2023).

The chief investigator will submit and, where necessary, obtain approval from the above parties for all substantial amendments to the original approved documents. All approved protocol amendments will be conveyed to the Trial investigators and, where appropriate, participants.

The CI (or delegate) shall submit throughout the clinical trial, or on request, progress report to the Research Ethics Commitee (REC) (where required), the Health Research Authority (where required), the funder (where required) and the Sponsor (where required). In addition, an end of trial notification and final report will be submitted to the REC and the Sponsor.

Trial registration

Prior to the recruitment of the first participant, the trial was registered on the ISRCTN Database (16982033). Results will be uploaded to this register within 12 months of the end of the trial date.

Trial start and end dates

The trial started on 1 November 2022. Patient recruitment began on 7 January 2024. Initial planned end date will be on 31 April 2025.

Notification of serious breaches to GCP and/or trial protocol

The management of non-compliances will be informed by the Oxford PC-CTU’s SOPs.

Trial protocol deviation and violations

A trial-related deviation is a departure from the ethically approved trial protocol or other trial document or process (eg, consent process or administration of trial intervention) or from GCP or any applicable regulatory requirements. Any deviations from the protocol will be documented in a protocol deviation form and filed in the trial master file.

A PC-CTU’s SOP is in place describing the procedure for identifying non-compliances, escalation to the central team and assessment of whether a non-compliance/deviation may be a potential serious breach.

The University of Warwick has a specialist insurance policy in place which would operate in the event of any participant suffering from harm because of their involvement in the study on Zurich Municipal Insurance. NHS indemnity operates in respect of the clinical treatment that is provided.

Risk assessment and study monitoring

A risk assessment and monitoring plan was prepared before the study opened and will be reviewed as necessary over the course of the trial to reflect significant changes to the protocol or outcomes of monitoring activities. Monitoring will be coordinated by the PC-CTU quality assurance manager or delegate. The level of monitoring required will be informed by the risk assessment.

Dissemination plans

Trial results will be first reported to the trial collaborators. The statistical report will be prepared by the trial statistics team and will be incorporated into the final trial report which will be drafted by the trial team. The final version will be reviewed and agreed by the TSC and RSG before submission to the NIHR. The main findings of the study as well as specific articles with regard to the health economic assessment, for example, will be written up and submitted to a journal for publication. Findings will be submitted for presentation at relevant scientific conferences. Updates and recruitment numbers are updated on our websites (see FOUND—Oxford University-Primary Care Clinical Trials Unit and FOUND Trial (warwick.ac.uk )). Regular research updates are submitted to Researchfish ( track research and evidence impact with Researchfish by Interfolio ).

Awareness of OSA will be increased within the primary care community and public by dissemination of study findings through the Hope2Sleep network (25 000 members), Sleep Apnoea Trust (~5000 members), scientific meetings and media engagement. A stakeholder engagement dissemination event will be held at the end of the study.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication.

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

Nguyen Tran Oxford University contributed to the protocol development.

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X @SocietySleep

Collaborators Independent Trial Steering Committee (TSC): Professor J Guest, Dr A Hare, Mr I Mcleod, Professor T J Peters, Mr C Rogers, Professor P S Sever (Chair), Professor N Siriwardena. Independent Data Monitoring and Ethics Committee (DMEC): Dr J Harris, Professor T M MacDonald (Chair), Dr T Quinnell, Dr C Taggart. Research Steering Group (RSG): A Ali, P Auguste, P Apenteng, F P Cappuccio, C Carr, J Dale, O Dessi, K Hope, O Llion, M Miller (Chair), S Prakash, J Rahman, E Scott, A Smith, I Spray (an NIHR representative), L-M Yu. Trial Management Group (TMG): A Ali, P Auguste, P Apenteng, E Buckingham, F P Cappuccio, J Chalk, J Dale, J Grabey, A Grove, R Harrison, K Hope, O Llion, M Miller (Chair), J Rahman, E Scott, M Shanyinde, A Smith, L-M Yu. Operational Group (OG): E Buckingham, F P Cappuccio, L Costello, J Dale, J Grabey, R Harrison, O Llion, M Miller (Chair), J Rahman, E Scott, M Shanyinde, A Smith, L-M Yu. Innovation and Implementation Monitoring Team (IIMT): A Ali (Consultant), F P Cappuccio (co-CI), J Dale (GP), O Dessi (Acurable), S Elwell (CRN), A Grove (Innovation), K Hope (PPI), Mr I Mcleod (Entrepreneur), M Miller (co-CI and Chair), S Prakash (Technology transfer), E Sanz (Acurable), I Spray (Industry advisor) (an NIHR representative).

Contributors MAM was responsible for the overall content and funding application; conceived the study; drafted the article; and contributed substantially to the design and acquisition of data. L-MY contributed substantially to conception, design and funding, and acquisition of data, and revised the article critically for important intellectual content. AA and PAu contributed substantially to design and funding, and acquisition of data, and revised the article critically for important intellectual content. PAp contributed substantially to design and funding and revised the article critically for important intellectual content. JD contributed to design and funding and revised the article critically for important intellectual content. KH and AS contributed to design and revised the article critically for important intellectual content. MS, ES and JG contributed substantially to the design and acquisition of data, and revised the article critically for important intellectual content. FPC conceived the study, contributed substantially to design and funding and revised the article critically for important intellectual content. MAM is the guarantor.

Funding This study is funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research Invention for Innovation (NIHR i4i) programme (NIHR203393). The Investigators ensure that this trial was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and with Good Clinical Practice.

Competing interests MAM and FPC receive royalties from Oxford University Press for the publication of two books on Sleep, Health and Society.

Patient and public involvement Patients and/or the public were involved in the design, or conduct, or reporting, or dissemination plans of this research. Refer to the Patient and public involvement section for further details.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; peer reviewed for ethical and funding approval prior to submission.

Supplemental material This content has been supplied by the author(s). It has not been vetted by BMJ Publishing Group Limited (BMJ) and may not have been peer-reviewed. Any opinions or recommendations discussed are solely those of the author(s) and are not endorsed by BMJ. BMJ disclaims all liability and responsibility arising from any reliance placed on the content. Where the content includes any translated material, BMJ does not warrant the accuracy and reliability of the translations (including but not limited to local regulations, clinical guidelines, terminology, drug names and drug dosages), and is not responsible for any error and/or omissions arising from translation and adaptation or otherwise.

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Where Harris stands on Israel, abortion, climate change, education and the economy

[Editor's note: An earlier version of this story misstated Harris' proposed 2019 climate plan investment levels. The correct estimate is nearly seven times more than Biden's current proposal.]

Vice President Kamala Harris has emerged as the Democratic party’s presidential frontrunner after Joe Biden dropped his reelection bid Sunday.

Most Democrats have backed Harris, who announced her 2024 campaign for president shortly after Biden penned a letter explaining his decision to exit the 2024 race. Depending on who you ask, Harris is viewed as a moderate or a progressive reformer.

A former prosecutor, Harris was elected San Francisco’s district attorney with a “tough on crime” message in 2003 and worked in that role for seven years. She became the state’s attorney general in 2011 and served until 2017, when she was elected to represent California in the U.S. Senate.

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More: Election 2024 live updates: Endorsements rush in for Harris; Trump attacks begin

Harris launched her own unsuccessful presidential campaign at a rally in her hometown of Oakland, California in 2019. She dropped her bid for the White House and joined President Joe Biden’s ticket in August the following year. In 2021, she was sworn in as vice president.

Decades in the public spotlight and on the public record, here is what we know about where Harris stands on key issues:

Foreign Policy

As Biden’s second-in-command, Harris has largely stood behind his foreign policy positions, but there are signs she could be tougher on Israel over the war in Gaza than the president.

Harris has not given reason to believe she will deviate much from Biden on issues relating to China , for example. She is also unlikely to sway from supporting Ukraine. Harris said earlier this year that Russia has committed “crimes against humanity” in Ukraine over the last two years.

Harris has not directly opposed Biden’s staunch support for Israel, but has expressed sympathy for the more than 38,000 Palestinian lives lost during the conflict. She was one of the first high-profile members of his administration to call for an immediate temporary cease-fire in March. She acknowledged the “immense scale of suffering” in Gaza and said the Israel-Hamas war is a “humanitarian catastrophe” for innocent civilians.

Harris’ support for women’s access to abortions has been a focal point of her tenure as the country’s first female vice president. She embarked on a nationwide Reproductive Freedoms Tour earlier this year to draw attention to attacks on abortion access following the Dobbs decision . She attended her first stop in Wisconsin on Jan. 22, the 51st anniversary of Roe v. Wade .

Harris proposed federal protections that would limit state abortion restrictions during her first presidential campaign. Under her proposal, states would need to clear laws regulating abortion with the Department of Justice, which would need to confirm they are constitutional before taking effect, she explained in 2019 .

“How dare these elected leaders believe they are in a better position to tell women what they need, to tell women what is in their best interest?” Harris asked during a visit to a Minnesota Planned Parenthood clinic in March. “We have to be a nation that trusts women.”

Harris has traveled on an Economic Opportunity Tour this summer to defend the Biden administration’s economic policy and attack former President Donald Trump’s economic agenda.

While on tour, she touted legislation passed during Biden’s time in office, including the American Rescue Plan and Inflation Reduction Act . Harris has tried to emphasize that wage increases have outpaced inflation since the pandemic and made the case that Trump has plans to give more tax cuts to the rich.

“Donald Trump gave tax cuts to billionaires,” she said in a June social media post . “President Joe Biden and I are investing in the middle class and making sure billionaires and big corporations pay their fair share.”

The vice president has made clear that climate change is a key issue a Harris administration would seek to address.

While running for president in 2019, she proposed a climate plan with a $10 trillion price tag — nearly seven times more than the $1.6 trillion Biden has invested in addressing the issue. She also called for a ban on fracking.

As a senator, she co-sponsored the Green New Deal , which called for a dramatic increase in the production of renewable fuels, including wind, solar, and hydropower sources. The 10-year mobilization plan pushed for a transition to energy systems less reliant on generating greenhouse gases, which are the primary contributors to climate change.

Harris has been an advocate inside the Biden administration pushing for the president to forgive student loan debt , which became a staple of his domestic policy agenda.

As a senator, she co-sponsored Vermont Sen. Bernie Sanders’ legislation to make two-year college free for all students and waive tuition for middle-class students attending four-year public universities.

At a Pride Month event last year, she criticized Florida’s 2022 “Don’t Say Gay” law banning educators from discussing sexual orientation and gender identity in elementary and middle school classrooms. Shortly after she announced her presidential campaign Sunday, the American Federation of Teachers endorsed Harris.

Rachel Barber is a 2024 election fellow at USA TODAY, focusing on politics and education. Follow her on X, formerly Twitter, at @rachelbarber_

More From Forbes

Crowdstrike reveals new details about what caused windows outage.

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CrowdStrike’s Preliminary Post Incident Review (PIR) is out, revealing some interesting details ... [+] about the Microsoft Windows outage. Here’s what it says.

It’s been a busy week for cybersecurity company CrowdStrike . After a botched update caused a massive Microsoft Windows outage worldwide, CrowdStrike’s CEO has been called to testify before the U.S. Congress to explain what happened.

But ahead of that, the firm released a Preliminary Post Incident Review , revealing more details about the outage and what caused it.

So, what went wrong, according to CrowdStrike’s report—and what is the firm doing to prevent it from happening again?

CrowdStrike Reveals What Happened

As you will certainly know by now, Windows computers around the world suffered mass blue screen of death when an update for CrowdStrike’s Falcon Sensor product went very wrong.

Falcon is “the CrowdStrike platform purpose-built to stop breaches via a unified set of cloud-delivered technologies that prevent all types of attacks—including malware and much more,” according to the company.

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Since then, a lot has happened. IT admins scrambled to remediate the issue, in many cases manually since you can’t simply undo Windows BSOD. Microsoft itself has also released a tool to help people recover from the incident.

CrowdStrike also released a short explainer detailing how a bug in the way it delivers updates resulted in the issue that ultimately caused BSOD.

What Does CrowdStrike’s Preliminary Post Incident Review say?

This has now been analyzed further in CrowdStrike’s PIR. The firm says it will also be releasing a root cause analysis soon.

In its PIR, CrowdStrike explains how it delivers security content configuration updates to its sensors in two ways: Sensor Content shipped with its sensor directly—and Rapid Response Content “designed to respond to the changing threat landscape at operational speed.”

The Rapid Response Content updates appear to be small and frequent, to allow the Falcon platform to tackle new cyber security threats. However, in this case, a bug caused an issue. “The issue on Friday involved a Rapid Response Content update with an undetected error,” CrowdStrike says in its PIR.

Indeed, CrowdStrike says the “problematic Rapid Response Content configuration update resulted in a Windows system crash.”

“When received by the sensor and loaded into the Content Interpreter, problematic content in Channel File 291 resulted in an out-of-bounds memory read triggering an exception,” CrowdStrike writes. “This unexpected exception could not be gracefully handled, resulting in a Windows operating system crash (BSOD).”

Bottom line: An issue with the software that checks CrowdStrike updates are working properly meant that the firm missed a problem with a content file. The update was pushed out to Windows systems, causing them to crash.

CrowdStrike’s Quality Assurance Process

Following the CrowdStrike issues last week, many people are questioning CrowdStrike’s quality assurance process.

CrowdStrike says its updates “go through an extensive QA process, which includes automated testing, manual testing, validation and rollout steps.”

The firm explains that the sensor release process begins with automated testing, both prior to and after merging into its code base. After being made available, its customers can update their fleet in a managed process.

However, the update on Friday was Rapid Response Content, which goes through a different process.

How CrowdStrike Will Prevent It From Happening Again

CrowdStrike has outlined a number of steps it will take to stop anything this devastating from happening again. This includes better testing processes such as “a staggered deployment strategy for Rapid Response Content in which updates are gradually deployed to larger portions of the sensor base, starting with a canary deployment.”

It will also improve monitoring for both sensor and system performance, collecting feedback during Rapid Response Content deployment to guide a phased rollout.

CrowdStrike says it will provide customers with greater control over the delivery of Rapid Response Content updates by “allowing granular selection of when and where these updates are deployed.”

Meanwhile, CrowdStrike will provide content update details via release notes, which customers can subscribe to.

Experts Have Their Say

Security experts say a staged rollout procedure when publishing Rapid Response Content updates would have helped prevent the issue. “The crash would have been detected early in the first rollout stages and the number of impacted computers would have been significantly limited,” says Talal Haj Bakry, a security researcher at Mysk.

However, he adds, staged rollouts are not necessarily usual for an update such as this. He likens the issue to a firm running a large blog that uses a content management system. “When you want to update the CMS software itself, you may roll out the CMS update to some of your visitors at first to make sure nothing broke. But let’s say you simply want to publish a new blogpost,” he explains.

“Normally you’d want all your visitors to see the new post once it’s published, and there’s no need to do a staged rollout. Now imagine you published a new blogpost, and somehow it broke your entire website and made it inaccessible. This is similar to what happened with CrowdStrike publishing a Rapid Response Content Update.”

Even so, “there’s no absolving CrowdStrike from responsibility of this incident,” he says. “It’s clear that for such mission critical software running on millions of computers, every change—no matter how small it may seem—should be subject to a full QA procedure, including staged rollouts.”

While it is understandable that CrowdStrike would want to get new threat detection out quickly, it comes at a risk that something could go wrong and at scale, “as we recently saw,” says Sean Wright, head of application security at Featurespace.

Many organizations attempting this type of approach typically have a smaller rollout first, he says. “This helps them to be absolutely sure nothing obvious is broken before rolling out to a wider audience,” he says.

And while there appears to have been some tool for testing the validity of the update, that in itself had a flaw, says Wright. This highlights why rolling out to production-like instances first for some initial validation is incredibly important, he says. “Long story short, if you don’t test in some production-like environment before rolling an update out to all systems, there is the risk—albeit rather small likelihood—that it could affect all systems.”

It's good that CrowdStrike is communicating with customers and giving timely updates on what went wrong, but the firm has shown in its investigation so far that its processes could have been a lot better.

CrowdStrike is certainly learning this lesson the hard way. More details will be coming soon, but the damage is already done to CrowdStrike’s reputation, so the firm needs to work hard to recover.

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Large-scale solar potential analysis in a 3d cad framework as a use case of urban digital twins.

1. Introduction

2. state-of-the-art, 2.1. weather data for solar potential, 2.2. 3d city models of buildings for solar potential studies, 2.3. shading assessment using 3d city models, 2.4. visualisation of solar radiation on building surfaces, 2.5. software technologies and tools, 3. challenges and gaps.

• What kind of geometric preprocessing of terrain data and building footprints is required at the city scale before further analysis in a 3D CAD system?
• Which components of the calculation of solar potential using the CAD-based raytracing method have the most significant impact on computation performance, leading to the improvement of data pipelines for UDTs?
• How can the results of the calculations be visualised on the web at the city scale?

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. study area and data, 4.2. general workflow, 4.3. preprocess geodata and generation of 3d lod1 buildings, 4.4. effective shading terrain surface and 3d terrain generation, 4.5. weather data acquisition, 4.6. calculating solar radiation, 4.6.1. generation of the cumulative sky matrix, 4.6.2. ladybug incident radiation, 4.6.3. transferring results to a 3d web platform, 5.1. impact of large distant shading objects, 5.2. synthetic buildings, 5.3. case 1. city scale, 5.4. case 2. district scale, 6. discussion, 6.1. use cases, 6.2. limitations, 6.3. challenges and gaps, 7. conclusions and outlook, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Shirinyan, E.; Petrova-Antonova, D. Large-Scale Solar Potential Analysis in a 3D CAD Framework as a Use Case of Urban Digital Twins. Remote Sens. 2024 , 16 , 2700. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16152700

Shirinyan E, Petrova-Antonova D. Large-Scale Solar Potential Analysis in a 3D CAD Framework as a Use Case of Urban Digital Twins. Remote Sensing . 2024; 16(15):2700. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16152700

Shirinyan, Evgeny, and Dessislava Petrova-Antonova. 2024. "Large-Scale Solar Potential Analysis in a 3D CAD Framework as a Use Case of Urban Digital Twins" Remote Sensing 16, no. 15: 2700. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16152700

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Factor decomposition analysis of urban transport CO 2 emissions in Chinese mega cities: case study of Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Shenzhen

• Published: 24 July 2024

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• Xiao Luo 1 , 2 ,
• Yihong Yuan   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0009-8878-5810 2 ,
• Weihao Bian 4 &
• Xinxia Wei 5  

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With the progress of urbanization, more activities and CO 2 are concentrated in urban, and transport sector becomes one of the most important sources of carbon emissions in cities. With the quick growth of urban transport activities, to achieve China’s carbon emission peaking and neutrality target, controlling urban transport CO 2 emissions becomes more important and difficult. Current studies lack a full-chain analysis of the impact of urban structure, modal share, technical level, and operational level on carbon emissions, especially the lack of analysis of rapidly urbanizing, motorizing, and electrifying in Chinese cities. To fill this gap, this paper conducts a decomposition and causal analysis of the urban transport sector in four Chinese megacities, Beijing, Shanghai, Shenzhen and Guangzhou. Base on the full chain analysis, urbanization, motorization, and technology level are the main factors influencing the growth of carbon emissions from passenger transport in the four cities. In the early stage of urban development, urbanization is responsible for the growth of carbon emissions; in the later stage of urban development, motorization is mainly responsible for the growth of carbon emissions; and in the future, technology level is the key to reducing emissions. Specifically, because of the COVID-19 epidemic, trip rates in the four cities drop significantly and make a noticeable change in CO 2 emissions. Besides, it is found by the full chain analysis that the different focus on the three factors (urbanization, motorization, technological level) ultimately led to the difference in the change of carbon dioxide emissions in the four cities.

(1) Motorization contributes 82% of CO 2 and is responsible for its rapid growth.

(2) Urbanization and motorization cause CO 2 growth in the urban development period.

(3) Provided a standardized full-chain comparative framework for analyzing carbon emission.

(4) COVID-19 epidemic can cause a -35.7–15% change in carbon emissions.

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Data availability

Data sets generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. The transport-related data (e.g. number of trips, travel distance, mode share, etc.) are available from the Integrated Transport Annual Report, but restrictions apply to the availability of these data, which were used under license for the current study, and so are not publicly available.

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Acknowledgements

This study was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Shanghai (No. 21ZR1466600), the the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 52372340)，the Projects of International Cooperation and Exchanges from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 72061137071), and the Central University Baasic Scientific Research Business Expenses Special Funds (No. 2022-5-YB-03).

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Luo, X., Yuan, Y., Dou, Y. et al. Factor decomposition analysis of urban transport CO 2 emissions in Chinese mega cities: case study of Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Shenzhen. Environ Dev Sustain (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-05239-4

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-05239-4

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Integrating sustainability assessment tools with life cycle analysis for agroecological systems: A UK case study

• Westaway, Sally
• Żyłowski, Tomasz
• Hardiman, Sam
• Smith, Laurence G.

Life cycle analysis (LCA) is increasingly used to assess the environmental impacts of primary food production. As an alternative, impacts can be assessed at the farm level using holistic sustainability assessment tools. The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether an integrated approach combining a "detailed and narrow" LCA with a "broad and shallow" sustainability assessment could help integrate socioeconomic and ecosystem service evaluations in LCA by including a wide range of impact criteria. To address this overarching objective, we present results from whole-farm sustainability assessments using the Public Goods Tool (PGT), a tool developed in the United Kingdom (UK) by the Organic Research Centre, and cradle-to-farm-gate LCAs of beef, carrots and tomatoes for (i) a diverse agroecological case study farm (CSF) and (ii) a specialised agroecological production system. The use of the PGT enabled comparison with similar UK farm systems and was extended to develop biodiversity and social indices to complement the LCA. Results of the CSF demonstrated a relationship between environmental impacts and increased production efficiency, as the climate change impact per kg of product was strongly associated with higher yields, but this was less clear when impacts expressed per ha. The CSF produced less beef than the specialised system but more tomatoes and carrots, which reflects its higher labour input and less intensive production methods. The CSF generally used fewer external inputs, which decreased its overall impacts. Purchased feed contributed disproportionately to the water consumption of beef from the specialised system. PGT results highlighted the environmental benefits that can be delivered by 'diverse' agricultural systems and added detail to LCA results; for example the high labour input at the CSF helped generate social capital whilst partially explaining the reduced emissions from tractor operations modelled in the carrot LCA. We conclude that LCA may not be the most suitable tool to consider these wider aspects of sustainability and can only provide an estimate of environmental impacts. LCA helps understand which parts of the food system have the greatest impacts, and how they could become more sustainable, but it cannot determine sustainable agriculture alone. The addition of rapid farm-level multi-criteria sustainability assessment tools can complement the LCA results, help reveal 'blind spots', and encourage adoption by farmers.

• Whole-farm sustainability tool;
• Organic agriculture;
• Biodiversity;