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Research Reports: Definition and How to Write Them

Reports are usually spread across a vast horizon of topics but are focused on communicating information about a particular topic and a niche target market. The primary motive of research reports is to convey integral details about a study for marketers to consider while designing new strategies.

Certain events, facts, and other information based on incidents need to be relayed to the people in charge, and creating research reports is the most effective communication tool. Ideal research reports are extremely accurate in the offered information with a clear objective and conclusion. These reports should have a clean and structured format to relay information effectively.

What are Research Reports?

Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analyzing the information gathered by conducting organized research, typically in the form of surveys or qualitative methods .

A research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted research. It is most often considered to be a true testimony of all the work done to garner specificities of research.

The various sections of a research report are:

Background/Introduction
Implemented Methods
Results based on Analysis
Deliberation

Learn more: Quantitative Research

Components of Research Reports

Research is imperative for launching a new product/service or a new feature. The markets today are extremely volatile and competitive due to new entrants every day who may or may not provide effective products. An organization needs to make the right decisions at the right time to be relevant in such a market with updated products that suffice customer demands.

The details of a research report may change with the purpose of research but the main components of a report will remain constant. The research approach of the market researcher also influences the style of writing reports. Here are seven main components of a productive research report:

Research Report Summary: The entire objective along with the overview of research are to be included in a summary which is a couple of paragraphs in length. All the multiple components of the research are explained in brief under the report summary. It should be interesting enough to capture all the key elements of the report.
Research Introduction: There always is a primary goal that the researcher is trying to achieve through a report. In the introduction section, he/she can cover answers related to this goal and establish a thesis which will be included to strive and answer it in detail. This section should answer an integral question: “What is the current situation of the goal?”. After the research design was conducted, did the organization conclude the goal successfully or they are still a work in progress – provide such details in the introduction part of the research report.
Research Methodology: This is the most important section of the report where all the important information lies. The readers can gain data for the topic along with analyzing the quality of provided content and the research can also be approved by other market researchers . Thus, this section needs to be highly informative with each aspect of research discussed in detail. Information needs to be expressed in chronological order according to its priority and importance. Researchers should include references in case they gained information from existing techniques.
Research Results: A short description of the results along with calculations conducted to achieve the goal will form this section of results. Usually, the exposition after data analysis is carried out in the discussion part of the report.

Learn more: Quantitative Data

Research Discussion: The results are discussed in extreme detail in this section along with a comparative analysis of reports that could probably exist in the same domain. Any abnormality uncovered during research will be deliberated in the discussion section. While writing research reports, the researcher will have to connect the dots on how the results will be applicable in the real world.
Research References and Conclusion: Conclude all the research findings along with mentioning each and every author, article or any content piece from where references were taken.

Learn more: Qualitative Observation

15 Tips for Writing Research Reports

Writing research reports in the manner can lead to all the efforts going down the drain. Here are 15 tips for writing impactful research reports:

Prepare the context before starting to write and start from the basics: This was always taught to us in school – be well-prepared before taking a plunge into new topics. The order of survey questions might not be the ideal or most effective order for writing research reports. The idea is to start with a broader topic and work towards a more specific one and focus on a conclusion or support, which a research should support with the facts. The most difficult thing to do in reporting, without a doubt is to start. Start with the title, the introduction, then document the first discoveries and continue from that. Once the marketers have the information well documented, they can write a general conclusion.
Keep the target audience in mind while selecting a format that is clear, logical and obvious to them: Will the research reports be presented to decision makers or other researchers? What are the general perceptions around that topic? This requires more care and diligence. A researcher will need a significant amount of information to start writing the research report. Be consistent with the wording, the numbering of the annexes and so on. Follow the approved format of the company for the delivery of research reports and demonstrate the integrity of the project with the objectives of the company.
Have a clear research objective: A researcher should read the entire proposal again, and make sure that the data they provide contributes to the objectives that were raised from the beginning. Remember that speculations are for conversations, not for research reports, if a researcher speculates, they directly question their own research.
Establish a working model: Each study must have an internal logic, which will have to be established in the report and in the evidence. The researchers’ worst nightmare is to be required to write research reports and realize that key questions were not included.

Learn more: Quantitative Observation

Gather all the information about the research topic. Who are the competitors of our customers? Talk to other researchers who have studied the subject of research, know the language of the industry. Misuse of the terms can discourage the readers of research reports from reading further.
Read aloud while writing. While reading the report, if the researcher hears something inappropriate, for example, if they stumble over the words when reading them, surely the reader will too. If the researcher can’t put an idea in a single sentence, then it is very long and they must change it so that the idea is clear to everyone.
Check grammar and spelling. Without a doubt, good practices help to understand the report. Use verbs in the present tense. Consider using the present tense, which makes the results sound more immediate. Find new words and other ways of saying things. Have fun with the language whenever possible.
Discuss only the discoveries that are significant. If some data are not really significant, do not mention them. Remember that not everything is truly important or essential within research reports.

Learn more: Qualitative Data

Try and stick to the survey questions. For example, do not say that the people surveyed “were worried” about an research issue , when there are different degrees of concern.
The graphs must be clear enough so that they understand themselves. Do not let graphs lead the reader to make mistakes: give them a title, include the indications, the size of the sample, and the correct wording of the question.
Be clear with messages. A researcher should always write every section of the report with an accuracy of details and language.
Be creative with titles – Particularly in segmentation studies choose names “that give life to research”. Such names can survive for a long time after the initial investigation.
Create an effective conclusion: The conclusion in the research reports is the most difficult to write, but it is an incredible opportunity to excel. Make a precise summary. Sometimes it helps to start the conclusion with something specific, then it describes the most important part of the study, and finally, it provides the implications of the conclusions.
Get a couple more pair of eyes to read the report. Writers have trouble detecting their own mistakes. But they are responsible for what is presented. Ensure it has been approved by colleagues or friends before sending the find draft out.

Learn more: Market Research and Analysis

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Research Report: Definition, Types + [Writing Guide]

One of the reasons for carrying out research is to add to the existing body of knowledge. Therefore, when conducting research, you need to document your processes and findings in a research report.

With a research report, it is easy to outline the findings of your systematic investigation and any gaps needing further inquiry. Knowing how to create a detailed research report will prove useful when you need to conduct research.

What is a Research Report?

A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a systematic investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.

In many ways, a research report can be considered as a summary of the research process that clearly highlights findings, recommendations, and other important details. Reading a well-written research report should provide you with all the information you need about the core areas of the research process.

Features of a Research Report

So how do you recognize a research report when you see one? Here are some of the basic features that define a research report.

It is a detailed presentation of research processes and findings, and it usually includes tables and graphs.
It is written in a formal language.
A research report is usually written in the third person.
It is informative and based on first-hand verifiable information.
It is formally structured with headings, sections, and bullet points.
It always includes recommendations for future actions.

Types of Research Report

The research report is classified based on two things; nature of research and target audience.

Nature of Research

Qualitative Research Report

This is the type of report written for qualitative research . It outlines the methods, processes, and findings of a qualitative method of systematic investigation. In educational research, a qualitative research report provides an opportunity for one to apply his or her knowledge and develop skills in planning and executing qualitative research projects.

A qualitative research report is usually descriptive in nature. Hence, in addition to presenting details of the research process, you must also create a descriptive narrative of the information.

Quantitative Research Report

A quantitative research report is a type of research report that is written for quantitative research. Quantitative research is a type of systematic investigation that pays attention to numerical or statistical values in a bid to find answers to research questions.

In this type of research report, the researcher presents quantitative data to support the research process and findings. Unlike a qualitative research report that is mainly descriptive, a quantitative research report works with numbers; that is, it is numerical in nature.

Target Audience

Also, a research report can be said to be technical or popular based on the target audience. If you’re dealing with a general audience, you would need to present a popular research report, and if you’re dealing with a specialized audience, you would submit a technical report.

Technical Research Report

A technical research report is a detailed document that you present after carrying out industry-based research. This report is highly specialized because it provides information for a technical audience; that is, individuals with above-average knowledge in the field of study.

In a technical research report, the researcher is expected to provide specific information about the research process, including statistical analyses and sampling methods. Also, the use of language is highly specialized and filled with jargon.

Examples of technical research reports include legal and medical research reports.

Popular Research Report

A popular research report is one for a general audience; that is, for individuals who do not necessarily have any knowledge in the field of study. A popular research report aims to make information accessible to everyone.

It is written in very simple language, which makes it easy to understand the findings and recommendations. Examples of popular research reports are the information contained in newspapers and magazines.

Importance of a Research Report

Knowledge Transfer: As already stated above, one of the reasons for carrying out research is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge, and this is made possible with a research report. A research report serves as a means to effectively communicate the findings of a systematic investigation to all and sundry.
Identification of Knowledge Gaps: With a research report, you’d be able to identify knowledge gaps for further inquiry. A research report shows what has been done while hinting at other areas needing systematic investigation.
In market research, a research report would help you understand the market needs and peculiarities at a glance.
A research report allows you to present information in a precise and concise manner.
It is time-efficient and practical because, in a research report, you do not have to spend time detailing the findings of your research work in person. You can easily send out the report via email and have stakeholders look at it.

Guide to Writing a Research Report

A lot of detail goes into writing a research report, and getting familiar with the different requirements would help you create the ideal research report. A research report is usually broken down into multiple sections, which allows for a concise presentation of information.

Structure and Example of a Research Report

This is the title of your systematic investigation. Your title should be concise and point to the aims, objectives, and findings of a research report.

Table of Contents

This is like a compass that makes it easier for readers to navigate the research report.

An abstract is an overview that highlights all important aspects of the research including the research method, data collection process, and research findings. Think of an abstract as a summary of your research report that presents pertinent information in a concise manner.

An abstract is always brief; typically 100-150 words and goes straight to the point. The focus of your research abstract should be the 5Ws and 1H format – What, Where, Why, When, Who and How.

Introduction

Here, the researcher highlights the aims and objectives of the systematic investigation as well as the problem which the systematic investigation sets out to solve. When writing the report introduction, it is also essential to indicate whether the purposes of the research were achieved or would require more work.

In the introduction section, the researcher specifies the research problem and also outlines the significance of the systematic investigation. Also, the researcher is expected to outline any jargons and terminologies that are contained in the research.

Literature Review

A literature review is a written survey of existing knowledge in the field of study. In other words, it is the section where you provide an overview and analysis of different research works that are relevant to your systematic investigation.

It highlights existing research knowledge and areas needing further investigation, which your research has sought to fill. At this stage, you can also hint at your research hypothesis and its possible implications for the existing body of knowledge in your field of study.

An Account of Investigation

This is a detailed account of the research process, including the methodology, sample, and research subjects. Here, you are expected to provide in-depth information on the research process including the data collection and analysis procedures.

In a quantitative research report, you’d need to provide information surveys, questionnaires and other quantitative data collection methods used in your research. In a qualitative research report, you are expected to describe the qualitative data collection methods used in your research including interviews and focus groups.

In this section, you are expected to present the results of the systematic investigation.

This section further explains the findings of the research, earlier outlined. Here, you are expected to present a justification for each outcome and show whether the results are in line with your hypotheses or if other research studies have come up with similar results.

Conclusions

This is a summary of all the information in the report. It also outlines the significance of the entire study.

References and Appendices

This section contains a list of all the primary and secondary research sources.

Tips for Writing a Research Report

Define the Context for the Report

As is obtainable when writing an essay, defining the context for your research report would help you create a detailed yet concise document. This is why you need to create an outline before writing so that you do not miss out on anything.

Define your Audience

Writing with your audience in mind is essential as it determines the tone of the report. If you’re writing for a general audience, you would want to present the information in a simple and relatable manner. For a specialized audience, you would need to make use of technical and field-specific terms.

Include Significant Findings

The idea of a research report is to present some sort of abridged version of your systematic investigation. In your report, you should exclude irrelevant information while highlighting only important data and findings.

Include Illustrations

Your research report should include illustrations and other visual representations of your data. Graphs, pie charts, and relevant images lend additional credibility to your systematic investigation.

Choose the Right Title

A good research report title is brief, precise, and contains keywords from your research. It should provide a clear idea of your systematic investigation so that readers can grasp the entire focus of your research from the title.

Proofread the Report

Before publishing the document, ensure that you give it a second look to authenticate the information. If you can, get someone else to go through the report, too, and you can also run it through proofreading and editing software.

How to Gather Research Data for Your Report

Understand the Problem

Every research aims at solving a specific problem or set of problems, and this should be at the back of your mind when writing your research report. Understanding the problem would help you to filter the information you have and include only important data in your report.

Know what your report seeks to achieve

This is somewhat similar to the point above because, in some way, the aim of your research report is intertwined with the objectives of your systematic investigation. Identifying the primary purpose of writing a research report would help you to identify and present the required information accordingly.

Identify your audience

Knowing your target audience plays a crucial role in data collection for a research report. If your research report is specifically for an organization, you would want to present industry-specific information or show how the research findings are relevant to the work that the company does.

Create Surveys/Questionnaires

A survey is a research method that is used to gather data from a specific group of people through a set of questions. It can be either quantitative or qualitative.

A survey is usually made up of structured questions, and it can be administered online or offline. However, an online survey is a more effective method of research data collection because it helps you save time and gather data with ease.

You can seamlessly create an online questionnaire for your research on Formplus . With the multiple sharing options available in the builder, you would be able to administer your survey to respondents in little or no time.

Formplus also has a report summary too l that you can use to create custom visual reports for your research.

Step-by-step guide on how to create an online questionnaire using Formplus

Sign into Formplus

In the Formplus builder, you can easily create different online questionnaires for your research by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus.

Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on Create new form to begin.

Edit Form Title : Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “Research Questionnaire.”
Edit Form : Click on the edit icon to edit the form.
Add Fields : Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form in the Formplus builder inputs column. There are several field input options for questionnaires in the Formplus builder.
Edit fields
Click on “Save”
Form Customization: With the form customization options in the form builder, you can easily change the outlook of your form and make it more unique and personalized. Formplus allows you to change your form theme, add background images, and even change the font according to your needs.
Multiple Sharing Options: Formplus offers various form-sharing options, which enables you to share your questionnaire with respondents easily. You can use the direct social media sharing buttons to share your form link to your organization’s social media pages. You can also send out your survey form as email invitations to your research subjects too. If you wish, you can share your form’s QR code or embed it on your organization’s website for easy access.

Conclusion

Always remember that a research report is just as important as the actual systematic investigation because it plays a vital role in communicating research findings to everyone else. This is why you must take care to create a concise document summarizing the process of conducting any research.

In this article, we’ve outlined essential tips to help you create a research report. When writing your report, you should always have the audience at the back of your mind, as this would set the tone for the document.

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Research report guide: Definition, types, and tips

Last updated

5 March 2024

Reviewed by

Short on time? Get an AI generated summary of this article instead

From successful product launches or software releases to planning major business decisions, research reports serve many vital functions. They can summarize evidence and deliver insights and recommendations to save companies time and resources. They can reveal the most value-adding actions a company should take.

However, poorly constructed reports can have the opposite effect! Taking the time to learn established research-reporting rules and approaches will equip you with in-demand skills. You’ll be able to capture and communicate information applicable to numerous situations and industries, adding another string to your resume bow.

What are research reports?

A research report is a collection of contextual data, gathered through organized research, that provides new insights into a particular challenge (which, for this article, is business-related). Research reports are a time-tested method for distilling large amounts of data into a narrow band of focus.

Their effectiveness often hinges on whether the report provides:

Strong, well-researched evidence

Comprehensive analysis

Well-considered conclusions and recommendations

Though the topic possibilities are endless, an effective research report keeps a laser-like focus on the specific questions or objectives the researcher believes are key to achieving success. Many research reports begin as research proposals, which usually include the need for a report to capture the findings of the study and recommend a course of action.

A description of the research method used, e.g., qualitative, quantitative, or other

Statistical analysis

Causal (or explanatory) research (i.e., research identifying relationships between two variables)

Inductive research, also known as ‘theory-building’

Deductive research, such as that used to test theories

Action research, where the research is actively used to drive change

Importance of a research report

Research reports can unify and direct a company's focus toward the most appropriate strategic action. Of course, spending resources on a report takes up some of the company's human and financial resources. Choosing when a report is called for is a matter of judgment and experience.

Some development models used heavily in the engineering world, such as Waterfall development, are notorious for over-relying on research reports. With Waterfall development, there is a linear progression through each step of a project, and each stage is precisely documented and reported on before moving to the next.

The pace of the business world is faster than the speed at which your authors can produce and disseminate reports. So how do companies strike the right balance between creating and acting on research reports?

The answer lies, again, in the report's defined objectives. By paring down your most pressing interests and those of your stakeholders, your research and reporting skills will be the lenses that keep your company's priorities in constant focus.

Honing your company's primary objectives can save significant amounts of time and align research and reporting efforts with ever-greater precision.

Some examples of well-designed research objectives are:

Proving whether or not a product or service meets customer expectations

Demonstrating the value of a service, product, or business process to your stakeholders and investors

Improving business decision-making when faced with a lack of time or other constraints

Clarifying the relationship between a critical cause and effect for problematic business processes

Prioritizing the development of a backlog of products or product features

Comparing business or production strategies

Evaluating past decisions and predicting future outcomes

Features of a research report

Research reports generally require a research design phase, where the report author(s) determine the most important elements the report must contain.

Just as there are various kinds of research, there are many types of reports.

Here are the standard elements of almost any research-reporting format:

Report summary. A broad but comprehensive overview of what readers will learn in the full report. Summaries are usually no more than one or two paragraphs and address all key elements of the report. Think of the key takeaways your primary stakeholders will want to know if they don’t have time to read the full document.

Introduction. Include a brief background of the topic, the type of research, and the research sample. Consider the primary goal of the report, who is most affected, and how far along the company is in meeting its objectives.

Methods. A description of how the researcher carried out data collection, analysis, and final interpretations of the data. Include the reasons for choosing a particular method. The methods section should strike a balance between clearly presenting the approach taken to gather data and discussing how it is designed to achieve the report's objectives.

Data analysis. This section contains interpretations that lead readers through the results relevant to the report's thesis. If there were unexpected results, include here a discussion on why that might be. Charts, calculations, statistics, and other supporting information also belong here (or, if lengthy, as an appendix). This should be the most detailed section of the research report, with references for further study. Present the information in a logical order, whether chronologically or in order of importance to the report's objectives.

Conclusion. This should be written with sound reasoning, often containing useful recommendations. The conclusion must be backed by a continuous thread of logic throughout the report.

How to write a research paper

With a clear outline and robust pool of research, a research paper can start to write itself, but what's a good way to start a research report?

Research report examples are often the quickest way to gain inspiration for your report. Look for the types of research reports most relevant to your industry and consider which makes the most sense for your data and goals.

The research report outline will help you organize the elements of your report. One of the most time-tested report outlines is the IMRaD structure:

Introduction

...and Discussion

Pay close attention to the most well-established research reporting format in your industry, and consider your tone and language from your audience's perspective. Learn the key terms inside and out; incorrect jargon could easily harm the perceived authority of your research paper.

Along with a foundation in high-quality research and razor-sharp analysis, the most effective research reports will also demonstrate well-developed:

Internal logic

Narrative flow

Conclusions and recommendations

Readability, striking a balance between simple phrasing and technical insight

How to gather research data for your report

The validity of research data is critical. Because the research phase usually occurs well before the writing phase, you normally have plenty of time to vet your data.

However, research reports could involve ongoing research, where report authors (sometimes the researchers themselves) write portions of the report alongside ongoing research.

One such research-report example would be an R&D department that knows its primary stakeholders are eager to learn about a lengthy work in progress and any potentially important outcomes.

However you choose to manage the research and reporting, your data must meet robust quality standards before you can rely on it. Vet any research with the following questions in mind:

Does it use statistically valid analysis methods?

Do the researchers clearly explain their research, analysis, and sampling methods?

Did the researchers provide any caveats or advice on how to interpret their data?

Have you gathered the data yourself or were you in close contact with those who did?

Is the source biased?

Usually, flawed research methods become more apparent the further you get through a research report.

It's perfectly natural for good research to raise new questions, but the reader should have no uncertainty about what the data represents. There should be no doubt about matters such as:

Whether the sampling or analysis methods were based on sound and consistent logic

What the research samples are and where they came from

The accuracy of any statistical functions or equations

Validation of testing and measuring processes

When does a report require design validation?

A robust design validation process is often a gold standard in highly technical research reports. Design validation ensures the objects of a study are measured accurately, which lends more weight to your report and makes it valuable to more specialized industries.

Product development and engineering projects are the most common research-report examples that typically involve a design validation process. Depending on the scope and complexity of your research, you might face additional steps to validate your data and research procedures.

If you’re including design validation in the report (or report proposal), explain and justify your data-collection processes. Good design validation builds greater trust in a research report and lends more weight to its conclusions.

Choosing the right analysis method

Just as the quality of your report depends on properly validated research, a useful conclusion requires the most contextually relevant analysis method. This means comparing different statistical methods and choosing the one that makes the most sense for your research.

Most broadly, research analysis comes down to quantitative or qualitative methods (respectively: measurable by a number vs subjectively qualified values). There are also mixed research methods, which bridge the need for merging hard data with qualified assessments and still reach a cohesive set of conclusions.

Some of the most common analysis methods in research reports include:

Significance testing (aka hypothesis analysis), which compares test and control groups to determine how likely the data was the result of random chance.

Regression analysis , to establish relationships between variables, control for extraneous variables , and support correlation analysis.

Correlation analysis (aka bivariate testing), a method to identify and determine the strength of linear relationships between variables. It’s effective for detecting patterns from complex data, but care must be exercised to not confuse correlation with causation.

With any analysis method, it's important to justify which method you chose in the report. You should also provide estimates of the statistical accuracy (e.g., the p-value or confidence level of quantifiable data) of any data analysis.

This requires a commitment to the report's primary aim. For instance, this may be achieving a certain level of customer satisfaction by analyzing the cause and effect of changes to how service is delivered. Even better, use statistical analysis to calculate which change is most positively correlated with improved levels of customer satisfaction.

Tips for writing research reports

There's endless good advice for writing effective research reports, and it almost all depends on the subjective aims of the people behind the report. Due to the wide variety of research reports, the best tips will be unique to each author's purpose.

Consider the following research report tips in any order, and take note of the ones most relevant to you:

No matter how in depth or detailed your report might be, provide a well-considered, succinct summary. At the very least, give your readers a quick and effective way to get up to speed.

Pare down your target audience (e.g., other researchers, employees, laypersons, etc.), and adjust your voice for their background knowledge and interest levels

For all but the most open-ended research, clarify your objectives, both for yourself and within the report.

Leverage your team members’ talents to fill in any knowledge gaps you might have. Your team is only as good as the sum of its parts.

Justify why your research proposal’s topic will endure long enough to derive value from the finished report.

Consolidate all research and analysis functions onto a single user-friendly platform. There's no reason to settle for less than developer-grade tools suitable for non-developers.

What's the format of a research report?

The research-reporting format is how the report is structured—a framework the authors use to organize their data, conclusions, arguments, and recommendations. The format heavily determines how the report's outline develops, because the format dictates the overall structure and order of information (based on the report's goals and research objectives).

What's the purpose of a research-report outline?

A good report outline gives form and substance to the report's objectives, presenting the results in a readable, engaging way. For any research-report format, the outline should create momentum along a chain of logic that builds up to a conclusion or interpretation.

What's the difference between a research essay and a research report?

There are several key differences between research reports and essays:

Research report:

Ordered into separate sections

More commercial in nature

Often includes infographics

Heavily descriptive

More self-referential

Usually provides recommendations

Research essay

Does not rely on research report formatting

More academically minded

Normally text-only

Less detailed

Omits discussion of methods

Usually non-prescriptive

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Research Report
Post last modified: 11 January 2022
Reading time: 25 mins read
Post category: Research Methodology

What is Research Report?

Research reporting is the oral or written presentation of the findings in such detail and form as to be readily understood and assessed by the society, economy or particularly by the researchers.

As earlier said that it is the final stage of the research process and its purpose is to convey to interested persons the whole result of the study. Report writing is common to both academic and managerial situations. In academics, a research report is prepared for comprehensive and application-oriented learning. In businesses or organisations, reports are used for the basis of decision making.

Table of Content

1 What is Research Report?
2 Research Report Definition
3.1 Preliminary Part
3.2 Introduction of the Report
3.3 Review of Literature
3.4 The Research Methodology
3.5 Results
3.6 Concluding Remarks
3.7 Bibliography
4 Significance of Report Writing
5 Qualities of Good Report
6.1 Analysis of the subject matter
6.2 Research outline
6.3 Preparation of rough draft
6.4 Rewriting and polishing
6.5 Writing the final draft
7 Precautions for Writing Research Reports
8.1.1 Technical Report
8.1.2 Popular Report
8.2.1 Written Report
8.2.2 Oral Report

Research Report Definition

According to C. A. Brown , “A report is a communication from someone who has information to someone who wants to use that information.”

According to Goode and Hatt , “The preparation of report is the final stage of research, and it’s purpose is to convey to the interested persons the whole result of the study, in sufficient detail and so arranged as to enable each reader to comprehend the data and to determine for himself the validity of the conclusions.”

It is clear from the above definitions of a research report, it is a brief account of the problem of investigation, the justification of its selection and the procedure of analysis and interpretation. It is only a summary of the entire research proceedings.

In other words, it can be defined as written documents, which presents information in a specialized and concise manner.

Contents of Research Report

Although no hard and fast rules can be laid down, the report must contain the following points.

Acknowledgement
Table of contents
List of tables
List of graphs
Introduction
Background of the research study
Statement of the problem
Brief outline of the chapters
Books review
Review of articles published in books, journals, periodicals, etc
Review of articles published in leading newspapers
Working papers / discusssion paper / study reports
Articles on authorised websites
A broad conclusion and indications for further research
The theoretical framework (variables)
Model / hypothesis
Instruments for data collection
Data collection
Pilot study
Processing of data
Hypothesis / model testing
Data analysis and interpretation
Tables and figures
Conclusions
Shortcomings
Suggestions to the problems
Direction for further research

Preliminary Part

The preliminary part may have seven major components – cover, title, preface, acknowledgement, table of contents, list of tables, list of graphs. Long reports presented in book form have a cover made up of a card sheet. The cover contains title of the research report, the authority to whom the report is submitted, name of the author, etc.

The preface introduces the report to the readers. It gives a very brief introduction of the report. In the acknowledgements author mention names of persons and organisations that have extended co-operation and helped in the various stages of research. Table of contents is essential. It gives the title and page number of each chapter.

Introduction of the Report

The introduction of the research report should clearly and logically bring out the background of the problem addressed in the research. The purpose of the introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. A clear statement of the problem with specific questions to be answered is presented in the introduction. It contains a brief outline of the chapters.

Review of Literature

The third section reviews the important literature related to the study. A comprehensive review of the research literature referred to must be made. Previous research studies and the important writings in the area under study should be reviewed. Review of literature is helpful to provide a background for the development of the present study.

The researcher may review concerned books, articles published in edited books, journals and periodicals. Researcher may also take review of articles published in leading newspapers. A researcher should study working papers/discussion papers/study reports. It is essential for a broad conclusion and indications for further research.

The Research Methodology

Research methodology is an integral part of the research. It should clearly indicate the universe and the selection of samples, techniques of data collection, analysis and interpretation, statistical techniques, etc.

Results contain pilot study, processing of data, hypothesis/model testing, data analysis and interpretation, tables and figures, etc. This is the heart of the research report. If a pilot study is planned to be used, it’s purpose should be given in the research methodology.

The collected data and the information should be edited, coded, tabulated and analysed with a view to arriving at a valid and authentic conclusion. Tables and figures are used to clarify the significant relationship. The results obtained through tables, graphs should be critically interpreted.

Concluding Remarks

The concluding remarks should discuss the results obtained in the earlier sections, as well as their usefulness and implications. It contains findings, conclusions, shortcomings, suggestions to the problem and direction for future research. Findings are statements of factual information based upon the data analysis.

Conclusions must clearly explain whether the hypothesis have been established and rejected. This part requires great expertise and preciseness. A report should also refer to the limitations of the applicability of the research inferences. It is essential to suggest the theoretical, practical and policy implications of the research. The suggestions should be supported by scientific and logical arguments. The future direction of research based on the work completed should also be outlined.

Bibliography

The bibliography is an alphabetic list of books, journal articles, reports, etc, published or unpublished, read, referred to, examined by the researcher in preparing the report. The bibliography should follow standard formats for books, journal articles, research reports.

The end of the research report may consist of appendices, listed in respect of all technical data. Appendices are for the purpose of providing detailed data or information that would be too cumbersome within the main body of the research report.

Significance of Report Writing

Report writing is an important communication medium in organisations. The most crucial findings might have come out through a research report. Report is common to academics and managers also. Reports are used for comprehensive and application oriented learning in academics. In organisations, reports are used for the basis of decision making. The importance of report writing can be discussed as under.

Through research reports, a manager or an executive can quickly get an idea of a current scenario which improves his information base for making sound decisions affecting future operations of the company or enterprise. The research report acts as a means of communication of various research findings to the interested parties, organisations and general public.

Good report writing play, a significant role of conveying unknown facts about the phenomenon to the concerned parties. This may provide new insights and new opportunities to the people. Research report plays a key role in making effective decisions in marketing, production, banking, materials, human resource development and government also. Good report writing is used for economic planning and optimum utilisation of resources for the development of a nation.

Report writing facilitates the validation of generalisation. A research report is an end product of research. As earlier said that report writing provides useful information in arriving at rational decisions that may reform the business and society. The findings, conclusions, suggestions and recommendations are useful to academicians, scholars and policymakers. Report writing provides reference material for further research in the same or similar areas of research to the concerned parties.

While preparing a research report, a researcher should take some proper precautions. Report writing should be simple, lucid and systematic. Report writing should be written speedily without interrupting the continuity of thought. The report writing should sustain the interest of readers.

Qualities of Good Report

Report writing is a highly skilled job. It is a process of analysing, understanding and consolidating the findings and projecting a meaningful view of the phenomenon studied. A good report writing is essential for effective communication.

Following are the essential qualities of good report:

A research report is essentially a scientific documentation. It should have a suggestive title, headings and sub-headings, paragraphs arranged in a logical sequence.
Good research report should include everything that is relevant and exclude everything that is irrelevant. It means that it should contain the facts rather than opinion.
The language of the report should be simple and unambiguous. It means that it should be free from biases of the researchers derived from the past experience. Confusion, pretentiousness and pomposity should be carefully guarded against. It means that the language of the report should be simple, employing appropriate words, idioms and expressions.
The report must be free from grammatical mistakes. It must be grammatically accurate. Faulty construction of sentences makes the meaning of the narrative obscure and ambiguous.
The report has to take into consideration two facts. Firstly, for whom the report is meant and secondly, what is his level of knowledge. The report has to look to the subject matter of the report and the fact as to the level of knowledge of the person for whom it is meant. Because all reports are not meant for research scholars.

Steps in Writing Research Report

Report writing is a time consuming and expensive exercise. Therefore, reports have to be very sharply focused in purpose content and readership. There is no single universally acceptable method of writing a research report.

Following are the general steps in writing a research report:

Analysis of the subject matter

Research outline, preparation of rough draft, rewriting and polishing, writing the final draft.

This is the first and important step in writing a research report. It is concerned with the development of a subject. Subject matter should be written in a clear, logical and concise manner. The style adopted should be open, straightforward and dignified and folk style language should be avoided.

The data, the reliability and validity of the results of the statistical analysis should be in the form of tables, figures and equations. All redundancy in the data or results presented should be eliminated.

The research outline is an organisational framework prepared by the researcher well in advance. It is an aid to logical organisation of material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report. In the process of writing, if need be, outline may be revised accordingly.

Time and place of the study, scope and limitations of the study, study design, summary of pilot study, methods of data collection, analysis interpretation, etc., may be included in a research outline.

Having prepared the primary and secondary data, the researcher has to prepare a rough draft. While preparing the rough draft, the researcher should keep the objectives of the research in mind, and focus on one objective at a time. The researcher should make a checklist of the important points that are necessary to be covered in the manuscript. A researcher should use dictionary and relevant reference materials as and when required.

This is an important step in writing a research report. It takes more time than a rough draft. While rewriting and polishing, a researcher should check the report for weakness in logical development or presentation. He should take breaks in between rewriting and polishing since this gives the time to incubate the ideas.

The last and important step is writing the final draft. The language of the report should be simple, employing appropriate words and expressions and should avoid vague expressions such as ‘it seems’ and ‘there may be’ etc.

It should not used personal pronouns, such as I, We, My, Us, etc and should substitute these by such expressions as a researcher, investigator, etc. Before the final drafting of the report, it is advisable that the researcher should prepare a first draft for critical considerations and possible improvements. It will be helpful in writing the final draft. Finally, the report should be logically outlined with the future directions of the research based on the work completed.

Precautions for Writing Research Reports

A research report is a means of conveying the research study to a specific target audience. The following precautions should be taken while preparing a research report:

Its hould belong enough to cover the subject and short enough to preserve interest.
It should not be dull and complicated.
It should be simple, without the usage of abstract terms and technical jargons.
It should offer ready availability of findings with the help of charts, tables and graphs, as readers prefer quick knowledge of main findings.
The layout of the report should be in accordance with the objectives of the research study.
There should be no grammatical errors and writing should adhere to the techniques of report writing in case of quotations, footnotes and documentations.
It should be original, intellectual and contribute to the solution of a problem or add knowledge to the concerned field.
Appendices should been listed with respect to all the technical data in the report.
It should be attractive, neat and clean, whether handwritten or typed.
The report writer should refrain from confusing the possessive form of the word ‘it’ is with ‘it’s.’ The accurate possessive form of ‘it is’ is ‘its.’ The use of ‘it’s’ is the contractive form of ‘it is.
A report should not have contractions. Examples are ‘didn’t’ or ‘it’s.’ In report writing, it is best to use the non-contractive form. Therefore, the examples would be replaced by ‘did not’ and ‘it is.’ Using ‘Figure’ instead of ‘Fig.’ and ‘Table’ instead of ‘Tab.’ will spare the reader of having to translate the abbreviations, while reading. If abbreviations are used, use them consistently throughout the report. For example, do not switch among ‘versus,’ and ‘vs’.
It is advisable to avoid using the word ‘very’ and other such words that try to embellish a description. They do not add any extra meaning and, therefore, should be dropped.
Repetition hampers lucidity. Report writers must avoid repeating the same word more than once within a sentence.
When you use the word ‘this’ or ‘these’ make sure you indicate to what you are referring. This reduces the ambiguity in your writing and helps to tie sentences together.
Do not use the word ‘they’ to refer to a singular person. You can either rewrite the sentence to avoid needing such a reference or use the singular ‘he or she.’

Types of Research Report

Research reports are designed in order to convey and record the information that will be of practical use to the reader. It is organized into distinct units of specific and highly visible information. The kind of audience addressed in the research report decides the type of report.

Research reports can be categorized on the following basis:

Classification on the Basis of Information

Classification on the basis of representation.

Following are the ways through which the results of the research report can be presented on the basis of information contained:

Technical Report

A technical report is written for other researchers. In writing the technical reports, the importance is mainly given to the methods that have been used to collect the information and data, the presumptions that are made and finally, the various presentation techniques that are used to present the findings and data.

Following are main features of a technical report:

Summary: It covers a brief analysis of the findings of the research in a very few pages.
Nature: It contains the reasons for which the research is undertaken, the analysis and the data that is required in order to prepare a report.
Methods employed: It contains a description of the methods that were employed in order to collect the data.
Data: It covers a brief analysis of the various sources from which the data has been collected with their features and drawbacks
Analysis of data and presentation of the findings: It contains the various forms through which the data that has been analysed can be presented.
Conclusions: It contains a brief explanation of findings of the research.
Bibliography: It contains a detailed analysis of the various bibliographies that have been used in order to conduct a research.
Technical appendices: It contains the appendices for the technical matters and for questionnaires and mathematical derivations.
Index: The index of the technical report must be provided at the end of the report.

Popular Report

A popular report is formulated when there is a need to draw conclusions of the findings of the research report. One of the main points of consideration that should be kept in mind while formulating a research report is that it must be simple and attractive. It must be written in a very simple manner that is understandable to all. It must also be made attractive by using large prints, various sub-headings and by giving cartoons occasionally.

Following are the main points that must be kept in mind while preparing a popular report:

Findings and their implications : While preparing a popular report, main importance is given to the findings of the information and the conclusions that can be drawn out of these findings.
Recommendations for action : If there are any deviations in the report then recommendations are made for taking corrective action in order to rectify the errors.
Objective of the study : In a popular report, the specific objective for which the research has been undertaken is presented.
Methods employed : The report must contain the various methods that has been employed in order to conduct a research.
Results : The results of the research findings must be presented in a suitable and appropriate manner by taking the help of charts and diagrams.
Technical appendices : The report must contain an in-depth information used to collect the data in the form of appendices.

Following are the ways through which the results of the research report can be presented on the basis of representation:

Writtenreport
Oral report

Written Report

A written report plays a vital role in every business operation. The manner in which an organization writes business letters and business reports creates an impression of its standard. Therefore, the organization should emphasize on the improvement of the writing skills of the employees in order to maintain effective relations with their customers.

Writing effective written reports requires a lot of hard work. Therefore, before you begin writing, it is important to know the objective, i.e., the purpose of writing, collection and organization of required data.

Oral Report

At times, oral presentation of the results that are drawn out of research is considered effective, particularly in cases where policy recommendations are to be made. This approach proves beneficial because it provides a medium of interaction between a listener and a speaker. This leads to a better understanding of the findings and their implications.

However, the main drawback of oral presentation is the lack of any permanent records related to the research. Oral presentation of the report is also effective when it is supported with various visual devices, such as slides, wall charts and whiteboards that help in better understanding of the research reports.

Business Ethics

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What is Ethics?
What is Business Ethics?
Values, Norms, Beliefs and Standards in Business Ethics
Indian Ethos in Management
Ethical Issues in Marketing
Ethical Issues in HRM
Ethical Issues in IT
Ethical Issues in Production and Operations Management
Ethical Issues in Finance and Accounting
What is Corporate Governance?
What is Ownership Concentration?
What is Ownership Composition?
Types of Companies in India
Internal Corporate Governance
External Corporate Governance
Corporate Governance in India
What is Enterprise Risk Management (ERM)?
What is Assessment of Risk?
What is Risk Register?
Risk Management Committee

Corporate social responsibility (CSR)

Theories of CSR
Arguments Against CSR
Business Case for CSR
Importance of CSR in India
Drivers of Corporate Social Responsibility
Developing a CSR Strategy
Implement CSR Commitments
CSR Marketplace
CSR at Workplace
Environmental CSR
CSR with Communities and in Supply Chain
Community Interventions
CSR Monitoring
CSR Reporting
Voluntary Codes in CSR
What is Corporate Ethics?

Lean Six Sigma

What is Six Sigma?
What is Lean Six Sigma?
Value and Waste in Lean Six Sigma
Six Sigma Team
MAIC Six Sigma
Six Sigma in Supply Chains
What is Binomial, Poisson, Normal Distribution?
What is Sigma Level?
What is DMAIC in Six Sigma?
What is DMADV in Six Sigma?
Six Sigma Project Charter
Project Decomposition in Six Sigma
Critical to Quality (CTQ) Six Sigma
Process Mapping Six Sigma
Flowchart and SIPOC
Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility
Statistical Diagram
Lean Techniques for Optimisation Flow
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
What is Process Audits?
Six Sigma Implementation at Ford
IBM Uses Six Sigma to Drive Behaviour Change
Research Methodology
What is Research?
What is Hypothesis?
Sampling Method
Research Methods
Data Collection in Research

Methods of Collecting Data

Application of Business Research
Levels of Measurement
What is Sampling?
Hypothesis Testing
What is Management?
Planning in Management
Decision Making in Management
What is Controlling?
What is Coordination?
What is Staffing?
Organization Structure
What is Departmentation?
Span of Control
What is Authority?
Centralization vs Decentralization
Organizing in Management
Schools of Management Thought
Classical Management Approach
Is Management an Art or Science?
Who is a Manager?

Operations Research

What is Operations Research?
Operation Research Models
Linear Programming
Linear Programming Graphic Solution
Linear Programming Simplex Method
Linear Programming Artificial Variable Technique
Duality in Linear Programming
Transportation Problem Initial Basic Feasible Solution
Transportation Problem Finding Optimal Solution
Project Network Analysis with Critical Path Method
Project Network Analysis Methods
Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
Simulation in Operation Research
Replacement Models in Operation Research

Operation Management

What is Strategy?
What is Operations Strategy?
Operations Competitive Dimensions
Operations Strategy Formulation Process
What is Strategic Fit?
Strategic Design Process
Focused Operations Strategy
Corporate Level Strategy
Expansion Strategies
Stability Strategies
Retrenchment Strategies
Competitive Advantage
Strategic Choice and Strategic Alternatives
What is Production Process?
What is Process Technology?
What is Process Improvement?
Strategic Capacity Management
Production and Logistics Strategy
Taxonomy of Supply Chain Strategies
Factors Considered in Supply Chain Planning
Operational and Strategic Issues in Global Logistics
Logistics Outsourcing Strategy
What is Supply Chain Mapping?
Supply Chain Process Restructuring
Points of Differentiation
Re-engineering Improvement in SCM
What is Supply Chain Drivers?
Supply Chain Operations Reference (SCOR) Model
Customer Service and Cost Trade Off
Internal and External Performance Measures
Linking Supply Chain and Business Performance
Netflix’s Niche Focused Strategy
Disney and Pixar Merger
Process Planning at Mcdonald’s

Service Operations Management

What is Service?
What is Service Operations Management?
What is Service Design?
Service Design Process
Service Delivery
What is Service Quality?
Gap Model of Service Quality
Juran Trilogy
Service Performance Measurement
Service Decoupling
IT Service Operation
Service Operations Management in Different Sector

Procurement Management

What is Procurement Management?
Procurement Negotiation
Types of Requisition
RFX in Procurement
What is Purchasing Cycle?
Vendor Managed Inventory
Internal Conflict During Purchasing Operation
Spend Analysis in Procurement
Sourcing in Procurement
Supplier Evaluation and Selection in Procurement
Blacklisting of Suppliers in Procurement
Total Cost of Ownership in Procurement
Incoterms in Procurement
Documents Used in International Procurement
Transportation and Logistics Strategy
What is Capital Equipment?
Procurement Process of Capital Equipment
Acquisition of Technology in Procurement
What is E-Procurement?
E-marketplace and Online Catalogues
Fixed Price and Cost Reimbursement Contracts
Contract Cancellation in Procurement
Ethics in Procurement
Legal Aspects of Procurement
Global Sourcing in Procurement
Intermediaries and Countertrade in Procurement

Strategic Management

What is Strategic Management?
What is Value Chain Analysis?
Mission Statement
Business Level Strategy
What is SWOT Analysis?
What is Competitive Advantage?
What is Vision?
What is Ansoff Matrix?
Prahalad and Gary Hammel
Strategic Management In Global Environment
Competitor Analysis Framework
Competitive Rivalry Analysis
Competitive Dynamics
What is Competitive Rivalry?
Five Competitive Forces That Shape Strategy
What is PESTLE Analysis?
Fragmentation and Consolidation Of Industries
What is Technology Life Cycle?
What is Diversification Strategy?
What is Corporate Restructuring Strategy?
Resources and Capabilities of Organization
Role of Leaders In Functional-Level Strategic Management
Functional Structure In Functional Level Strategy Formulation
Information And Control System
What is Strategy Gap Analysis?
Issues In Strategy Implementation
Matrix Organizational Structure
What is Strategic Management Process?

Supply Chain

What is Supply Chain Management?
Supply Chain Planning and Measuring Strategy Performance
What is Warehousing?
What is Packaging?
What is Inventory Management?
What is Material Handling?
What is Order Picking?
Receiving and Dispatch, Processes
What is Warehouse Design?
What is Warehousing Costs?

What is descriptive research types, features, what is questionnaire design characteristics, types, don’t, types of hypotheses, what is measurement scales, types, criteria and developing measurement tools, what is causal research advantages, disadvantages, how to perform, types of errors affecting research design, primary data and secondary data, what is research design features, components, data processing in research, what is experiments variables, types, lab, field, what is sampling need, advantages, limitations, leave a reply cancel reply.

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Reference management. Clean and simple.

What is a research paper?

A research paper is a paper that makes an argument about a topic based on research and analysis.

Any paper requiring the writer to research a particular topic is a research paper. Unlike essays, which are often based largely on opinion and are written from the author's point of view, research papers are based in fact.

A research paper requires you to form an opinion on a topic, research and gain expert knowledge on that topic, and then back up your own opinions and assertions with facts found through your thorough research.

➡️ Read more about different types of research papers .

What is the difference between a research paper and a thesis?

A thesis is a large paper, or multi-chapter work, based on a topic relating to your field of study.

A thesis is a document students of higher education write to obtain an academic degree or qualification. Usually, it is longer than a research paper and takes multiple years to complete.

Generally associated with graduate/postgraduate studies, it is carried out under the supervision of a professor or other academic of the university.

A major difference between a research paper and a thesis is that:

a research paper presents certain facts that have already been researched and explained by others
a thesis starts with a certain scholarly question or statement, which then leads to further research and new findings

This means that a thesis requires the author to input original work and their own findings in a certain field, whereas the research paper can be completed with extensive research only.

➡️ Getting ready to start a research paper or thesis? Take a look at our guides on how to start a research paper or how to come up with a topic for your thesis .

Frequently Asked Questions about research papers

Take a look at this list of the top 21 Free Online Journal and Research Databases , such as ScienceOpen , Directory of Open Access Journals , ERIC , and many more.

Mason Porter, Professor at UCLA, explains in this forum post the main reasons to write a research paper:

To create new knowledge and disseminate it.
To teach science and how to write about it in an academic style.
Some practical benefits: prestige, establishing credentials, requirements for grants or to help one get a future grant proposal, and so on.

Generally, people involved in the academia. Research papers are mostly written by higher education students and professional researchers.

Yes, a research paper is the same as a scientific paper. Both papers have the same purpose and format.

A major difference between a research paper and a thesis is that the former presents certain facts that have already been researched and explained by others, whereas the latter starts with a certain scholarly question or statement, which then leads to further research and new findings.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

11.1 The Purpose of Research Writing

Learning objectives.

Identify reasons to research writing projects.
Outline the steps of the research writing process.

Why was the Great Wall of China built? What have scientists learned about the possibility of life on Mars? What roles did women play in the American Revolution? How does the human brain create, store, and retrieve memories? Who invented the game of football, and how has it changed over the years?

You may know the answers to these questions off the top of your head. If you are like most people, however, you find answers to tough questions like these by searching the Internet, visiting the library, or asking others for information. To put it simply, you perform research.

Whether you are a scientist, an artist, a paralegal, or a parent, you probably perform research in your everyday life. When your boss, your instructor, or a family member asks you a question that you do not know the answer to, you locate relevant information, analyze your findings, and share your results. Locating, analyzing, and sharing information are key steps in the research process, and in this chapter, you will learn more about each step. By developing your research writing skills, you will prepare yourself to answer any question no matter how challenging.

Reasons for Research

When you perform research, you are essentially trying to solve a mystery—you want to know how something works or why something happened. In other words, you want to answer a question that you (and other people) have about the world. This is one of the most basic reasons for performing research.

But the research process does not end when you have solved your mystery. Imagine what would happen if a detective collected enough evidence to solve a criminal case, but she never shared her solution with the authorities. Presenting what you have learned from research can be just as important as performing the research. Research results can be presented in a variety of ways, but one of the most popular—and effective—presentation forms is the research paper . A research paper presents an original thesis, or purpose statement, about a topic and develops that thesis with information gathered from a variety of sources.

If you are curious about the possibility of life on Mars, for example, you might choose to research the topic. What will you do, though, when your research is complete? You will need a way to put your thoughts together in a logical, coherent manner. You may want to use the facts you have learned to create a narrative or to support an argument. And you may want to show the results of your research to your friends, your teachers, or even the editors of magazines and journals. Writing a research paper is an ideal way to organize thoughts, craft narratives or make arguments based on research, and share your newfound knowledge with the world.

Write a paragraph about a time when you used research in your everyday life. Did you look for the cheapest way to travel from Houston to Denver? Did you search for a way to remove gum from the bottom of your shoe? In your paragraph, explain what you wanted to research, how you performed the research, and what you learned as a result.

Research Writing and the Academic Paper

No matter what field of study you are interested in, you will most likely be asked to write a research paper during your academic career. For example, a student in an art history course might write a research paper about an artist’s work. Similarly, a student in a psychology course might write a research paper about current findings in childhood development.

Having to write a research paper may feel intimidating at first. After all, researching and writing a long paper requires a lot of time, effort, and organization. However, writing a research paper can also be a great opportunity to explore a topic that is particularly interesting to you. The research process allows you to gain expertise on a topic of your choice, and the writing process helps you remember what you have learned and understand it on a deeper level.

Research Writing at Work

Knowing how to write a good research paper is a valuable skill that will serve you well throughout your career. Whether you are developing a new product, studying the best way to perform a procedure, or learning about challenges and opportunities in your field of employment, you will use research techniques to guide your exploration. You may even need to create a written report of your findings. And because effective communication is essential to any company, employers seek to hire people who can write clearly and professionally.

Writing at Work

Take a few minutes to think about each of the following careers. How might each of these professionals use researching and research writing skills on the job?

Medical laboratory technician
Small business owner
Information technology professional
Freelance magazine writer

A medical laboratory technician or information technology professional might do research to learn about the latest technological developments in either of these fields. A small business owner might conduct research to learn about the latest trends in his or her industry. A freelance magazine writer may need to research a given topic to write an informed, up-to-date article.

Think about the job of your dreams. How might you use research writing skills to perform that job? Create a list of ways in which strong researching, organizing, writing, and critical thinking skills could help you succeed at your dream job. How might these skills help you obtain that job?

Steps of the Research Writing Process

How does a research paper grow from a folder of brainstormed notes to a polished final draft? No two projects are identical, but most projects follow a series of six basic steps.

These are the steps in the research writing process:

Choose a topic.
Plan and schedule time to research and write.
Conduct research.
Organize research and ideas.
Draft your paper.
Revise and edit your paper.

Each of these steps will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. For now, though, we will take a brief look at what each step involves.

Step 1: Choosing a Topic

As you may recall from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , to narrow the focus of your topic, you may try freewriting exercises, such as brainstorming. You may also need to ask a specific research question —a broad, open-ended question that will guide your research—as well as propose a possible answer, or a working thesis . You may use your research question and your working thesis to create a research proposal . In a research proposal, you present your main research question, any related subquestions you plan to explore, and your working thesis.

Step 2: Planning and Scheduling

Before you start researching your topic, take time to plan your researching and writing schedule. Research projects can take days, weeks, or even months to complete. Creating a schedule is a good way to ensure that you do not end up being overwhelmed by all the work you have to do as the deadline approaches.

During this step of the process, it is also a good idea to plan the resources and organizational tools you will use to keep yourself on track throughout the project. Flowcharts, calendars, and checklists can all help you stick to your schedule. See Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , Section 11.2 “Steps in Developing a Research Proposal” for an example of a research schedule.

Step 3: Conducting Research

When going about your research, you will likely use a variety of sources—anything from books and periodicals to video presentations and in-person interviews.

Your sources will include both primary sources and secondary sources . Primary sources provide firsthand information or raw data. For example, surveys, in-person interviews, and historical documents are primary sources. Secondary sources, such as biographies, literary reviews, or magazine articles, include some analysis or interpretation of the information presented. As you conduct research, you will take detailed, careful notes about your discoveries. You will also evaluate the reliability of each source you find.

Step 4: Organizing Research and the Writer’s Ideas

When your research is complete, you will organize your findings and decide which sources to cite in your paper. You will also have an opportunity to evaluate the evidence you have collected and determine whether it supports your thesis, or the focus of your paper. You may decide to adjust your thesis or conduct additional research to ensure that your thesis is well supported.

Remember, your working thesis is not set in stone. You can and should change your working thesis throughout the research writing process if the evidence you find does not support your original thesis. Never try to force evidence to fit your argument. For example, your working thesis is “Mars cannot support life-forms.” Yet, a week into researching your topic, you find an article in the New York Times detailing new findings of bacteria under the Martian surface. Instead of trying to argue that bacteria are not life forms, you might instead alter your thesis to “Mars cannot support complex life-forms.”

Step 5: Drafting Your Paper

Now you are ready to combine your research findings with your critical analysis of the results in a rough draft. You will incorporate source materials into your paper and discuss each source thoughtfully in relation to your thesis or purpose statement.

When you cite your reference sources, it is important to pay close attention to standard conventions for citing sources in order to avoid plagiarism , or the practice of using someone else’s words without acknowledging the source. Later in this chapter, you will learn how to incorporate sources in your paper and avoid some of the most common pitfalls of attributing information.

Step 6: Revising and Editing Your Paper

In the final step of the research writing process, you will revise and polish your paper. You might reorganize your paper’s structure or revise for unity and cohesion, ensuring that each element in your paper flows into the next logically and naturally. You will also make sure that your paper uses an appropriate and consistent tone.

Once you feel confident in the strength of your writing, you will edit your paper for proper spelling, grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and formatting. When you complete this final step, you will have transformed a simple idea or question into a thoroughly researched and well-written paper you can be proud of!

Review the steps of the research writing process. Then answer the questions on your own sheet of paper.

In which steps of the research writing process are you allowed to change your thesis?
In step 2, which types of information should you include in your project schedule?
What might happen if you eliminated step 4 from the research writing process?

Key Takeaways

People undertake research projects throughout their academic and professional careers in order to answer specific questions, share their findings with others, increase their understanding of challenging topics, and strengthen their researching, writing, and analytical skills.
The research writing process generally comprises six steps: choosing a topic, scheduling and planning time for research and writing, conducting research, organizing research and ideas, drafting a paper, and revising and editing the paper.

Research Report: Definition

The primary objective of a research report is to communicate the results of a research study to a wider audience, including other researchers, policymakers, and practitioners. Research reports play a crucial role in advancing knowledge and understanding in various fields of study. They provide a detailed and accurate account of the research process and outcomes, and they serve as a reference source for future research.

The structure of a research report typically follows a standard format. The introduction sets the context and background for the research and outlines the research questions or objectives. The literature review provides an overview of existing research on the topic and identifies gaps in the literature that the research aims to address. The methodology section describes the research design and methods used to collect and analyze data. The results section presents the findings of the study, often using tables, charts, and graphs. The discussion section interprets and contextualizes the findings and compares them to previous research. Finally, the conclusion summarizes the key findings and implications of the research, highlighting any limitations and recommendations for future research.

A research report can take various forms, depending on the field of study and the research question. For example, it may be a quantitative or qualitative report, a literature review report, or a case study report. A research report should be clear, concise, and objective regardless of the form.

Research reports are essential for various reasons. First, they provide a detailed and accurate account of the research process and outcomes, which can inform policy and practice in various settings. Second, research reports contribute to the development of knowledge and understanding in a particular field or discipline. They provide a reference source for other researchers in the field, and they can inspire new research questions and directions. Finally, research reports are a crucial component of academic and professional careers. They demonstrate research skills, expertise, and contributions to the field.

Tips for writing an excellent research report

Writing a research report can be a challenging task, but it is a crucial component of academic and professional research. An excellent research report should be clear, concise, and well-structured, with a focus on presenting accurate and objective findings. Here are some tips for writing an excellent research report:

Start with a clear research question: A good research report starts with a clear and focused research question. The question should be specific and relevant to the field of study, and it should guide the research design, methodology, and analysis.
Develop a strong methodology: The methodology section is the backbone of a research report. It should provide a clear and detailed description of the research design, sampling strategy, data collection and analysis procedures, and any ethical considerations.
Use clear and concise language: The language used in a research report should be clear, concise, and jargon-free. Avoid using complex sentences and technical terms that may be difficult for readers to understand.
Structure the report logically: A research report should be well-structured and follow a logical sequence of sections, such as an introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Each section should be clearly labeled and should flow smoothly into the next.
Present data accurately and effectively: The results section should present data accurately and effectively, using tables, graphs, and charts where appropriate. The data should be clearly labeled and easy to read, and the analysis should be presented in a way that is easy to understand.
Provide a thorough discussion of findings: The discussion section should provide a thorough and critical analysis of the findings, comparing them to previous research and discussing their implications for the field. The discussion should also highlight any limitations of the study and suggest avenues for future research.
Follow the guidelines and formatting requirements: It is essential to follow the guidelines and formatting requirements provided by the journal or publisher for the research report. This includes formatting, referencing, and citation styles.

A research report is a vital tool in disseminating research results to academic, professional, and public audiences. It provides a detailed analysis of the research problem, research questions, methodology, findings, and conclusions. Research reports are crucial in advancing knowledge and understanding in various fields of study, informing policy and practice, and contributing to academic and professional careers.

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What Is a Research Paper?

An Introduction to Punctuation

Olivia Valdes was the Associate Editorial Director for ThoughtCo. She worked with Dotdash Meredith from 2017 to 2021.

B.A., American Studies, Yale University

A research paper is a common form of academic writing . Research papers require students and academics to locate information about a topic (that is, to conduct research ), take a stand on that topic, and provide support (or evidence) for that position in an organized report.

The term research paper may also refer to a scholarly article that contains the results of original research or an evaluation of research conducted by others. Most scholarly articles must undergo a process of peer review before they can be accepted for publication in an academic journal.

Define Your Research Question

The first step in writing a research paper is defining your research question . Has your instructor assigned a specific topic? If so, great—you've got this step covered. If not, review the guidelines of the assignment. Your instructor has likely provided several general subjects for your consideration. Your research paper should focus on a specific angle on one of these subjects. Spend some time mulling over your options before deciding which one you'd like to explore more deeply.

Try to choose a research question that interests you. The research process is time-consuming, and you'll be significantly more motivated if you have a genuine desire to learn more about the topic. You should also consider whether you have access to all of the resources necessary to conduct thorough research on your topic, such as primary and secondary sources .

Create a Research Strategy

Approach the research process systematically by creating a research strategy. First, review your library's website. What resources are available? Where will you find them? Do any resources require a special process to gain access? Start gathering those resources—especially those that may be difficult to access—as soon as possible.

Second, make an appointment with a reference librarian . A reference librarian is nothing short of a research superhero. He or she will listen to your research question, offer suggestions for how to focus your research, and direct you toward valuable sources that directly relate to your topic.

Evaluate Sources

Now that you've gathered a wide array of sources, it's time to evaluate them. First, consider the reliability of the information. Where is the information coming from? What is the origin of the source? Second, assess the relevance of the information. How does this information relate to your research question? Does it support, refute, or add context to your position? How does it relate to the other sources you'll be using in your paper? Once you have determined that your sources are both reliable and relevant, you can proceed confidently to the writing phase.

Why Write Research Papers?

The research process is one of the most taxing academic tasks you'll be asked to complete. Luckily, the value of writing a research paper goes beyond that A+ you hope to receive. Here are just some of the benefits of research papers.

Learning Scholarly Conventions: Writing a research paper is a crash course in the stylistic conventions of scholarly writing. During the research and writing process, you'll learn how to document your research, cite sources appropriately, format an academic paper, maintain an academic tone, and more.
Organizing Information: In a way, research is nothing more than a massive organizational project. The information available to you is near-infinite, and it's your job to review that information, narrow it down, categorize it, and present it in a clear, relevant format. This process requires attention to detail and major brainpower.
Managing Time: Research papers put your time management skills to the test. Every step of the research and writing process takes time, and it's up to you to set aside the time you'll need to complete each step of the task. Maximize your efficiency by creating a research schedule and inserting blocks of "research time" into your calendar as soon as you receive the assignment.
Exploring Your Chosen Subject: We couldn't forget the best part of research papers—learning about something that truly excites you. No matter what topic you choose, you're bound to come away from the research process with new ideas and countless nuggets of fascinating information.

The best research papers are the result of genuine interest and a thorough research process. With these ideas in mind, go forth and research. Welcome to the scholarly conversation!

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USC Libraries
Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

7. The Results
Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Independent and Dependent Variables
Glossary of Research Terms
Reading Research Effectively
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Applying Critical Thinking
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Research Process Video Series
Executive Summary
The C.A.R.S. Model
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tiertiary Sources
Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Insiderness
Using Non-Textual Elements
Limitations of the Study
Common Grammar Mistakes
Writing Concisely
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Further Readings
Generative AI and Writing
USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
Bibliography

The results section is where you report the findings of your study based upon the methodology [or methodologies] you applied to gather information. The results section should state the findings of the research arranged in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation. A section describing results should be particularly detailed if your paper includes data generated from your own research.

Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070.

Importance of a Good Results Section

When formulating the results section, it's important to remember that the results of a study do not prove anything . Findings can only confirm or reject the hypothesis underpinning your study. However, the act of articulating the results helps you to understand the problem from within, to break it into pieces, and to view the research problem from various perspectives.

The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported . Be concise. Use non-textual elements appropriately, such as figures and tables, to present findings more effectively. In deciding what data to describe in your results section, you must clearly distinguish information that would normally be included in a research paper from any raw data or other content that could be included as an appendix. In general, raw data that has not been summarized should not be included in the main text of your paper unless requested to do so by your professor.

Avoid providing data that is not critical to answering the research question . The background information you described in the introduction section should provide the reader with any additional context or explanation needed to understand the results. A good strategy is to always re-read the background section of your paper after you have written up your results to ensure that the reader has enough context to understand the results [and, later, how you interpreted the results in the discussion section of your paper that follows].

Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Brett, Paul. "A Genre Analysis of the Results Section of Sociology Articles." English for Specific Speakers 13 (1994): 47-59; Go to English for Specific Purposes on ScienceDirect;Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008; Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit; "Reporting Findings." In Making Sense of Social Research Malcolm Williams, editor. (London;: SAGE Publications, 2003) pp. 188-207.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Organization and Approach

For most research papers in the social and behavioral sciences, there are two possible ways of organizing the results . Both approaches are appropriate in how you report your findings, but use only one approach.

Present a synopsis of the results followed by an explanation of key findings . This approach can be used to highlight important findings. For example, you may have noticed an unusual correlation between two variables during the analysis of your findings. It is appropriate to highlight this finding in the results section. However, speculating as to why this correlation exists and offering a hypothesis about what may be happening belongs in the discussion section of your paper.
Present a result and then explain it, before presenting the next result then explaining it, and so on, then end with an overall synopsis . This is the preferred approach if you have multiple results of equal significance. It is more common in longer papers because it helps the reader to better understand each finding. In this model, it is helpful to provide a brief conclusion that ties each of the findings together and provides a narrative bridge to the discussion section of the your paper.

NOTE: Just as the literature review should be arranged under conceptual categories rather than systematically describing each source, you should also organize your findings under key themes related to addressing the research problem. This can be done under either format noted above [i.e., a thorough explanation of the key results or a sequential, thematic description and explanation of each finding].

II. Content

In general, the content of your results section should include the following:

Introductory context for understanding the results by restating the research problem underpinning your study . This is useful in re-orientating the reader's focus back to the research problem after having read a review of the literature and your explanation of the methods used for gathering and analyzing information.
Inclusion of non-textual elements, such as, figures, charts, photos, maps, tables, etc. to further illustrate key findings, if appropriate . Rather than relying entirely on descriptive text, consider how your findings can be presented visually. This is a helpful way of condensing a lot of data into one place that can then be referred to in the text. Consider referring to appendices if there is a lot of non-textual elements.
A systematic description of your results, highlighting for the reader observations that are most relevant to the topic under investigation . Not all results that emerge from the methodology used to gather information may be related to answering the " So What? " question. Do not confuse observations with interpretations; observations in this context refers to highlighting important findings you discovered through a process of reviewing prior literature and gathering data.
The page length of your results section is guided by the amount and types of data to be reported . However, focus on findings that are important and related to addressing the research problem. It is not uncommon to have unanticipated results that are not relevant to answering the research question. This is not to say that you don't acknowledge tangential findings and, in fact, can be referred to as areas for further research in the conclusion of your paper. However, spending time in the results section describing tangential findings clutters your overall results section and distracts the reader.
A short paragraph that concludes the results section by synthesizing the key findings of the study . Highlight the most important findings you want readers to remember as they transition into the discussion section. This is particularly important if, for example, there are many results to report, the findings are complicated or unanticipated, or they are impactful or actionable in some way [i.e., able to be pursued in a feasible way applied to practice].

NOTE: Always use the past tense when referring to your study's findings. Reference to findings should always be described as having already happened because the method used to gather the information has been completed.

III. Problems to Avoid

When writing the results section, avoid doing the following :

Discussing or interpreting your results . Save this for the discussion section of your paper, although where appropriate, you should compare or contrast specific results to those found in other studies [e.g., "Similar to the work of Smith [1990], one of the findings of this study is the strong correlation between motivation and academic achievement...."].
Reporting background information or attempting to explain your findings. This should have been done in your introduction section, but don't panic! Often the results of a study point to the need for additional background information or to explain the topic further, so don't think you did something wrong. Writing up research is rarely a linear process. Always revise your introduction as needed.
Ignoring negative results . A negative result generally refers to a finding that does not support the underlying assumptions of your study. Do not ignore them. Document these findings and then state in your discussion section why you believe a negative result emerged from your study. Note that negative results, and how you handle them, can give you an opportunity to write a more engaging discussion section, therefore, don't be hesitant to highlight them.
Including raw data or intermediate calculations . Ask your professor if you need to include any raw data generated by your study, such as transcripts from interviews or data files. If raw data is to be included, place it in an appendix or set of appendices that are referred to in the text.
Be as factual and concise as possible in reporting your findings . Do not use phrases that are vague or non-specific, such as, "appeared to be greater than other variables..." or "demonstrates promising trends that...." Subjective modifiers should be explained in the discussion section of the paper [i.e., why did one variable appear greater? Or, how does the finding demonstrate a promising trend?].
Presenting the same data or repeating the same information more than once . If you want to highlight a particular finding, it is appropriate to do so in the results section. However, you should emphasize its significance in relation to addressing the research problem in the discussion section. Do not repeat it in your results section because you can do that in the conclusion of your paper.
Confusing figures with tables . Be sure to properly label any non-textual elements in your paper. Don't call a chart an illustration or a figure a table. If you are not sure, go here .

Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070; Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008; Caprette, David R. Writing Research Papers. Experimental Biosciences Resources. Rice University; Hancock, Dawson R. and Bob Algozzine. Doing Case Study Research: A Practical Guide for Beginning Researchers . 2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press, 2011; Introduction to Nursing Research: Reporting Research Findings. Nursing Research: Open Access Nursing Research and Review Articles. (January 4, 2012); Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit ; Ng, K. H. and W. C. Peh. "Writing the Results." Singapore Medical Journal 49 (2008): 967-968; Reporting Research Findings. Wilder Research, in partnership with the Minnesota Department of Human Services. (February 2009); Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Schafer, Mickey S. Writing the Results. Thesis Writing in the Sciences. Course Syllabus. University of Florida.

Writing Tip

Why Don't I Just Combine the Results Section with the Discussion Section?

It's not unusual to find articles in scholarly social science journals where the author(s) have combined a description of the findings with a discussion about their significance and implications. You could do this. However, if you are inexperienced writing research papers, consider creating two distinct sections for each section in your paper as a way to better organize your thoughts and, by extension, your paper. Think of the results section as the place where you report what your study found; think of the discussion section as the place where you interpret the information and answer the "So What?" question. As you become more skilled writing research papers, you can consider melding the results of your study with a discussion of its implications.

Driscoll, Dana Lynn and Aleksandra Kasztalska. Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

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What Is a Research Report?

Understanding research reports, financial analyst research reports, research report impact, conflicts of interest.

Fundamental Analysis

What Is a Research Report? How They're Produced and Impact

James Chen, CMT is an expert trader, investment adviser, and global market strategist.

A research report is a document prepared by an analyst or strategist who is a part of the investment research team in a stock brokerage or investment bank . A research report may focus on a specific stock or industry sector, a currency, commodity or fixed-income instrument, or on a geographic region or country. Research reports generally, but not always, have actionable recommendations such as investment ideas that investors can act upon.

Research reports are produced by a variety of sources, ranging from market research firms to in-house departments at large organizations. When applied to the investment industry, the term usually refers to sell-side research, or investment research produced by brokerage houses.

Such research is disseminated to the institutional and retail clients of the brokerage that produces it. Research produced by the buy-side, which includes pension funds, mutual funds, and portfolio managers , is usually for internal use only and is not distributed to external parties.

Financial analysts may produce research reports for the purpose of supporting a particular recommendation, such as whether to buy or sell a particular security or whether a client should consider a particular financial product. For example, an analyst may create a report in regards to a new offering being proposed by a company. The report could include relevant metrics regarding the company itself, such as the number of years they have been in operation as well as the names of key stakeholders , along with statistics regarding the current state of the market in which the company participates. Information regarding overall profitability and the intended use of the funds can also be included.

Enthusiasts of the Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) might insist that the value of professional analysts' research reports is suspect and that investors likely place too much confidence in the conclusions such analysts make. While a definitive conclusion about this topic is difficult to make because comparisons are not exact, some research papers do exist which claim empirical evidence supporting the value of such reports.

One such paper studied the market for India-based investments and analysts who cover them. The paper was published in the March 2014 edition of the International Research Journal of Business and Management. Its authors concluded that analyst recommendations do have an impact and are beneficial to investors at least in short-term decisions.

While some analysts are functionally unaffiliated, others may be directly or indirectly affiliated with the companies for which they produce reports. Unaffiliated analysts traditionally perform independent research to determine an appropriate recommendation and may have a limited concern regarding the outcome.

Affiliated analysts may feel best served by ensuring any research reports portray clients in a favorable light. Additionally, if an analyst is also an investor in the company on which the report is based, he may have a personal incentive to avoid topics that may result in a lowered valuation of the securities in which he has invested.

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Home » Research Results Section – Writing Guide and Examples

Research Results Section – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Results

Research results refer to the findings and conclusions derived from a systematic investigation or study conducted to answer a specific question or hypothesis. These results are typically presented in a written report or paper and can include various forms of data such as numerical data, qualitative data, statistics, charts, graphs, and visual aids.

Results Section in Research

The results section of the research paper presents the findings of the study. It is the part of the paper where the researcher reports the data collected during the study and analyzes it to draw conclusions.

In the results section, the researcher should describe the data that was collected, the statistical analysis performed, and the findings of the study. It is important to be objective and not interpret the data in this section. Instead, the researcher should report the data as accurately and objectively as possible.

Structure of Research Results Section

The structure of the research results section can vary depending on the type of research conducted, but in general, it should contain the following components:

Introduction: The introduction should provide an overview of the study, its aims, and its research questions. It should also briefly explain the methodology used to conduct the study.
Data presentation : This section presents the data collected during the study. It may include tables, graphs, or other visual aids to help readers better understand the data. The data presented should be organized in a logical and coherent way, with headings and subheadings used to help guide the reader.
Data analysis: In this section, the data presented in the previous section are analyzed and interpreted. The statistical tests used to analyze the data should be clearly explained, and the results of the tests should be presented in a way that is easy to understand.
Discussion of results : This section should provide an interpretation of the results of the study, including a discussion of any unexpected findings. The discussion should also address the study’s research questions and explain how the results contribute to the field of study.
Limitations: This section should acknowledge any limitations of the study, such as sample size, data collection methods, or other factors that may have influenced the results.
Conclusions: The conclusions should summarize the main findings of the study and provide a final interpretation of the results. The conclusions should also address the study’s research questions and explain how the results contribute to the field of study.
Recommendations : This section may provide recommendations for future research based on the study’s findings. It may also suggest practical applications for the study’s results in real-world settings.

Outline of Research Results Section

The following is an outline of the key components typically included in the Results section:

I. Introduction

A brief overview of the research objectives and hypotheses
A statement of the research question

II. Descriptive statistics

Summary statistics (e.g., mean, standard deviation) for each variable analyzed
Frequencies and percentages for categorical variables

III. Inferential statistics

Results of statistical analyses, including tests of hypotheses
Tables or figures to display statistical results

IV. Effect sizes and confidence intervals

Effect sizes (e.g., Cohen’s d, odds ratio) to quantify the strength of the relationship between variables
Confidence intervals to estimate the range of plausible values for the effect size

V. Subgroup analyses

Results of analyses that examined differences between subgroups (e.g., by gender, age, treatment group)

VI. Limitations and assumptions

Discussion of any limitations of the study and potential sources of bias
Assumptions made in the statistical analyses

VII. Conclusions

A summary of the key findings and their implications
A statement of whether the hypotheses were supported or not
Suggestions for future research

Example of Research Results Section

An Example of a Research Results Section could be:

This study sought to examine the relationship between sleep quality and academic performance in college students.
Hypothesis : College students who report better sleep quality will have higher GPAs than those who report poor sleep quality.
Methodology : Participants completed a survey about their sleep habits and academic performance.

II. Participants

Participants were college students (N=200) from a mid-sized public university in the United States.
The sample was evenly split by gender (50% female, 50% male) and predominantly white (85%).
Participants were recruited through flyers and online advertisements.

III. Results

Participants who reported better sleep quality had significantly higher GPAs (M=3.5, SD=0.5) than those who reported poor sleep quality (M=2.9, SD=0.6).
See Table 1 for a summary of the results.
Participants who reported consistent sleep schedules had higher GPAs than those with irregular sleep schedules.

IV. Discussion

The results support the hypothesis that better sleep quality is associated with higher academic performance in college students.
These findings have implications for college students, as prioritizing sleep could lead to better academic outcomes.
Limitations of the study include self-reported data and the lack of control for other variables that could impact academic performance.

V. Conclusion

College students who prioritize sleep may see a positive impact on their academic performance.
These findings highlight the importance of sleep in academic success.
Future research could explore interventions to improve sleep quality in college students.

Example of Research Results in Research Paper :

Our study aimed to compare the performance of three different machine learning algorithms (Random Forest, Support Vector Machine, and Neural Network) in predicting customer churn in a telecommunications company. We collected a dataset of 10,000 customer records, with 20 predictor variables and a binary churn outcome variable.

Our analysis revealed that all three algorithms performed well in predicting customer churn, with an overall accuracy of 85%. However, the Random Forest algorithm showed the highest accuracy (88%), followed by the Support Vector Machine (86%) and the Neural Network (84%).

Furthermore, we found that the most important predictor variables for customer churn were monthly charges, contract type, and tenure. Random Forest identified monthly charges as the most important variable, while Support Vector Machine and Neural Network identified contract type as the most important.

Overall, our results suggest that machine learning algorithms can be effective in predicting customer churn in a telecommunications company, and that Random Forest is the most accurate algorithm for this task.

Example 3 :

Title : The Impact of Social Media on Body Image and Self-Esteem

Abstract : This study aimed to investigate the relationship between social media use, body image, and self-esteem among young adults. A total of 200 participants were recruited from a university and completed self-report measures of social media use, body image satisfaction, and self-esteem.

Results: The results showed that social media use was significantly associated with body image dissatisfaction and lower self-esteem. Specifically, participants who reported spending more time on social media platforms had lower levels of body image satisfaction and self-esteem compared to those who reported less social media use. Moreover, the study found that comparing oneself to others on social media was a significant predictor of body image dissatisfaction and lower self-esteem.

Conclusion : These results suggest that social media use can have negative effects on body image satisfaction and self-esteem among young adults. It is important for individuals to be mindful of their social media use and to recognize the potential negative impact it can have on their mental health. Furthermore, interventions aimed at promoting positive body image and self-esteem should take into account the role of social media in shaping these attitudes and behaviors.

Importance of Research Results

Research results are important for several reasons, including:

Advancing knowledge: Research results can contribute to the advancement of knowledge in a particular field, whether it be in science, technology, medicine, social sciences, or humanities.
Developing theories: Research results can help to develop or modify existing theories and create new ones.
Improving practices: Research results can inform and improve practices in various fields, such as education, healthcare, business, and public policy.
Identifying problems and solutions: Research results can identify problems and provide solutions to complex issues in society, including issues related to health, environment, social justice, and economics.
Validating claims : Research results can validate or refute claims made by individuals or groups in society, such as politicians, corporations, or activists.
Providing evidence: Research results can provide evidence to support decision-making, policy-making, and resource allocation in various fields.

How to Write Results in A Research Paper

Here are some general guidelines on how to write results in a research paper:

Organize the results section: Start by organizing the results section in a logical and coherent manner. Divide the section into subsections if necessary, based on the research questions or hypotheses.
Present the findings: Present the findings in a clear and concise manner. Use tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data and make the presentation more engaging.
Describe the data: Describe the data in detail, including the sample size, response rate, and any missing data. Provide relevant descriptive statistics such as means, standard deviations, and ranges.
Interpret the findings: Interpret the findings in light of the research questions or hypotheses. Discuss the implications of the findings and the extent to which they support or contradict existing theories or previous research.
Discuss the limitations : Discuss the limitations of the study, including any potential sources of bias or confounding factors that may have affected the results.
Compare the results : Compare the results with those of previous studies or theoretical predictions. Discuss any similarities, differences, or inconsistencies.
Avoid redundancy: Avoid repeating information that has already been presented in the introduction or methods sections. Instead, focus on presenting new and relevant information.
Be objective: Be objective in presenting the results, avoiding any personal biases or interpretations.

When to Write Research Results

Here are situations When to Write Research Results”

After conducting research on the chosen topic and obtaining relevant data, organize the findings in a structured format that accurately represents the information gathered.
Once the data has been analyzed and interpreted, and conclusions have been drawn, begin the writing process.
Before starting to write, ensure that the research results adhere to the guidelines and requirements of the intended audience, such as a scientific journal or academic conference.
Begin by writing an abstract that briefly summarizes the research question, methodology, findings, and conclusions.
Follow the abstract with an introduction that provides context for the research, explains its significance, and outlines the research question and objectives.
The next section should be a literature review that provides an overview of existing research on the topic and highlights the gaps in knowledge that the current research seeks to address.
The methodology section should provide a detailed explanation of the research design, including the sample size, data collection methods, and analytical techniques used.
Present the research results in a clear and concise manner, using graphs, tables, and figures to illustrate the findings.
Discuss the implications of the research results, including how they contribute to the existing body of knowledge on the topic and what further research is needed.
Conclude the paper by summarizing the main findings, reiterating the significance of the research, and offering suggestions for future research.

Purpose of Research Results

The purposes of Research Results are as follows:

Informing policy and practice: Research results can provide evidence-based information to inform policy decisions, such as in the fields of healthcare, education, and environmental regulation. They can also inform best practices in fields such as business, engineering, and social work.
Addressing societal problems : Research results can be used to help address societal problems, such as reducing poverty, improving public health, and promoting social justice.
Generating economic benefits : Research results can lead to the development of new products, services, and technologies that can create economic value and improve quality of life.
Supporting academic and professional development : Research results can be used to support academic and professional development by providing opportunities for students, researchers, and practitioners to learn about new findings and methodologies in their field.
Enhancing public understanding: Research results can help to educate the public about important issues and promote scientific literacy, leading to more informed decision-making and better public policy.
Evaluating interventions: Research results can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, such as treatments, educational programs, and social policies. This can help to identify areas where improvements are needed and guide future interventions.
Contributing to scientific progress: Research results can contribute to the advancement of science by providing new insights and discoveries that can lead to new theories, methods, and techniques.
Informing decision-making : Research results can provide decision-makers with the information they need to make informed decisions. This can include decision-making at the individual, organizational, or governmental levels.
Fostering collaboration : Research results can facilitate collaboration between researchers and practitioners, leading to new partnerships, interdisciplinary approaches, and innovative solutions to complex problems.

Advantages of Research Results

Some Advantages of Research Results are as follows:

Improved decision-making: Research results can help inform decision-making in various fields, including medicine, business, and government. For example, research on the effectiveness of different treatments for a particular disease can help doctors make informed decisions about the best course of treatment for their patients.
Innovation : Research results can lead to the development of new technologies, products, and services. For example, research on renewable energy sources can lead to the development of new and more efficient ways to harness renewable energy.
Economic benefits: Research results can stimulate economic growth by providing new opportunities for businesses and entrepreneurs. For example, research on new materials or manufacturing techniques can lead to the development of new products and processes that can create new jobs and boost economic activity.
Improved quality of life: Research results can contribute to improving the quality of life for individuals and society as a whole. For example, research on the causes of a particular disease can lead to the development of new treatments and cures, improving the health and well-being of millions of people.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

Research Questions – Types, Examples and Writing...

Research Methods – Types, Examples and Guide

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Methodology

Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

Qualitative vs. quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
Primary vs. secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
Descriptive vs. experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyze the data .

For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.

Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .


Qualitative		to broader populations. .
Quantitative		.

You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.


Primary	.	methods.
Secondary

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.


Descriptive		. .
Experimental

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Research methods for collecting data
Research method	Primary or secondary?	Qualitative or quantitative?	When to use
	Primary	Quantitative	To test cause-and-effect relationships.
	Primary	Quantitative	To understand general characteristics of a population.
Interview/focus group	Primary	Qualitative	To gain more in-depth understanding of a topic.
Observation	Primary	Either	To understand how something occurs in its natural setting.
	Secondary	Either	To situate your research in an existing body of work, or to evaluate trends within a research topic.
	Either	Either	To gain an in-depth understanding of a specific group or context, or when you don’t have the resources for a large study.

Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.

Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:

From open-ended surveys and interviews , literature reviews , case studies , ethnographies , and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:

During an experiment .
Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.

Research methods for analyzing data
Research method	Qualitative or quantitative?	When to use
	Quantitative	To analyze data collected in a statistically valid manner (e.g. from experiments, surveys, and observations).
Meta-analysis	Quantitative	To statistically analyze the results of a large collection of studies. Can only be applied to studies that collected data in a statistically valid manner.
	Qualitative	To analyze data collected from interviews, , or textual sources. To understand general themes in the data and how they are communicated.
	Either	To analyze large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys, literature reviews, or other sources. Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words).

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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Chi square test of independence
Statistical power
Descriptive statistics
Degrees of freedom
Pearson correlation
Null hypothesis
Double-blind study
Case-control study
Research ethics
Data collection
Hypothesis testing
Structured interviews

Research bias

Hawthorne effect
Unconscious bias
Recall bias
Halo effect
Self-serving bias
Information bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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Results Section Of A Research Paper: How To Write It Properly

The results section of a research paper refers to the part that represents the study’s core findings from the methods that the researcher used to collect and analyze data. This section presents the results logically without interpretation or bias from the author.

Thus, this part of a research paper sets up the read for evaluation and analysis of the findings in the discussion section. Essentially, this section breaks down the information into several sentences, showing its importance to the research question. Writing results section in a research paper entails summarizing the gathered data and the performed statistical analysis. That way, the author presents or reports the results without subjective interpretation.

What Is The Results Section Of A Research Paper?

In its simplest definition, a research paper results section is where the researcher reports the findings of a study based on the applied methodology for gathering information. It’s the part where the author states the research findings in a logical sequence without interpreting them. If the research paper has data from actual research, this section should feature a detailed description of the results.

When writing a dissertation, a thesis, or any other academic paper, the result section should come third in sections’ sequence. It should follow the Methods and Materials presentation and the Discussion section comes after it. But most scientific papers present the Results and Discussion sections together. However, the results section answers the question, “What did your research uncover?”

Ideally, this section allows you to report findings in research paper, creating the basis for sufficiently justified conclusions. After writing the study findings in the results section, you interpret them in the subsequent discussion part. Therefore, your results section should report information that will justify your claims. That way, you can look back on the results section when writing the discussion part to ensure that your report supports your conclusions.

What Goes in the Results Section of a Research Paper?

This section should present results in research paper. The findings part of a research paper can differ in structure depending on the study, discipline, and journal. Nevertheless, the results section presents a description of the experiment while presenting the research results. When writing this part of your research paper, you can use graphs and tables if necessary.

However, state the findings without interpreting them. For instance, you can find a correlation between variables when analyzing data. In that case, your results section can explain this correlation without speculating about the causes of this correlation.

Here’s what to include in the results section of research paper:

A brief introductory of the context, repeating the research questions to help the readers understand the results A report about information collection, participants, and recruitment: for instance, you can include a demographic summary with the participants’ characteristics A systematic findings’ description, with a logical presentation highlighting relevant and crucial results A contextual data analysis explaining the meaning in sentences Information corresponding to the primary research questions Secondary findings like subgroup analysis and secondary outcomes Visual elements like charts, figures, tables, and maps, illustrating and summarizing the findings

Ensure that your results section cites and numbers visual elements in an orderly manner. Every table or figure should stand alone without text. That means visual elements should have adequate non-textual content to enable the audiences to understand their meanings.

If your study has a broad scope, several variables, or used methodologies that yielded different results, state the most relevant results only based on the research question you presented in your Introduction section.

The general rule is to leave out any data that doesn’t present your study’s direct outcome or findings. Unless the professor, advisor, university faulty, or your target journal requests you to combine the Results and Discussion sections, omit the interpretations and explanations of the results in this section.

How Long Should A Results Section Be?

The findings section of a research paper ranges between two and three pages, with tables, text, and figures. In most cases, universities and journals insist that this section shouldn’t exceed 1,000 words over four to nine paragraphs, usually with no references.

But a good findings section occupies 5% of the entire paper. For instance, this section should have 500 words if a dissertation has 10,000 words. If the educator didn’t specify the number of words to include in this chapter, use the data you collect to determine its length. Nevertheless, be as concise as possible by featuring only relevant results that answer your research question.

How To Write Results Section Of Research Paper

Perhaps, you have completed researching and writing the preceding sections, and you’re now wondering how to write results. By the time you’re composing this section, you already have findings or answers to your research questions. However, you don’t even know how to start a results section. And your search for guidelines landed you on this page.

Well, every research project is different and unique. That’s why researchers use different strategies when writing this section of their research papers. The scientific or academic discipline, specialization field, target journal, and the author are factors influencing how you write this section. Nevertheless, there’s a general way of writing this section, although it might differ slightly between disciplines. Here’s how to write results section in a research paper.

Check the instructions or guidelines. Check their instructions or guidelines first, whether you’re writing the research paper as part of your coursework or for an academic journal. These guidelines outline the requirements for presenting results in research papers. Also, check the published articles to know how to approach this section. When reviewing the procedures, check content restrictions and length. Essentially, learn everything you can about this section from the instructions or guidelines before you start writing. Reflect on your research findings. With instructions and guidelines in mind, reflect on your research findings to determine how to present them in your research paper. Decide on the best way to show the results so that they can answer the research question. Also, strive to clarify and streamline your report, especially with a complex and lengthy results section. You can use subheadings to avoid peripheral and excessive details. Additionally, consider breaking down the content to make it easy for the readers to understand or remember. Your hypothesis, research question, or methodologies might influence the structure of the findings sections. Nevertheless, a hierarchy of importance, chronological order, or meaningful grouping of categories or themes can be an effective way of presenting your findings. Design your visual presentations. Visual presentations improve the textual report of the research findings. Therefore, decide on the figures and styles to use in your tables, graphs, photos, and maps. However, check the instructions and guidelines of your faculty or journal to determine the visual aids you can use. Also, check what the guidelines say about their formats and design elements. Ideally, number the figures and tables according to their mention in the text. Additionally, your figures and tables should be self-explanatory. Write your findings section. Writing the results section of a research paper entails communicating the information you gathered from your study. Ideally, be as objective and factual as possible. If you gathered complex information, try to simplify and present it accurately, precisely, and clearly. Therefore, use well-structured sentences instead of complex expressions and phrases. Also, use an active voice and past tense since you’ve already done the research. Additionally, use correct spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Take your time to present the findings in the best way possible to focus your readers on your study objectives while preparing them for the coming speculations, interpretations, and recommendations. Edit Your Findings Section. Once you’ve written the results part of your paper, please go through it to ensure that you’ve presented your study findings in the best way possible. Make sure that the content of this section is factual, accurate, and without errors. You’ve taken a considerable amount of time to compose the results scientific paper audiences will find interesting to read. Therefore, take a moment to go through the draft and eliminate all errors.

Practical Tips on How to Write a Results Section of a Research Paper

The results part of a research paper aims to present the key findings objectively in a logical and orderly sequence using text and illustrative materials. A common mistake that many authors make is confusing the information in the discussion and the results sections. To avoid this, focus on presenting your research findings without interpreting them or speculating about them.

The following tips on how to write a results section should make this task easier for you:

Summarize your study results: Instead of reporting the findings in full detail, summarize them. That way, you can develop an overview of the results. Present relevant findings only: Don’t report everything you found during your research. Instead, present pertinent information only. That means taking time to analyze your results to know what your audiences want to know. Report statistical findings: When writing this section, assume that the audiences understand statistical concepts. Therefore, don’t try to explain the nitty-gritty in this section. Remember that your work is to report your study’s findings in this section. Be objective and concise: You can interpret the findings in the discussion sections. Therefore, focus on presenting the results objectively and concisely in this section. Use the suitable format: Use the correct style to present the findings depending on your study field.

Get Professional Help with the Research Section

Maybe you’re pursuing your graduate or undergraduate studies but cannot write the results part of your paper. Perhaps, you’re done researching and analyzing information, but this section proves too tricky for you to write. Well, you’re not alone because many students across the world struggle to present their research findings.

Luckily, our highly educated, talented, and experienced writers are always ready to assist such learners. If you are stuck with the results part of your paper, our professionals can help you . We offer high-quality, custom writing help online. We’re a reliable team of experts with a sterling reputation for providing comprehensive assistance to college, high school, and university learners. We deliver highly informative academic papers after conducting extensive and in-depth research. Contact us saying something like, “please do my thesis” to get quality help with your paper!

Research Misconduct

Learn what research misconduct is, how allegations are handled, and find resources to address misconduct.

NIH aims to enable scientific discovery while assuring honesty, transparency, integrity, fair merit-based competition, and protection of intellectual capital and proprietary information. As the largest public funder of biomedical research, NIH sets the standard for innovation and scientific discovery. We promote the highest levels of scientific integrity and public accountability in the conduct of science.

The scientific research enterprise is built on a deep foundation of trust and shared values. As the National Academies wrote in their 2019 On Being a Scientist report, "this trust will endure only if the scientific community devotes itself to exemplifying and transmitting the values associated with ethical scientific conduct" Falsifying, fabricating, or plagiarizing data—all forms of research misconduct—are contrary to these values and ethical conduct.

What is Research Integrity?

Failing to uphold research integrity undermines the public’s confidence and trust in the outcomes of NIH supported research. Research integrity includes:

the use of honest and verifiable methods in proposing, performing, and evaluating research
reporting research results with particular attention to adherence to rules, regulations, and guidelines
following commonly accepted professional codes or norms

Shared values in scientific research

Honesty: convey information truthfully and honoring commitments
Accuracy: report findings precisely and take care to avoid errors
Efficiency: use resources wisely and avoid waste
Objectivity: let the facts speak for themselves and avoid bias

How does research integrity affect you?

Researchers rely on trustworthy results of other researchers to make scientific progress.
Researchers rely on public support, whether through public investments or their voluntary participation in research, to further science.
The public relies on scientific progress to better the lives of everyone.
The public could actually be harmed by researchers who are dishonest and act without regards to integrity

About Research Misconduct

Reporting a Concern

Process for Handling Allegations of Research Misconduct

NIH Expectations, Policies, and Requirements

NIH Actions and Oversight after a Finding of Research Misconduct

Notices, Statements and Reports

Responsible Conduct of Research (RCR)

Resources for NIH Staff

This page last updated on: July 15, 2024

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NIH... Turning Discovery Into Health

How often you poop can affect your health well beyond the gut, study suggests

Everybody poops, but how often people go could reveal a lot about their long-term health, according to research published Tuesday in the journal Cell Reports Medicine .

The study of more than 1,400 healthy adults found that people who pooped less frequently also had signs of decreased kidney function. People on the other end of the spectrum, who went far more than normal, showed signs of impaired liver function.

“It’s well-known that things like constipation are associated with chronic disease ,” said study co-author Sean Gibbons, an associate professor at the Institute for Systems Biology in Seattle.

What is less apparent is which comes first — the constipation or the chronic disease? Does constipation early in life cause chronic illness in otherwise healthy people, or is constipation a result of chronic disease?

Gibbons and his team used data from a now-defunct wellness company called Arivale to try to answer that question. The study participants were healthy, mostly white adults living in the Pacific Northwest. The researchers analyzed blood and stool samples and body mass index measurements, as well as responses to questionnaires about diet and exercise habits and mental health.

From the blood samples, the team was able to detect chemicals in the blood that indicated low organ function, including low-functioning kidneys and livers. From the stool samples, the researchers were able to genetically sequence each person’s gut microbiome , which told them the makeup of beneficial and potentially harmful microbes living there.

The researchers separated participants into groups based on how frequently they pooped: one or two bowel movements per week, three to six bowel movements per week, one to three bowel movements per day and diarrhea, which they defined as four or more times per day.

The study found the ideal number of bowel movements for optimal health was one or two a day. Younger people, women and those with lower BMIs tended to poop less frequently. Chronic constipation — two or fewer bowel movements a week — was linked with decreased kidney function, while diarrhea — going four or more times a day — was associated with decreased liver function.

Hungry microbes in search of food

The gut is full of colonies of different microbes that feed on — and ferment — nutrients in stool. Their preferred food is fiber, but if poop stays in the gut for too long, which is the case with chronic constipation, the microbes exhaust their supply. They instead turn to proteins, the source of which is usually the protein-rich mucus layer lining the gut.

“If we don’t feed our microbes, they start eating us,” Gibbons said.

It creates a three-pronged problem: When those microbes feed on proteins, they produce toxic metabolites, some of which are associated with kidney and liver dysfunction. The more bacteria have to rely on protein sources of food, the more protein-preferring bacteria, and less of the beneficial fiber-eating bacteria, there will be.

Eventually, the microbes may start breaking down the mucus membrane in their quest for food, and the gut can become “leaky.” That allows bacteria and metabolites from the gut that are toxic to other organs to spill out into the bloodstream, where they can cause inflammation that leads to heart, liver and kidney disease, said Dr. Phillipp Hartmann, an assistant professor of pediatric gastroenterology at the University of California, San Diego, who studies the interaction between the gut microbiome and other organs.

“What we can confidently say is gut permeability at least contributes to disease,” said Hartmann, who was not involved with the new research. “It may not be the only factor, but it often worsens disease.”

A similar chain of microbial events can occur if a person has diarrhea, though in that case, it’s likely to be inflammation that degrades the mucosal membrane lining the gut, which allows toxins to get into the bloodstream.

“When you have diarrhea or you have constipation, microbes will accumulate that produce toxins that influence disease,” said Joseph Petrosino, chair of molecular virology and microbiology at the Baylor College of Medicine, who was also not involved with the new research.

The study found that people who reported either regular constipation or diarrhea had more protein-feasting gut bacteria, whereas people who pooped once or twice a day had more fiber-fermenting bacteria.

Gibbons said that it’s not clear why the study found constipation was associated with kidney dysfunction and diarrhea with liver dysfunction but that it may have to do with the fact that diarrhea prevents the gut from absorbing bile acids — the product of cholesterol metabolism — which leaves more for the liver to process. The kidneys are more affected by the metabolites produced by protein-eating gut microbes.

Because the study was not a randomized clinical trial that included an intervention, the new research cannot conclude with certainty whether having more or less than one or two bowel movements a day is linked to chronic disease, but Gibbons said it appears that may be the case.

“We hypothesized that we would see more of these protein-derived toxins in the blood in people with lower bowel movement frequencies or constipation, and we did,” he said. “These things damage your liver and kidneys.”

Petrosino said that while it’s not always in a person’s control, many lifestyle factors can help keep both constipation and diarrhea at bay.

“First and foremost, it’s important to eat a healthy diet , feed yourself with foods that fertilize and promote good bacteria growth,” he said.

That includes eating plenty of fruits and vegetables and reducing alcohol and red meat. In the study, people who reported eating a fiber-rich diet, staying hydrated and exercising regularly tended to have healthier bowel movement frequency. Probiotics can be helpful if a person is dealing with chronic conditions such as an upset stomach, constipation or diarrhea, Petrosino said.

“There are probiotics that may be able to help normalize things, but if you are healthy already, I wouldn’t start taking them,” he said. “Don’t fix what isn’t broken.”

Kaitlin Sullivan is a contributor for NBCNews.com who has worked with NBC News Investigations. She reports on health, science and the environment and is a graduate of the Craig Newmark Graduate School of Journalism at City University of New York.

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Published: 22 July 2024

Research on the mean maximum Young’s modulus value as a new diagnostic parameter for prostate cancer

Jieyu Duan 1 na1 ,
ZhanHui Liu 2 na1 ,
Zhong Li 3 ,
Haoyu Wang 4 &
Wei Zhao 4

Scientific Reports volume 14 , Article number: 16828 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Ultrasound-based shear wave elastography (SWE) can non-invasively assess prostate tissue stiffness for the diagnosis of prostate cancer (PCa). So far, there is no widely recognized standard for the detection process and calculation method of Young’s modulus value in transrectal SWE ultrasound imaging (TSWEUI). In our study, the mean maximum Young’s modulus value (m-Emax) of the maximum cross-section of prostate is obtained by calculating the mean of 12 measured Emax in the four quadrants. This retrospective study included 209 suspected malignant prostate disease patients with pathological results in our hospital. Among the 209 patients, 75 patients completed TSWEUI, and 63 of the 75 patients completed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC) of 75 patients for m-Emax was 0.754. The prostate volume, prostate-specific antigen, and m-Emax were used to develop a nomogram (AUC = 0.868). The nomogram could effectively predict the probability of PCa, thereby reducing the needle biopsy rate for diagnosing PCa. The AUC of 63 patients was not statistically different between m-Emax (AUC = 0.717) and MRI (AUC = 0.787) ( P = 0.361). These indicate that m-Emax can be used as an innovative parameter in TSWEUI to diagnosis PCa. TSWEUI is more cost-effective than MRI in diagnosing PCa.

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Introduction.

Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most common malignant tumors in men, and the incidence rate is increasing 1 . Among males, incidence rates were stable for seven cancers (including prostate) 2 . In the following article, malignant prostatic disease means the same as PCa. PCa has a long course and is often asymptomatic in the early stages, making it difficult to distinguish from benign prostatic hyperplasia until the tumor has grown to a certain size and causes symptoms of bladder neck obstruction 3 . Early detection and treatment of PCa is crucial, as it has a better prognosis compared to cases where the tumor has metastasized and greatly affects the patient’s life expectancy and quality of life 4 . Shear wave elastography (SWE) technology has proven to be useful for the diagnosis of PCa 5 . An exploratory study concluded that SWE was more cost effective and yields added net health benefits when compared to the multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in a United Kingdom healthcare setting 6 .

So far, there is no widely recognized standard for the detection process and calculation method of Young’s modulus value in transrectal SWE ultrasound imaging (TSWEUI). In our study, a nomogram was developed using the clinical characteristic factors related to the diagnosis of PCa screened by univariate analysis and multivariate logistic regression analysis. The value of the mean maximum Young’s modulus value (m-Emax) from TSWEUI in the diagnosis of PCa will be explored.

Materials and methods

Patient selection.

This retrospective study was following the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the ethics committee of The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University (grant number, 20,200,384). The requirement for informed consent was waived by ethics committee of The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University due to the retrospective nature of this study. From October 2021 to October 2023, this retrospective study included 209 patients aged 52–90 years (mean age 70.8 ± 7.9) with suspected malignant prostatic disease from our hospital’s urology department who had the results of biopsy or surgical pathologic findings. The inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) ≥ 4 ng/ml suspected malignant prostatic disease. (2) Patients with biopsy or surgical pathological results. (3) The patients were over 50 years old. (4) Patients who did not undergo prostate surgery at the time of selection. The exclusion criteria were as follows: (1) no complete medical history and clinical data. (2) Patients with other malignant tumor. Seventy-five of 209 patients aged 52–85 years (mean age 69.92 ± 7.74) who completed TSWEUI were divided into 43 patients in the benignancy group and 32 patients in the malignancy group according to the results of biopsy or surgical pathologic findings. Sixty-three of the 75 patients completed MRI.

Quality control of the detection process and calculation method of Young’s modulus value in TSWEUI

All patients were examined using an ultrasonic diagnostic instrument (Aixplorer®, SuperSonic Imagine, Aix-en-Provence, France) and an intracavitary (3–12 MHz) probe. The examination conditions were set to conventional transrectal ultrasound examination (TUE) mode, and the probe was placed into rectum to examine the size of prostate, observe tissue echo and blood flow. The ellipsoidal formula was used to calculate the prostate volume (PV), volume = upper and lower diameter (length) × transverse diameter (width) × anterior posterior diameter (height) × π/6, unit in ml.

Then, the SWE mode was activated. Instruct the patient to remain calm, ensure that the probe has appropriate pressure on the test site, and obtain clear and stable SWE images. SWE mode settings include SWE penetration mode and elasticity range 70 kPa setting. Maintain a distance of ≥ 2 mm from the inner wall of the rectum near the probe to the prostate capsule in the ultrasound image. Quantitative analysis system in the instrument (Q-Box™) was applied to measure the maximum Young’s modulus value (Emax) in the four quadrants (upper left, lower left, upper right and lower right) of the maximum cross-section. The Emax was measured three times in each quadrant. The size of the sampling circle was set up according to the size of the prostate. The diameter of the sampling circle in Quantification Box software was 3–5 mm. Scatter and randomly placed SWE sampling circle in stable areas of the SWE image. The maximum cross-section of the prostate to measure its Emax is selected according to whether there are suspicious lesions. The Emax was measured at the maximum cross-section of prostate without suspected lesion (Fig. 1 a) or at the maximum cross-section of prostate with suspected lesion (Fig. 1 b). When detecting suspicious lesions, operators referred to the B-mode image. The m-Emax of the maximum cross-section was obtained by calculating the mean of 12 measured Emax (4 quadrants, 3 times). TSWEUI examinations were performed by the same ultrasound physician with over twenty years of work experience in urological ultrasonography.

Concomitant transrectal shear wave elastography (SWE) ultrsound image and brightness mode ultrsound image. ( a ) The maximum cross-section of prostate without suspected lesion. ( b ) The maximum cross-section of prostate with suspected lesion. The red arrow in Fig. 1a indicates the distance from the inner wall of the rectum near the probe to the prostate capsule.

Quality control of MRI results

MRI was performed on a 3.0-Tesla superconducting unit (Magnetom Trio, Siemens, Erlangen, Germany). According to Prostate Imaging—Reporting and Data System (PI-RADS): 2015, Version 2 grading standard 7 , all MRI images were blinded reviewed by two experienced radiologists with over 10 years of experience. Any discrepancy will be resolved in consensus with a third radiologist (with over twenty years of work experience).

PI-RADS™ v2 assessment categories 7 :

PI-RADS 1—Very low (clinically significant cancer is highly unlikely to be present).

PI-RADS 2—Low (clinically significant cancer is unlikely to be present).

PI-RADS 3—Intermediate (the presence of clinically significant cancer is equivocal).

PI-RADS 4—High (clinically significant cancer is likely to be present).

PI-RADS 5—Very high (clinically significant cancer is highly likely to be present).

Demographic and clinical characteristics

Body mass index (BMI) was calculated using the patient’s height and weight data from the case information system. Using the formula BMI (kg/m 2 ) = body weight (kg)/ height (m 2 ). Blood cell analysis was conducted using a blood cell analyzer to determine neutrophil absolute value, lymphocyte absolute value, platelet count, platelet to lymphocyte ratio (PLR), and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR). Venous blood was taken on an empty stomach to detect serum alkaline phosphatase using a biochemical analyzer, and serum PSA was detected using chemiluminescent immunoassay.

Statistical analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using R software (Version 4.1.3). Continuous variables conforming to a normal distribution were presented as the mean ± SD, and the comparison between groups was performed by two independent samples t tests. Nonnormally distributed data were expressed as median and interquartile-range values, and comparisons between groups were performed using the nonparametric rank sum test. Categorical variables were expressed as frequencies and proportions (%), and comparisons between groups were performed using the χ 2 test and Fisher test. The pROC package of R software was used for receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used. Combined with the restricted cubic spline (RCS) model, the dose–response relationship between m-Emax continuous changes and the PCa risk was explored. If P overall < 0.05, it indicates a dose–response relationship between m-Emax and PCa risk; If P overall < 0.05 and P nonlinear > 0.05, it indicates a linear dose–response relationship between m-Emax and PCa risk; If P overall < 0.05 and P nonlinear < 0.05, it indicates a nonlinear dose–response relationship between m-Emax and PCa risk. The “RMS” package was used to develop the nomogram. Consistency of the prediction models were evaluated by calibration curves analysis. A Z Test was used for comparing the AUCs between different curves. For all statistical tests, P < 0.05 was indicative of statistical significance.

The 209 patients’ baseline characteristics, including age, height, weight, BMI, PSA, PV, alkaline phosphatase, neutrophil absolute value, lymphocyte absolute value, platelet count, PLR, and NLR, were given in Supplementary Table 1. The univariate analysis showed that PSA ( P < 0.001), PV ( P < 0.001), platelet count ( P = 0.025), and PLR ( P = 0.003) were significantly different between the benignancy group and the malignancy group.

The baseline characteristics of 75 patients who completed TSWEUI, including PSA, PV, platelet count, PLR, and m-Emax, were given in Table 1 . The univariate analysis showed that PSA ( P < 0.001), PV ( P = 0.008) and m-Emax ( P < 0.001) were significantly different between the benignancy group and the malignancy group. The area under the ROC curve (AUC) for PSA was 0.729 (cutoff value 7.625, specificity 0.488, sensitivity 0.875, 95% confidence interval (CI) of the AUC 0.611–0.846) (Supplementary Fig. 1). The AUC for PV was 0.680 (cutoff value 36.875, specificity 0.837, sensitivity 0.562, 95% CI 0.554–0.805) (Supplementary Fig. 2). The AUC for m-Emax was 0.754 (cutoff value 64.820, specificity 0.721, sensitivity 0.750, 95% CI 0.642–0.867) (Fig. 2 ).

Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis of 75 patients for m-Emax The AUC is 0.754. m-Emax: mean Emax (maximum Young’s modulus value).

The multivariate logistic regression analysis for PV, PSA, and m-Emax showed that PV (OR = 0.09, 95% CI 0.02–0.32, P < 0.001), PSA (OR = 4.64, 95% CI 1.13–23.82, P = 0.044), and m-Emax (OR = 9.95, 95% CI 2.76–48.01, P = 0.001) were independent predictors for PCa ( P < 0.05) (Fig. 3 ). The RCS model (Fig. 4 ) showed that P overall = 0.007 and P nonlinear = 0.909. Based on the multivariate analysis results, the prediction model incorporating PV, PSA and m-Emax was developed as a nomogram (Supplementary Fig. 3). The specific scoring table of the nomogram was shown in Supplementary Table 2. The AUC for the nomogram was 0.868 (cutoff value 0.249, specificity 0.698, sensitivity 0.969, 95% CI 0.789–0.948) (Fig. 5 ). The calibration curve analysis for predicting PCa probability was shown in Supplementary Fig. 4. The Hosmer‒Lemeshow test yielded a nonsignificant statistic (χ2 = 2.309, P = 0.901).

Multivariate regression analysis for risk factors for prostate cancer (PCa), including prostate-specific antigen (PSA), prostate volume (PV), and m-Emax.

Analysis of dose–response relationship between m-Emax and prostate cancer risk based on restricted cubic spline (RCS) model.

ROC curve analysis for nomogrom.

The AUC of 63 patients for m-Emax was 0.717 (cutoff value 64.82, specificity 0.676, sensitivity 0.692, 95% CI 0.581–0.847) (Fig. 6 ). PI-RADS™ v2 assessment categories and pathological results showed in Supplementary Table 3. The AUC of 63 patients for MRI was 0.787 (cutoff value 3.5, specificity 0.649, sensitivity 0.769, 95% CI 0.687–0.886) (Fig. 6 ). A Z Test was used for comparing the AUCs between m-Emax and MRI, and there were not statistically different between m-Emax and MRI (Z = -0.913, P = 0.361) (Fig. 6 ).

ROC curve analysis of 63 patients for m-Emax and MRI A Z Test was used for comparing the AUCs between m-Emax (cutoff value 64.82, specificity 0.676, sensitivity 0.692, 95% CI 0.581–0.847) and MRI (cutoff value 3.5, specificity 0.649, sensitivity 0.769, 95% CI 0.687–0.886), and there were not statistically different between m-Emax and MRI (Z = − 0.913, P = 0.361).

With the advancement of technology and medical skills, there are many methods for clinical diagnosis of PCa, including PSA, MRI, conventional TUE, SWE, and needle biopsy 8 , 9 , 10 . Multiple needle punctures can easily trigger various complications, such as rectal bleeding, needle tract seeding, or septicemia 11 , 12 , 13 . TUE has a wide range of applications in diagnosing PCa, but it has a high rate of missed diagnosis and cannot clearly distinguish between benign and malignant prostate lesions 14 . As one of the embedding functions of ultrasound, SWE can accurately measure tissue stiffness 15 . SWE measurement of tissue stiffness and Young’s modulus values has received widespread attention in the diagnosis of prostate cancer in recent years, with the characteristics of real-time imaging, and high accuracy 16 , and it is a non-invasive method for obtaining stiffness information 17 .

During the TSWEUI examination, in order to observe the prostate as a whole and have clear images, the operator will apply pressure to the rectal wall to compress the prostate. As the pressure changes, the elastic Young’s modulus value representing prostate tissue stiffness will also change 18 . In order to avoid excessive pressure on the prostate during the examination operation of this study, the distance of ≥ 2 mm is maintained from the inner wall of the rectum near the probe to the prostate capsule in the ultrasound image as the pressure standard. Meanwhile, since malignant prostate lesions often show diffuse growth and no clear boundaries with surrounding tissues 19 , the detection rate of PCa lesions is not high by gray-scale and Doppler ultrasound 20 , 21 . Thus, only interrogating the abnormal nodules of prostate gland by SWE to differentiate PCa is not easy in practice. In the 1980s, transrectal biopsies under transrectal ultrasound guidance became the gold standard for PCa detection 22 . In the sextant technique, biopsy cores were taken from six regions of the prostate: apex, middle, and base of each lobe parasagitally in addition to any hypoechoic lesions 23 . The imaging instigation usually starts at the base of the bladder and then, by rotating the probe a full picture of the prostate can be acquired (as shown in the attached figure in cited literature, which shows the maximum cross-section of the prostate) 24 . So in our study, the Emax was measured three times in each quadrant of the maximum cross-section. The m-Emax of the maximum cross-section of prostate was obtained by calculating the mean of 12 measured Emax in the four quadrants.

In our study, the AUC for m-Emax was 0.754 (95% CI 0.642–0.867), indicating high accuracy (Fig. 2 ). The cutoff value was 64.820 kPa. The risk of prostate cancer increased when m-Emax ≥ 64.820 kPa. The cutoff value for the Young’s modulus of elasticity of the prostate was different from previous studies, such as Sun et al. 25 , Ji et al. 26 , Fu et al. 27 . This difference might be for reasons: First, the parameter of Young’s modulus value to represent the prostate tissue stiffness was different from other studies. In Sun et al. study, cutoff value of the Emax = (60.45 kPa for extracapsular extension, and 81.55 kPa for seminal vesicle invasion). A region of interest was placed on the areas in the paramedial and lateral aspects (5 mm in diameter) at the level of the base, mid-gland and apex of the prostate peripheral zone to systematically measure the stiffness (Emax) of the whole prostate. In Ji et al. study, cutoff value of the Emax = 128.48 kPa. In the transverse plane of the prostate, and the sampling box was placed on both sides of the base, the middle, and the apex of the prostate, respectively. The Young’s modulus of elasticity value (Emax, et al.) was equal to the average of the measurement results at these planes. In Fu et al. study, cutoff value of the Emax = 42 kPa. Elastic value was measured in the area prepared for systematic biopsy and suspicious lesion detected on B-mode or SWE. Second, the quality control of the detection process and calculation method of Young’s modulus value was different from other studies. There is no quality control for the pressure standard in these three literatures.

Since, the stress at a point of elastic model does not depend only on the gradient of deformation but also on the orientation, connection and distribution of its components. The fiber network displays a nonlinear stress–strain relationship due to complex interactions that vary from point to point. The progressive increase in deformation will disrupt the fibers that begin to line up in the direction of the load increasing the stiffness; the stress–strain relationship is approximately linear. Pathologies such as tumors and fibrosis involve changes in consistency, since the structural properties of these anomalies imply a stiffer area that reflects histological differences in the microstructure of the tissue 28 . Digital rectal examination found that the prostate stiffness in PCa patients was higher than that in normal individuals. In our study, the m-Emax was a strong independent predictor for PCa (OR = 9.95, P = 0.001) (Fig. 3 ). The RCS model (Fig. 4 ) showed a linear dose–response relationship between m-Emax and PCa risk (P overall = 0.007 (P overall < 0.05) and P nonlinear = 0.909 (P nonlinear > 0.05)). Therefore, the m-Emax can be used as an innovative parameter of Young’s modulus value to represent the prostate tissue stiffness in TSWEUI. By standardizing detection process and calculation method of Young’s modulus value, the data are relatively stable and reliable.

The univariate analysis for the 209 patients’ baseline characteristics showed that PSA ( P < 0.001), PV ( P < 0.001), platelet count ( P = 0.025), and PLR ( P = 0.003) were significantly different between the benignancy group and malignancy group. Based on the results of the first univariate analysis, a second univariate analysis was performed on baseline characteristics of 75 patients who completed TSWEUI, including m-Emax and clinical characteristic factors correlated with PCa, such as PSA, PV, platelet count, and PLR. The results showed that PSA ( P < 0.001), PV ( P = 0.008), and m-Emax ( P < 0.001) were statistically correlated with PCa. The AUC for PSA was 0.729 (95% CI 0.611–0.846) (Supplementary Fig. 1). The cutoff value was 7.625 ng/ml. The risk of PCa increased when PSA ≥ 7.625 ng/ml. The specificity of serum PSA testing is relatively low 29 . Threshold for abnormal PSA levels is greater than 4 ng/ml, suggesting a possible presence of PCa 30 . Risk of PCa greatly increases when PSA values reach 10 ng/ml 31 . When 4 ≤ PSA ≤ 10 ng/ml, a needle biopsy should be performed to diagnose PCa 32 . Given the complications of prostate biopsy, optimally TSWEUI could benefit patients with a PSA between 4 and 10 ng/ml as this is the group most at risk of undiagnosed malignant cancer. The subjects included in this study were patients with a PSA value of 4 ng/ml or higher. The AUC for PV was 0.680 (95% CI 0.554–0.805) (Supplementary Fig. 2). The cutoff value was 36.875 ml. PV was significantly different between the malignancy group and the benignancy group (35.11 vs. 51.3, P = 0.008) (Table 1 ). The PV in the malignancy group was smaller than that in the benignancy group. PV is an important factor affecting PSA values 33 . PV is related to the incidence of PCa 34 , and for PSA values in the range of 2.0–9.0 ng/ml, a smaller prostate volume is a predictive factor for cancer risk 35 .

The multivariate logistic regression analysis identified PSA (OR = 4.64, P < 0.05) and PV (OR = 0.09, P < 0.001) as independent predictors for PCa (Fig. 3 ). Based on the multivariate logistic regression analysis results, a prediction model incorporating the independent predictors, PSA, PV, and m-Emax, was developed as the nomogram (Supplementary Fig. 3). The specific scoring table of the nomogram is clearly shown in Supplementary Table 2 for convenience in clinical application. This study showed that the nomogram improved predictive accuracy (the AUC for the nomogram increased to 0.868. 95% CI 0.789–0.948) (Fig. 5 ). The calibration curve of the nomogram demonstrated good agreement between the probability as predicted and the actual probability (Supplementary Fig. 4).

In our study established a cancer risk prediction model for PCa clinical diagnosis by using SWE technology combined with relevant clinical characteristic factors. Due to its high prediction accuracy for suspected PCa patients, it can reduce the needle biopsy rate in the diagnosis of PCa.

MRI has been used for noninvasive assessment of the prostate gland and surrounding structures since the 1980s 7 . The PI-RADS can provide assessment categories that summarize levels of suspicion or risk of clinically significant prostate cancer that can be used to assist selection of patients for biopsies and management 7 . The AUC of 63 patients were not statistically different in ROC curve analysis between m-Emax (AUC = 0.717) and MRI (AUC = 0.787) ( P = 0.361) (Fig. 6 ), indicating no difference in the discrimination for PCa. The MRI is too expensive and time-consuming, and some contraindications (claustrophobia, pacemaker, etc.) 36 . Therefore, this study indicated that TSWEUI is more cost effective than MRI in the diagnosis of PCa.

Study limitations

The limitation of this study lies in the lack of comprehensive analysis and research on the selection of Young’s modulus value indicator that represent the stiffness of prostate tissue, as well as the influencing factors on indicator measurement and calculation. There is no in-depth study on the impact of pressure changes on the Young’s modulus value of the prostate. Targeted work is needed. In this study, a single operator can maintain the stability of the operation, but may produce systematic errors. Due to the small sample size of this study, an increase in the sample size could offer further evidence on the relationship between TSWEUI and PCa in research of the next step.

Conclusions

In this study, the m-Emax as an innovative parameter of the Young’s modulus value representing prostate tissue stiffness was statistically correlated with and good discriminability for PCa. The m-Emax was a strong independent predictor of PCa. There was a linear dose–response relationship between m-Emax and PCa risk. A prediction model incorporating PV, PSA and m-Emax could predict PCa probability well. TSWEUI combined with relevant clinical characteristic factors has important application value in the non-invasive diagnosis of PCa, which can reduce the needle biopsy rate in the diagnosis of PCa. TSWEUI is more cost effective than MRI in the diagnosis of PCa.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Alghamdi, D., Kernohan, N., Li, C. H. & Nabi, G. Comparative assessment of different ultrasound technologies in the detection of prostate cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Cancers (Basel) 15 (16), 4105. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers15164105 (2023).

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This study was supported by the Hebei Provincial Key Research Projects, China (20377773D).

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These authors contributed equally: Jieyu Duan and ZhanHui Liu.

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Ultrasound, First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhoug City, 450052, Henan Province, China

Department of Radiology, The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang City, 050031, Hebei Province, China

ZhanHui Liu

Department of Urology, The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang City, 050031, Hebei Province, China

Department of Ultrasound, The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, 89 Donggang Road, Yuhua District, Shijiazhuang City, 050031, Hebei Province, China

Haoyu Wang & Wei Zhao

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Z, W., D, J., L, Z.H. and L, Z. contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by D, J., L, Z.H., L, Z. and W, H. D, J. and Z, W. drafted the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Wei Zhao .

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Duan, J., Liu, Z., Li, Z. et al. Research on the mean maximum Young’s modulus value as a new diagnostic parameter for prostate cancer. Sci Rep 14 , 16828 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-68036-z

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Published : 22 July 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-68036-z

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Why People Resist Retirement

Teresa M. Amabile

Research suggests making the decision means overcoming three psychological hurdles.

Research suggests making the decision to retire means grappling with three psychological issues. First, identity issues can loom large for any deeply engaged professional. Even a small step away from a career can make a person wonder who they are without it. Second, many older professionals resist leaving meaningful work. And third is the dread of losing the strong relationships that accumulate over the course of a long, successful career. New research suggests that leaders who develop an accurate awareness of who they really are and what their job really demands of them are much better equipped to overcome the psychological barriers to retirement.

With President Joe Biden’s withdrawal from the 2024 presidential race, the Republican nominee, former President Donald Trump, is now the oldest person ever nominated by a major U.S. political party. The vast complexities of this presidential race aside, it has led to a national conversation about age, leadership, and what work means to our identities.

TA Teresa M. Amabile is Edsel Bryant Ford Professor, Emerita at Harvard Business School. A psychologist who has researched creativity, motivation, and everyday work life, she is coauthor of The Progress Principle and the forthcoming Retiring: Creating a Life That Works for You .

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What Cam Akers signing with Texans means for Vikings' RB room

Will ragatz | 16 hours ago.

Oct 23, 2023; Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA; Minnesota Vikings running back Cam Akers (31) runs with the ball against the San Francisco 49ers defensive end Nick Bosa (97) in the second quarter at U.S. Bank Stadium.

Minnesota Vikings

Former Vikings running back Cam Akers signed with the Houston Texans on Sunday evening after working out for them earlier in the day. The 25-year-old Akers, who is heading into his fifth NFL season, joins a loaded Texans offense and a running back room that already includes Joe Mixon and Dameon Pierce. If he's recovered from his November Achilles injury, he'll likely be the RB3 for one of the AFC's top contenders.

A few weeks ago, a report indicated that the Vikings would be re-signing Akers if he passed a physical. That didn't happen, which either means the report was wrong or the physical was failed. For what it's worth, Akers — who previously recovered from an Achilles injury in just six months in 2021 — appeared to be moving well on his first day in Houston.

Akers not returning to Minnesota means the Vikings' RB3 spot is wide open as training camp gets underway this week. Aaron Jones and Ty Chandler are the clear-cut top two at that position, while the other backs on the roster are Myles Gaskin, Kene Nwangwu, and DeWayne McBride. Gaskin has by far the most experience of that trio — he was one of the Dolphins' primary running backs in 2020 and '21 — but he didn't have a single touch last season. Nwangwu, the Vikings' kick returner, has 33 offensive touches in three seasons. McBride was a seventh-round pick last year who spent his rookie season on the practice squad.

Akers would've been a nice fit as the Vikings' RB3, but the combination of Gaskin, Nwangwu, and McBride might be enough. Minnesota will obviously be hoping that the 29-year-old Jones can stay healthy all year as their starter, with Chandler likely being mixed in plenty as part of that plan. If the Vikings leave training camp unsatisfied with their depth at the position, they could always look to sign a veteran RB off the street or swing a trade for one.

Originally a second-round draft pick by the Rams in 2020, Akers was acquired by the Vikings in a trade last September. The deal involved conditional late-round draft picks that would've been swapped if he reached 500 yards from scrimmage last season, which didn't happen. Akers had 208 yards and a touchdown on 49 touches with the Vikings before getting hurt in Week 9. Earlier in the game where he got injured, he delivered a highlight-reel block that was his most impressive moment during his Minnesota tenure.

Unreal escape by Josh Dobbs for a first down. And what a block by Cam Akers! pic.twitter.com/1Om5W7ZCse — Will Ragatz (@WillRagatz) November 5, 2023

The Texans now have six former Vikings on their roster: Stefon Diggs, Danielle Hunter, Case Keenum, Akers, Kris Boyd, and Chris Reed.

WILL RAGATZ

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Bridging the Gap for New Americans Final Report

Information, research methods, study population, dol partner agency, about the report.

Download Report

The report presents the findings from a review of existing research to address topics identified in the Bridging the Gap for New Americans Act,1 Pub. L. No. 117-210, enacted in October 2022. The Act asks the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) to conduct a study about lawfully present immigrants and refugees admitted to the United States during the 5-year period prior to the law (October 2017–October 2022). The study’s target population under the Act, who are identified as New Americans, is lawfully present immigrants and refugees with occupational and professional credentials and academic degrees obtained outside the United States. In keeping with this request, and to better understand the labor market dynamics of a growing segment of the U.S. workforce, the DOL’s Chief Evaluation Office, in collaboration with the Employment and Training Administration, initiated a study to identify New Americans’ employment patterns and the factors and strategies that might help ease their transition into employment that uses their existing skills and knowledge.

The Westat Insight study team conducted a targeted literature review and engaged with subject matter experts to identify relevant studies, programs, and data sources on this population. The study team also developed (1) a data catalog by evaluating and documenting data sources identified in the studies and (2) a program catalog by conducting a review of public and private programs that help New Americans secure employment in the United States.

Download this Summary (PDF)

Research Questions

Overall prevalence: What is the size or national distribution (by State) of New Americans as of 2017 or after?
Home-country training: What types of professional credentials (such as postsecondary educational degrees, occupational certifications, and licenses) do New Americans hold before immigrating to the United States?
U.S. training: What types of professional credentials do New Americans obtain after immigrating to the United States?
Employment patterns: What types of employment do New Americans have before and after they immigrate to the United States?
Employment barriers: What barriers may prevent New Americans from using professional credentials obtained outside the United States to secure skill-appropriate or other employment in the United States?
Employment support: What promising strategies or approaches have been developed to help New Americans secure skill-appropriate employment in the United States?

Key Takeaways

The number of immigrants with at least a college degree obtained outside the United States was estimated to be approximately 7 million, based on 2019 ACS data (Batalova & Fix, 2021). In 2021, an estimated 13.6 million (34%) of the United States’ 40.2 million immigrants held at least a college degree (Ward & Batalova, 2023).
Based on the 2019 ACS, 24% of immigrants who obtained college degrees outside the United States accepted a job that did not require a college degree or were unemployed, in contrast with 16% of U.S.-born individuals and 17% of U.S.-educated immigrants (Batalova & Fix, 2021).
29% of foreign-born workers with at least a college degree held occupational licenses compared with 50% of U.S.-born workers with the same education level (Boesch et al., 2022).
Recredentialing or relicensing for New Americans who received their credentials outside the United States is complex, expensive, and time-consuming. Common barriers cited in the literature included limited English proficiency, lack of recognition from licensing boards or postsecondary institutions for credentials and experience obtained outside the United States, problems navigating licensing systems, and lack of sufficient support to complete requirements, such as financial assistance or English language learning support (Friedman, 2018; Liebert & Rissler, 2021; Special Commission on Foreign-Trained Medical Professionals, 2022; WES [World Education Services], 2022).
Governors from various states have signed executive orders to remove barriers that prevent New Americans from gaining skill-appropriate work (Morse & Chanda, 2023; NCSL [National Conference of State Legislatures], 2020; Sanz & Francis, 2021; WES, 2022). Nonprofit organizations, state initiatives, and community colleges have implemented strategies and approaches intended to integrate New Americans into the U.S. workforce (Casner-Lotto, 2011; Harrington et al., 2020; McHugh & Morawski, 2017; Special Commission on Foreign-Trained Medical Professionals, 2022; Upwardly Global, 2023).

Korkmaz, G., Hyra, A., Wright, D., Nguyen, J., DiBello, M., Muz, B. (2024). Westat Insight. Bridging the Gap for New Americans Final Report. Chief Evaluation Office, U.S. Department of Labor.

Download Report View Study Profile

The Department of Labor’s (DOL) Chief Evaluation Office (CEO) sponsors independent evaluations and research, primarily conducted by external, third-party contractors in accordance with the Department of Labor Evaluation Policy and CEO’s research development process .

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Research Report
Research Report. Definition: Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and objective manner.
Research Reports: Definition and How to Write Them
Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analyzing the information gathered by conducting organized research, typically in the form of surveys or qualitative methods. A research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted research. It is most often considered to be a true testimony ...
Research Report: Definition, Types + [Writing Guide]
A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a systematic investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.
Research Report: Definition, Types, Guide
A description of the research method used, e.g., qualitative, quantitative, or other. Statistical analysis. Causal (or explanatory) research (i.e., research identifying relationships between two variables) Inductive research, also known as 'theory-building'. Deductive research, such as that used to test theories.
What Is Research Report? Definition, Contents, Significance, Qualities
The research report acts as a means of communication of various research findings to the interested parties, organisations and general public. Good report writing play, a significant role of conveying unknown facts about the phenomenon to the concerned parties. This may provide new insights and new opportunities to the people.
Research Paper
Definition: Research Paper is a written document that presents the author's original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue. It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new ...
Research report
A research report is a publication that reports on the findings of a research project. [1] Research reports are produced by many sectors including industry, education, government and non-government organizations and may be disseminated internally, or made public (i.e. published) however they are not usually available from booksellers or through ...
Writing a Research Report
There are five MAJOR parts of a Research Report: 1. Introduction 2. Review of Literature 3. Methods 4. Results 5. Discussion. As a general guide, the Introduction, Review of Literature, and Methods should be about 1/3 of your paper, Discussion 1/3, then Results 1/3. Section 1: Cover Sheet (APA format cover sheet) optional, if required.
PDF Writing a Research Report
Use the section headings (outlined above) to assist with your rough plan. Write a thesis statement that clarifies the overall purpose of your report. Jot down anything you already know about the topic in the relevant sections. 3 Do the Research. Steps 1 and 2 will guide your research for this report.
PDF How to Write an Effective Research REport
Abstract. This guide for writers of research reports consists of practical suggestions for writing a report that is clear, concise, readable, and understandable. It includes suggestions for terminology and notation and for writing each section of the report—introduction, method, results, and discussion. Much of the guide consists of ...
Research Reports
Research Reports. Research reports present the results of formal investigations into the properties, behavior, structures, and principles of material and conceptual entities. Almost any physical phenomenon or concept may be investigated in a research framework. ... Problem definition: the rigorous reduction of the inquiry to a narrow question ...
What is a research paper?
Definition. A research paper is a paper that makes an argument about a topic based on research and analysis. Any paper requiring the writer to research a particular topic is a research paper. Unlike essays, which are often based largely on opinion and are written from the author's point of view, research papers are based in fact.
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Step 4: Organizing Research and the Writer's Ideas. When your research is complete, you will organize your findings and decide which sources to cite in your paper. You will also have an opportunity to evaluate the evidence you have collected and determine whether it supports your thesis, or the focus of your paper.
Research Report: Definition
A research report is a vital tool in disseminating research results to academic, professional, and public audiences. It provides a detailed analysis of the research problem, research questions, methodology, findings, and conclusions. Research reports are crucial in advancing knowledge and understanding in various fields of study, informing ...
What Is a Research Paper?
A research paper is a common form of academic writing. Research papers require students and academics to locate information about a topic (that is, to conduct research ), take a stand on that topic, and provide support (or evidence) for that position in an organized report. The term research paper may also refer to a scholarly article that ...
Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper
For most research papers in the social and behavioral sciences, there are two possible ways of organizing the results. Both approaches are appropriate in how you report your findings, but use only one approach. Present a synopsis of the results followed by an explanation of key findings. This approach can be used to highlight important findings.
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Research Report: A research report is a document prepared by an analyst or strategist who is a part of the investment research team in a stock brokerage or investment bank . A research report may ...
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Research results refer to the findings and conclusions derived from a systematic investigation or study conducted to answer a specific question or hypothesis. These results are typically presented in a written report or paper and can include various forms of data such as numerical data, qualitative data, statistics, charts, graphs, and visual aids.
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Prepare a comprehensive research report detailing all aspects of your study, including the introduction, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion, and references. Step 12. Peer Review and Revision. If you intend to publish your research, submit your report to peer-reviewed journals. Revise your research report based on the feedback received ...
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A research design is a strategy for answering your research question using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about: Your overall research objectives and approach. Whether you'll rely on primary research or secondary research. Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects. Your data collection methods.
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Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design. When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make. First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question:
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In its simplest definition, a research paper results section is where the researcher reports the findings of a study based on the applied methodology for gathering information. It's the part where the author states the research findings in a logical sequence without interpreting them. If the research paper has data from actual research, this ...
Research Misconduct
reporting research results with particular attention to adherence to rules, regulations, and guidelines following commonly accepted professional codes or norms; Shared values in scientific research. Honesty: convey information truthfully and honoring commitments Accuracy: report findings precisely and take care to avoid errors
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Everybody poops, but how often people go could reveal a lot about their long-term health, according to research published Tuesday in the journal Cell Reports Medicine.. The study of more than ...
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Scientific Reports - Research on the mean maximum Young's modulus value as a new diagnostic parameter for prostate cancer ... Duan, J., Liu, Z., Li, Z. et al. Research on the mean maximum Young ...
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Research suggests making the decision to retire means grappling with three psychological issues. First, identity issues can loom large for any deeply engaged professional. Even a small step away ...
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About the Report. Download Report. The report presents the findings from a review of existing research to address topics identified in the Bridging the Gap for New Americans Act,1 Pub. L. No. 117-210, enacted in October 2022. The Act asks the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) to conduct a study about lawfully present immigrants and refugees admitted to the United States during the 5-year period ...
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