Reference management. Clean and simple.
A research paper is a paper that makes an argument about a topic based on research and analysis.
Any paper requiring the writer to research a particular topic is a research paper. Unlike essays, which are often based largely on opinion and are written from the author's point of view, research papers are based in fact.
A research paper requires you to form an opinion on a topic, research and gain expert knowledge on that topic, and then back up your own opinions and assertions with facts found through your thorough research.
➡️ Read more about different types of research papers .
A thesis is a large paper, or multi-chapter work, based on a topic relating to your field of study.
A thesis is a document students of higher education write to obtain an academic degree or qualification. Usually, it is longer than a research paper and takes multiple years to complete.
Generally associated with graduate/postgraduate studies, it is carried out under the supervision of a professor or other academic of the university.
A major difference between a research paper and a thesis is that:
This means that a thesis requires the author to input original work and their own findings in a certain field, whereas the research paper can be completed with extensive research only.
➡️ Getting ready to start a research paper or thesis? Take a look at our guides on how to start a research paper or how to come up with a topic for your thesis .
Take a look at this list of the top 21 Free Online Journal and Research Databases , such as ScienceOpen , Directory of Open Access Journals , ERIC , and many more.
Mason Porter, Professor at UCLA, explains in this forum post the main reasons to write a research paper:
Generally, people involved in the academia. Research papers are mostly written by higher education students and professional researchers.
Yes, a research paper is the same as a scientific paper. Both papers have the same purpose and format.
A major difference between a research paper and a thesis is that the former presents certain facts that have already been researched and explained by others, whereas the latter starts with a certain scholarly question or statement, which then leads to further research and new findings.
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Learning objectives.
Why was the Great Wall of China built? What have scientists learned about the possibility of life on Mars? What roles did women play in the American Revolution? How does the human brain create, store, and retrieve memories? Who invented the game of football, and how has it changed over the years?
You may know the answers to these questions off the top of your head. If you are like most people, however, you find answers to tough questions like these by searching the Internet, visiting the library, or asking others for information. To put it simply, you perform research.
Whether you are a scientist, an artist, a paralegal, or a parent, you probably perform research in your everyday life. When your boss, your instructor, or a family member asks you a question that you do not know the answer to, you locate relevant information, analyze your findings, and share your results. Locating, analyzing, and sharing information are key steps in the research process, and in this chapter, you will learn more about each step. By developing your research writing skills, you will prepare yourself to answer any question no matter how challenging.
When you perform research, you are essentially trying to solve a mystery—you want to know how something works or why something happened. In other words, you want to answer a question that you (and other people) have about the world. This is one of the most basic reasons for performing research.
But the research process does not end when you have solved your mystery. Imagine what would happen if a detective collected enough evidence to solve a criminal case, but she never shared her solution with the authorities. Presenting what you have learned from research can be just as important as performing the research. Research results can be presented in a variety of ways, but one of the most popular—and effective—presentation forms is the research paper . A research paper presents an original thesis, or purpose statement, about a topic and develops that thesis with information gathered from a variety of sources.
If you are curious about the possibility of life on Mars, for example, you might choose to research the topic. What will you do, though, when your research is complete? You will need a way to put your thoughts together in a logical, coherent manner. You may want to use the facts you have learned to create a narrative or to support an argument. And you may want to show the results of your research to your friends, your teachers, or even the editors of magazines and journals. Writing a research paper is an ideal way to organize thoughts, craft narratives or make arguments based on research, and share your newfound knowledge with the world.
Write a paragraph about a time when you used research in your everyday life. Did you look for the cheapest way to travel from Houston to Denver? Did you search for a way to remove gum from the bottom of your shoe? In your paragraph, explain what you wanted to research, how you performed the research, and what you learned as a result.
No matter what field of study you are interested in, you will most likely be asked to write a research paper during your academic career. For example, a student in an art history course might write a research paper about an artist’s work. Similarly, a student in a psychology course might write a research paper about current findings in childhood development.
Having to write a research paper may feel intimidating at first. After all, researching and writing a long paper requires a lot of time, effort, and organization. However, writing a research paper can also be a great opportunity to explore a topic that is particularly interesting to you. The research process allows you to gain expertise on a topic of your choice, and the writing process helps you remember what you have learned and understand it on a deeper level.
Knowing how to write a good research paper is a valuable skill that will serve you well throughout your career. Whether you are developing a new product, studying the best way to perform a procedure, or learning about challenges and opportunities in your field of employment, you will use research techniques to guide your exploration. You may even need to create a written report of your findings. And because effective communication is essential to any company, employers seek to hire people who can write clearly and professionally.
Take a few minutes to think about each of the following careers. How might each of these professionals use researching and research writing skills on the job?
A medical laboratory technician or information technology professional might do research to learn about the latest technological developments in either of these fields. A small business owner might conduct research to learn about the latest trends in his or her industry. A freelance magazine writer may need to research a given topic to write an informed, up-to-date article.
Think about the job of your dreams. How might you use research writing skills to perform that job? Create a list of ways in which strong researching, organizing, writing, and critical thinking skills could help you succeed at your dream job. How might these skills help you obtain that job?
How does a research paper grow from a folder of brainstormed notes to a polished final draft? No two projects are identical, but most projects follow a series of six basic steps.
These are the steps in the research writing process:
Each of these steps will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. For now, though, we will take a brief look at what each step involves.
As you may recall from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , to narrow the focus of your topic, you may try freewriting exercises, such as brainstorming. You may also need to ask a specific research question —a broad, open-ended question that will guide your research—as well as propose a possible answer, or a working thesis . You may use your research question and your working thesis to create a research proposal . In a research proposal, you present your main research question, any related subquestions you plan to explore, and your working thesis.
Before you start researching your topic, take time to plan your researching and writing schedule. Research projects can take days, weeks, or even months to complete. Creating a schedule is a good way to ensure that you do not end up being overwhelmed by all the work you have to do as the deadline approaches.
During this step of the process, it is also a good idea to plan the resources and organizational tools you will use to keep yourself on track throughout the project. Flowcharts, calendars, and checklists can all help you stick to your schedule. See Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , Section 11.2 “Steps in Developing a Research Proposal” for an example of a research schedule.
When going about your research, you will likely use a variety of sources—anything from books and periodicals to video presentations and in-person interviews.
Your sources will include both primary sources and secondary sources . Primary sources provide firsthand information or raw data. For example, surveys, in-person interviews, and historical documents are primary sources. Secondary sources, such as biographies, literary reviews, or magazine articles, include some analysis or interpretation of the information presented. As you conduct research, you will take detailed, careful notes about your discoveries. You will also evaluate the reliability of each source you find.
When your research is complete, you will organize your findings and decide which sources to cite in your paper. You will also have an opportunity to evaluate the evidence you have collected and determine whether it supports your thesis, or the focus of your paper. You may decide to adjust your thesis or conduct additional research to ensure that your thesis is well supported.
Remember, your working thesis is not set in stone. You can and should change your working thesis throughout the research writing process if the evidence you find does not support your original thesis. Never try to force evidence to fit your argument. For example, your working thesis is “Mars cannot support life-forms.” Yet, a week into researching your topic, you find an article in the New York Times detailing new findings of bacteria under the Martian surface. Instead of trying to argue that bacteria are not life forms, you might instead alter your thesis to “Mars cannot support complex life-forms.”
Now you are ready to combine your research findings with your critical analysis of the results in a rough draft. You will incorporate source materials into your paper and discuss each source thoughtfully in relation to your thesis or purpose statement.
When you cite your reference sources, it is important to pay close attention to standard conventions for citing sources in order to avoid plagiarism , or the practice of using someone else’s words without acknowledging the source. Later in this chapter, you will learn how to incorporate sources in your paper and avoid some of the most common pitfalls of attributing information.
In the final step of the research writing process, you will revise and polish your paper. You might reorganize your paper’s structure or revise for unity and cohesion, ensuring that each element in your paper flows into the next logically and naturally. You will also make sure that your paper uses an appropriate and consistent tone.
Once you feel confident in the strength of your writing, you will edit your paper for proper spelling, grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and formatting. When you complete this final step, you will have transformed a simple idea or question into a thoroughly researched and well-written paper you can be proud of!
Review the steps of the research writing process. Then answer the questions on your own sheet of paper.
Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
The primary objective of a research report is to communicate the results of a research study to a wider audience, including other researchers, policymakers, and practitioners. Research reports play a crucial role in advancing knowledge and understanding in various fields of study. They provide a detailed and accurate account of the research process and outcomes, and they serve as a reference source for future research.
The structure of a research report typically follows a standard format. The introduction sets the context and background for the research and outlines the research questions or objectives. The literature review provides an overview of existing research on the topic and identifies gaps in the literature that the research aims to address. The methodology section describes the research design and methods used to collect and analyze data. The results section presents the findings of the study, often using tables, charts, and graphs. The discussion section interprets and contextualizes the findings and compares them to previous research. Finally, the conclusion summarizes the key findings and implications of the research, highlighting any limitations and recommendations for future research.
A research report can take various forms, depending on the field of study and the research question. For example, it may be a quantitative or qualitative report, a literature review report, or a case study report. A research report should be clear, concise, and objective regardless of the form.
Research reports are essential for various reasons. First, they provide a detailed and accurate account of the research process and outcomes, which can inform policy and practice in various settings. Second, research reports contribute to the development of knowledge and understanding in a particular field or discipline. They provide a reference source for other researchers in the field, and they can inspire new research questions and directions. Finally, research reports are a crucial component of academic and professional careers. They demonstrate research skills, expertise, and contributions to the field.
Writing a research report can be a challenging task, but it is a crucial component of academic and professional research. An excellent research report should be clear, concise, and well-structured, with a focus on presenting accurate and objective findings. Here are some tips for writing an excellent research report:
A research report is a vital tool in disseminating research results to academic, professional, and public audiences. It provides a detailed analysis of the research problem, research questions, methodology, findings, and conclusions. Research reports are crucial in advancing knowledge and understanding in various fields of study, informing policy and practice, and contributing to academic and professional careers.
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A research paper is a common form of academic writing . Research papers require students and academics to locate information about a topic (that is, to conduct research ), take a stand on that topic, and provide support (or evidence) for that position in an organized report.
The term research paper may also refer to a scholarly article that contains the results of original research or an evaluation of research conducted by others. Most scholarly articles must undergo a process of peer review before they can be accepted for publication in an academic journal.
The first step in writing a research paper is defining your research question . Has your instructor assigned a specific topic? If so, great—you've got this step covered. If not, review the guidelines of the assignment. Your instructor has likely provided several general subjects for your consideration. Your research paper should focus on a specific angle on one of these subjects. Spend some time mulling over your options before deciding which one you'd like to explore more deeply.
Try to choose a research question that interests you. The research process is time-consuming, and you'll be significantly more motivated if you have a genuine desire to learn more about the topic. You should also consider whether you have access to all of the resources necessary to conduct thorough research on your topic, such as primary and secondary sources .
Approach the research process systematically by creating a research strategy. First, review your library's website. What resources are available? Where will you find them? Do any resources require a special process to gain access? Start gathering those resources—especially those that may be difficult to access—as soon as possible.
Second, make an appointment with a reference librarian . A reference librarian is nothing short of a research superhero. He or she will listen to your research question, offer suggestions for how to focus your research, and direct you toward valuable sources that directly relate to your topic.
Now that you've gathered a wide array of sources, it's time to evaluate them. First, consider the reliability of the information. Where is the information coming from? What is the origin of the source? Second, assess the relevance of the information. How does this information relate to your research question? Does it support, refute, or add context to your position? How does it relate to the other sources you'll be using in your paper? Once you have determined that your sources are both reliable and relevant, you can proceed confidently to the writing phase.
The research process is one of the most taxing academic tasks you'll be asked to complete. Luckily, the value of writing a research paper goes beyond that A+ you hope to receive. Here are just some of the benefits of research papers.
The best research papers are the result of genuine interest and a thorough research process. With these ideas in mind, go forth and research. Welcome to the scholarly conversation!
The results section is where you report the findings of your study based upon the methodology [or methodologies] you applied to gather information. The results section should state the findings of the research arranged in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation. A section describing results should be particularly detailed if your paper includes data generated from your own research.
Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070.
When formulating the results section, it's important to remember that the results of a study do not prove anything . Findings can only confirm or reject the hypothesis underpinning your study. However, the act of articulating the results helps you to understand the problem from within, to break it into pieces, and to view the research problem from various perspectives.
The page length of this section is set by the amount and types of data to be reported . Be concise. Use non-textual elements appropriately, such as figures and tables, to present findings more effectively. In deciding what data to describe in your results section, you must clearly distinguish information that would normally be included in a research paper from any raw data or other content that could be included as an appendix. In general, raw data that has not been summarized should not be included in the main text of your paper unless requested to do so by your professor.
Avoid providing data that is not critical to answering the research question . The background information you described in the introduction section should provide the reader with any additional context or explanation needed to understand the results. A good strategy is to always re-read the background section of your paper after you have written up your results to ensure that the reader has enough context to understand the results [and, later, how you interpreted the results in the discussion section of your paper that follows].
Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Brett, Paul. "A Genre Analysis of the Results Section of Sociology Articles." English for Specific Speakers 13 (1994): 47-59; Go to English for Specific Purposes on ScienceDirect;Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008; Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit; "Reporting Findings." In Making Sense of Social Research Malcolm Williams, editor. (London;: SAGE Publications, 2003) pp. 188-207.
I. Organization and Approach
For most research papers in the social and behavioral sciences, there are two possible ways of organizing the results . Both approaches are appropriate in how you report your findings, but use only one approach.
NOTE: Just as the literature review should be arranged under conceptual categories rather than systematically describing each source, you should also organize your findings under key themes related to addressing the research problem. This can be done under either format noted above [i.e., a thorough explanation of the key results or a sequential, thematic description and explanation of each finding].
II. Content
In general, the content of your results section should include the following:
NOTE: Always use the past tense when referring to your study's findings. Reference to findings should always be described as having already happened because the method used to gather the information has been completed.
III. Problems to Avoid
When writing the results section, avoid doing the following :
Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070; Bavdekar, Sandeep B. and Sneha Chandak. "Results: Unraveling the Findings." Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 63 (September 2015): 44-46; Burton, Neil et al. Doing Your Education Research Project . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2008; Caprette, David R. Writing Research Papers. Experimental Biosciences Resources. Rice University; Hancock, Dawson R. and Bob Algozzine. Doing Case Study Research: A Practical Guide for Beginning Researchers . 2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press, 2011; Introduction to Nursing Research: Reporting Research Findings. Nursing Research: Open Access Nursing Research and Review Articles. (January 4, 2012); Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Results Section. San Francisco Edit ; Ng, K. H. and W. C. Peh. "Writing the Results." Singapore Medical Journal 49 (2008): 967-968; Reporting Research Findings. Wilder Research, in partnership with the Minnesota Department of Human Services. (February 2009); Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Schafer, Mickey S. Writing the Results. Thesis Writing in the Sciences. Course Syllabus. University of Florida.
Why Don't I Just Combine the Results Section with the Discussion Section?
It's not unusual to find articles in scholarly social science journals where the author(s) have combined a description of the findings with a discussion about their significance and implications. You could do this. However, if you are inexperienced writing research papers, consider creating two distinct sections for each section in your paper as a way to better organize your thoughts and, by extension, your paper. Think of the results section as the place where you report what your study found; think of the discussion section as the place where you interpret the information and answer the "So What?" question. As you become more skilled writing research papers, you can consider melding the results of your study with a discussion of its implications.
Driscoll, Dana Lynn and Aleksandra Kasztalska. Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.
Understanding research reports, financial analyst research reports, research report impact, conflicts of interest.
James Chen, CMT is an expert trader, investment adviser, and global market strategist.
A research report is a document prepared by an analyst or strategist who is a part of the investment research team in a stock brokerage or investment bank . A research report may focus on a specific stock or industry sector, a currency, commodity or fixed-income instrument, or on a geographic region or country. Research reports generally, but not always, have actionable recommendations such as investment ideas that investors can act upon.
Research reports are produced by a variety of sources, ranging from market research firms to in-house departments at large organizations. When applied to the investment industry, the term usually refers to sell-side research, or investment research produced by brokerage houses.
Such research is disseminated to the institutional and retail clients of the brokerage that produces it. Research produced by the buy-side, which includes pension funds, mutual funds, and portfolio managers , is usually for internal use only and is not distributed to external parties.
Financial analysts may produce research reports for the purpose of supporting a particular recommendation, such as whether to buy or sell a particular security or whether a client should consider a particular financial product. For example, an analyst may create a report in regards to a new offering being proposed by a company. The report could include relevant metrics regarding the company itself, such as the number of years they have been in operation as well as the names of key stakeholders , along with statistics regarding the current state of the market in which the company participates. Information regarding overall profitability and the intended use of the funds can also be included.
Enthusiasts of the Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) might insist that the value of professional analysts' research reports is suspect and that investors likely place too much confidence in the conclusions such analysts make. While a definitive conclusion about this topic is difficult to make because comparisons are not exact, some research papers do exist which claim empirical evidence supporting the value of such reports.
One such paper studied the market for India-based investments and analysts who cover them. The paper was published in the March 2014 edition of the International Research Journal of Business and Management. Its authors concluded that analyst recommendations do have an impact and are beneficial to investors at least in short-term decisions.
While some analysts are functionally unaffiliated, others may be directly or indirectly affiliated with the companies for which they produce reports. Unaffiliated analysts traditionally perform independent research to determine an appropriate recommendation and may have a limited concern regarding the outcome.
Affiliated analysts may feel best served by ensuring any research reports portray clients in a favorable light. Additionally, if an analyst is also an investor in the company on which the report is based, he may have a personal incentive to avoid topics that may result in a lowered valuation of the securities in which he has invested.
Home » Research Results Section – Writing Guide and Examples
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Research results refer to the findings and conclusions derived from a systematic investigation or study conducted to answer a specific question or hypothesis. These results are typically presented in a written report or paper and can include various forms of data such as numerical data, qualitative data, statistics, charts, graphs, and visual aids.
The results section of the research paper presents the findings of the study. It is the part of the paper where the researcher reports the data collected during the study and analyzes it to draw conclusions.
In the results section, the researcher should describe the data that was collected, the statistical analysis performed, and the findings of the study. It is important to be objective and not interpret the data in this section. Instead, the researcher should report the data as accurately and objectively as possible.
The structure of the research results section can vary depending on the type of research conducted, but in general, it should contain the following components:
The following is an outline of the key components typically included in the Results section:
I. Introduction
II. Descriptive statistics
III. Inferential statistics
IV. Effect sizes and confidence intervals
V. Subgroup analyses
VI. Limitations and assumptions
VII. Conclusions
An Example of a Research Results Section could be:
II. Participants
III. Results
IV. Discussion
V. Conclusion
Example of Research Results in Research Paper :
Our study aimed to compare the performance of three different machine learning algorithms (Random Forest, Support Vector Machine, and Neural Network) in predicting customer churn in a telecommunications company. We collected a dataset of 10,000 customer records, with 20 predictor variables and a binary churn outcome variable.
Our analysis revealed that all three algorithms performed well in predicting customer churn, with an overall accuracy of 85%. However, the Random Forest algorithm showed the highest accuracy (88%), followed by the Support Vector Machine (86%) and the Neural Network (84%).
Furthermore, we found that the most important predictor variables for customer churn were monthly charges, contract type, and tenure. Random Forest identified monthly charges as the most important variable, while Support Vector Machine and Neural Network identified contract type as the most important.
Overall, our results suggest that machine learning algorithms can be effective in predicting customer churn in a telecommunications company, and that Random Forest is the most accurate algorithm for this task.
Example 3 :
Title : The Impact of Social Media on Body Image and Self-Esteem
Abstract : This study aimed to investigate the relationship between social media use, body image, and self-esteem among young adults. A total of 200 participants were recruited from a university and completed self-report measures of social media use, body image satisfaction, and self-esteem.
Results: The results showed that social media use was significantly associated with body image dissatisfaction and lower self-esteem. Specifically, participants who reported spending more time on social media platforms had lower levels of body image satisfaction and self-esteem compared to those who reported less social media use. Moreover, the study found that comparing oneself to others on social media was a significant predictor of body image dissatisfaction and lower self-esteem.
Conclusion : These results suggest that social media use can have negative effects on body image satisfaction and self-esteem among young adults. It is important for individuals to be mindful of their social media use and to recognize the potential negative impact it can have on their mental health. Furthermore, interventions aimed at promoting positive body image and self-esteem should take into account the role of social media in shaping these attitudes and behaviors.
Research results are important for several reasons, including:
Here are some general guidelines on how to write results in a research paper:
Here are situations When to Write Research Results”
The purposes of Research Results are as follows:
Some Advantages of Research Results are as follows:
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Methodology
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.
First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :
Second, decide how you will analyze the data .
Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.
Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.
Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.
For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .
If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .
Qualitative | to broader populations. . | |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | . |
You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).
If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.
Primary | . | methods. |
---|---|---|
Secondary |
In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .
In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .
To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.
Descriptive | . . | |
---|---|---|
Experimental |
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Research method | Primary or secondary? | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|---|
Primary | Quantitative | To test cause-and-effect relationships. | |
Primary | Quantitative | To understand general characteristics of a population. | |
Interview/focus group | Primary | Qualitative | To gain more in-depth understanding of a topic. |
Observation | Primary | Either | To understand how something occurs in its natural setting. |
Secondary | Either | To situate your research in an existing body of work, or to evaluate trends within a research topic. | |
Either | Either | To gain an in-depth understanding of a specific group or context, or when you don’t have the resources for a large study. |
Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.
Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.
Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:
Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .
Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).
You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:
Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.
Research method | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | To analyze data collected in a statistically valid manner (e.g. from experiments, surveys, and observations). | |
Meta-analysis | Quantitative | To statistically analyze the results of a large collection of studies. Can only be applied to studies that collected data in a statistically valid manner. |
Qualitative | To analyze data collected from interviews, , or textual sources. To understand general themes in the data and how they are communicated. | |
Either | To analyze large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys, literature reviews, or other sources. Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words). |
If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
Research bias
Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.
Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.
In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .
A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.
In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.
The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .
Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.
Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).
In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .
In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.
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The results section of a research paper refers to the part that represents the study’s core findings from the methods that the researcher used to collect and analyze data. This section presents the results logically without interpretation or bias from the author.
Thus, this part of a research paper sets up the read for evaluation and analysis of the findings in the discussion section. Essentially, this section breaks down the information into several sentences, showing its importance to the research question. Writing results section in a research paper entails summarizing the gathered data and the performed statistical analysis. That way, the author presents or reports the results without subjective interpretation.
In its simplest definition, a research paper results section is where the researcher reports the findings of a study based on the applied methodology for gathering information. It’s the part where the author states the research findings in a logical sequence without interpreting them. If the research paper has data from actual research, this section should feature a detailed description of the results.
When writing a dissertation, a thesis, or any other academic paper, the result section should come third in sections’ sequence. It should follow the Methods and Materials presentation and the Discussion section comes after it. But most scientific papers present the Results and Discussion sections together. However, the results section answers the question, “What did your research uncover?”
Ideally, this section allows you to report findings in research paper, creating the basis for sufficiently justified conclusions. After writing the study findings in the results section, you interpret them in the subsequent discussion part. Therefore, your results section should report information that will justify your claims. That way, you can look back on the results section when writing the discussion part to ensure that your report supports your conclusions.
This section should present results in research paper. The findings part of a research paper can differ in structure depending on the study, discipline, and journal. Nevertheless, the results section presents a description of the experiment while presenting the research results. When writing this part of your research paper, you can use graphs and tables if necessary.
However, state the findings without interpreting them. For instance, you can find a correlation between variables when analyzing data. In that case, your results section can explain this correlation without speculating about the causes of this correlation.
Here’s what to include in the results section of research paper:
A brief introductory of the context, repeating the research questions to help the readers understand the results A report about information collection, participants, and recruitment: for instance, you can include a demographic summary with the participants’ characteristics A systematic findings’ description, with a logical presentation highlighting relevant and crucial results A contextual data analysis explaining the meaning in sentences Information corresponding to the primary research questions Secondary findings like subgroup analysis and secondary outcomes Visual elements like charts, figures, tables, and maps, illustrating and summarizing the findings
Ensure that your results section cites and numbers visual elements in an orderly manner. Every table or figure should stand alone without text. That means visual elements should have adequate non-textual content to enable the audiences to understand their meanings.
If your study has a broad scope, several variables, or used methodologies that yielded different results, state the most relevant results only based on the research question you presented in your Introduction section.
The general rule is to leave out any data that doesn’t present your study’s direct outcome or findings. Unless the professor, advisor, university faulty, or your target journal requests you to combine the Results and Discussion sections, omit the interpretations and explanations of the results in this section.
The findings section of a research paper ranges between two and three pages, with tables, text, and figures. In most cases, universities and journals insist that this section shouldn’t exceed 1,000 words over four to nine paragraphs, usually with no references.
But a good findings section occupies 5% of the entire paper. For instance, this section should have 500 words if a dissertation has 10,000 words. If the educator didn’t specify the number of words to include in this chapter, use the data you collect to determine its length. Nevertheless, be as concise as possible by featuring only relevant results that answer your research question.
Perhaps, you have completed researching and writing the preceding sections, and you’re now wondering how to write results. By the time you’re composing this section, you already have findings or answers to your research questions. However, you don’t even know how to start a results section. And your search for guidelines landed you on this page.
Well, every research project is different and unique. That’s why researchers use different strategies when writing this section of their research papers. The scientific or academic discipline, specialization field, target journal, and the author are factors influencing how you write this section. Nevertheless, there’s a general way of writing this section, although it might differ slightly between disciplines. Here’s how to write results section in a research paper.
Check the instructions or guidelines. Check their instructions or guidelines first, whether you’re writing the research paper as part of your coursework or for an academic journal. These guidelines outline the requirements for presenting results in research papers. Also, check the published articles to know how to approach this section. When reviewing the procedures, check content restrictions and length. Essentially, learn everything you can about this section from the instructions or guidelines before you start writing. Reflect on your research findings. With instructions and guidelines in mind, reflect on your research findings to determine how to present them in your research paper. Decide on the best way to show the results so that they can answer the research question. Also, strive to clarify and streamline your report, especially with a complex and lengthy results section. You can use subheadings to avoid peripheral and excessive details. Additionally, consider breaking down the content to make it easy for the readers to understand or remember. Your hypothesis, research question, or methodologies might influence the structure of the findings sections. Nevertheless, a hierarchy of importance, chronological order, or meaningful grouping of categories or themes can be an effective way of presenting your findings. Design your visual presentations. Visual presentations improve the textual report of the research findings. Therefore, decide on the figures and styles to use in your tables, graphs, photos, and maps. However, check the instructions and guidelines of your faculty or journal to determine the visual aids you can use. Also, check what the guidelines say about their formats and design elements. Ideally, number the figures and tables according to their mention in the text. Additionally, your figures and tables should be self-explanatory. Write your findings section. Writing the results section of a research paper entails communicating the information you gathered from your study. Ideally, be as objective and factual as possible. If you gathered complex information, try to simplify and present it accurately, precisely, and clearly. Therefore, use well-structured sentences instead of complex expressions and phrases. Also, use an active voice and past tense since you’ve already done the research. Additionally, use correct spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Take your time to present the findings in the best way possible to focus your readers on your study objectives while preparing them for the coming speculations, interpretations, and recommendations. Edit Your Findings Section. Once you’ve written the results part of your paper, please go through it to ensure that you’ve presented your study findings in the best way possible. Make sure that the content of this section is factual, accurate, and without errors. You’ve taken a considerable amount of time to compose the results scientific paper audiences will find interesting to read. Therefore, take a moment to go through the draft and eliminate all errors.
The results part of a research paper aims to present the key findings objectively in a logical and orderly sequence using text and illustrative materials. A common mistake that many authors make is confusing the information in the discussion and the results sections. To avoid this, focus on presenting your research findings without interpreting them or speculating about them.
The following tips on how to write a results section should make this task easier for you:
Summarize your study results: Instead of reporting the findings in full detail, summarize them. That way, you can develop an overview of the results. Present relevant findings only: Don’t report everything you found during your research. Instead, present pertinent information only. That means taking time to analyze your results to know what your audiences want to know. Report statistical findings: When writing this section, assume that the audiences understand statistical concepts. Therefore, don’t try to explain the nitty-gritty in this section. Remember that your work is to report your study’s findings in this section. Be objective and concise: You can interpret the findings in the discussion sections. Therefore, focus on presenting the results objectively and concisely in this section. Use the suitable format: Use the correct style to present the findings depending on your study field.
Maybe you’re pursuing your graduate or undergraduate studies but cannot write the results part of your paper. Perhaps, you’re done researching and analyzing information, but this section proves too tricky for you to write. Well, you’re not alone because many students across the world struggle to present their research findings.
Luckily, our highly educated, talented, and experienced writers are always ready to assist such learners. If you are stuck with the results part of your paper, our professionals can help you . We offer high-quality, custom writing help online. We’re a reliable team of experts with a sterling reputation for providing comprehensive assistance to college, high school, and university learners. We deliver highly informative academic papers after conducting extensive and in-depth research. Contact us saying something like, “please do my thesis” to get quality help with your paper!
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Everybody poops, but how often people go could reveal a lot about their long-term health, according to research published Tuesday in the journal Cell Reports Medicine .
The study of more than 1,400 healthy adults found that people who pooped less frequently also had signs of decreased kidney function. People on the other end of the spectrum, who went far more than normal, showed signs of impaired liver function.
“It’s well-known that things like constipation are associated with chronic disease ,” said study co-author Sean Gibbons, an associate professor at the Institute for Systems Biology in Seattle.
What is less apparent is which comes first — the constipation or the chronic disease? Does constipation early in life cause chronic illness in otherwise healthy people, or is constipation a result of chronic disease?
Gibbons and his team used data from a now-defunct wellness company called Arivale to try to answer that question. The study participants were healthy, mostly white adults living in the Pacific Northwest. The researchers analyzed blood and stool samples and body mass index measurements, as well as responses to questionnaires about diet and exercise habits and mental health.
From the blood samples, the team was able to detect chemicals in the blood that indicated low organ function, including low-functioning kidneys and livers. From the stool samples, the researchers were able to genetically sequence each person’s gut microbiome , which told them the makeup of beneficial and potentially harmful microbes living there.
The researchers separated participants into groups based on how frequently they pooped: one or two bowel movements per week, three to six bowel movements per week, one to three bowel movements per day and diarrhea, which they defined as four or more times per day.
The study found the ideal number of bowel movements for optimal health was one or two a day. Younger people, women and those with lower BMIs tended to poop less frequently. Chronic constipation — two or fewer bowel movements a week — was linked with decreased kidney function, while diarrhea — going four or more times a day — was associated with decreased liver function.
The gut is full of colonies of different microbes that feed on — and ferment — nutrients in stool. Their preferred food is fiber, but if poop stays in the gut for too long, which is the case with chronic constipation, the microbes exhaust their supply. They instead turn to proteins, the source of which is usually the protein-rich mucus layer lining the gut.
“If we don’t feed our microbes, they start eating us,” Gibbons said.
It creates a three-pronged problem: When those microbes feed on proteins, they produce toxic metabolites, some of which are associated with kidney and liver dysfunction. The more bacteria have to rely on protein sources of food, the more protein-preferring bacteria, and less of the beneficial fiber-eating bacteria, there will be.
Eventually, the microbes may start breaking down the mucus membrane in their quest for food, and the gut can become “leaky.” That allows bacteria and metabolites from the gut that are toxic to other organs to spill out into the bloodstream, where they can cause inflammation that leads to heart, liver and kidney disease, said Dr. Phillipp Hartmann, an assistant professor of pediatric gastroenterology at the University of California, San Diego, who studies the interaction between the gut microbiome and other organs.
“What we can confidently say is gut permeability at least contributes to disease,” said Hartmann, who was not involved with the new research. “It may not be the only factor, but it often worsens disease.”
A similar chain of microbial events can occur if a person has diarrhea, though in that case, it’s likely to be inflammation that degrades the mucosal membrane lining the gut, which allows toxins to get into the bloodstream.
“When you have diarrhea or you have constipation, microbes will accumulate that produce toxins that influence disease,” said Joseph Petrosino, chair of molecular virology and microbiology at the Baylor College of Medicine, who was also not involved with the new research.
The study found that people who reported either regular constipation or diarrhea had more protein-feasting gut bacteria, whereas people who pooped once or twice a day had more fiber-fermenting bacteria.
Gibbons said that it’s not clear why the study found constipation was associated with kidney dysfunction and diarrhea with liver dysfunction but that it may have to do with the fact that diarrhea prevents the gut from absorbing bile acids — the product of cholesterol metabolism — which leaves more for the liver to process. The kidneys are more affected by the metabolites produced by protein-eating gut microbes.
Because the study was not a randomized clinical trial that included an intervention, the new research cannot conclude with certainty whether having more or less than one or two bowel movements a day is linked to chronic disease, but Gibbons said it appears that may be the case.
“We hypothesized that we would see more of these protein-derived toxins in the blood in people with lower bowel movement frequencies or constipation, and we did,” he said. “These things damage your liver and kidneys.”
Petrosino said that while it’s not always in a person’s control, many lifestyle factors can help keep both constipation and diarrhea at bay.
“First and foremost, it’s important to eat a healthy diet , feed yourself with foods that fertilize and promote good bacteria growth,” he said.
That includes eating plenty of fruits and vegetables and reducing alcohol and red meat. In the study, people who reported eating a fiber-rich diet, staying hydrated and exercising regularly tended to have healthier bowel movement frequency. Probiotics can be helpful if a person is dealing with chronic conditions such as an upset stomach, constipation or diarrhea, Petrosino said.
“There are probiotics that may be able to help normalize things, but if you are healthy already, I wouldn’t start taking them,” he said. “Don’t fix what isn’t broken.”
Kaitlin Sullivan is a contributor for NBCNews.com who has worked with NBC News Investigations. She reports on health, science and the environment and is a graduate of the Craig Newmark Graduate School of Journalism at City University of New York.
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Scientific Reports volume 14 , Article number: 16828 ( 2024 ) Cite this article
Metrics details
Ultrasound-based shear wave elastography (SWE) can non-invasively assess prostate tissue stiffness for the diagnosis of prostate cancer (PCa). So far, there is no widely recognized standard for the detection process and calculation method of Young’s modulus value in transrectal SWE ultrasound imaging (TSWEUI). In our study, the mean maximum Young’s modulus value (m-Emax) of the maximum cross-section of prostate is obtained by calculating the mean of 12 measured Emax in the four quadrants. This retrospective study included 209 suspected malignant prostate disease patients with pathological results in our hospital. Among the 209 patients, 75 patients completed TSWEUI, and 63 of the 75 patients completed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC) of 75 patients for m-Emax was 0.754. The prostate volume, prostate-specific antigen, and m-Emax were used to develop a nomogram (AUC = 0.868). The nomogram could effectively predict the probability of PCa, thereby reducing the needle biopsy rate for diagnosing PCa. The AUC of 63 patients was not statistically different between m-Emax (AUC = 0.717) and MRI (AUC = 0.787) ( P = 0.361). These indicate that m-Emax can be used as an innovative parameter in TSWEUI to diagnosis PCa. TSWEUI is more cost-effective than MRI in diagnosing PCa.
Introduction.
Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most common malignant tumors in men, and the incidence rate is increasing 1 . Among males, incidence rates were stable for seven cancers (including prostate) 2 . In the following article, malignant prostatic disease means the same as PCa. PCa has a long course and is often asymptomatic in the early stages, making it difficult to distinguish from benign prostatic hyperplasia until the tumor has grown to a certain size and causes symptoms of bladder neck obstruction 3 . Early detection and treatment of PCa is crucial, as it has a better prognosis compared to cases where the tumor has metastasized and greatly affects the patient’s life expectancy and quality of life 4 . Shear wave elastography (SWE) technology has proven to be useful for the diagnosis of PCa 5 . An exploratory study concluded that SWE was more cost effective and yields added net health benefits when compared to the multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in a United Kingdom healthcare setting 6 .
So far, there is no widely recognized standard for the detection process and calculation method of Young’s modulus value in transrectal SWE ultrasound imaging (TSWEUI). In our study, a nomogram was developed using the clinical characteristic factors related to the diagnosis of PCa screened by univariate analysis and multivariate logistic regression analysis. The value of the mean maximum Young’s modulus value (m-Emax) from TSWEUI in the diagnosis of PCa will be explored.
Patient selection.
This retrospective study was following the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the ethics committee of The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University (grant number, 20,200,384). The requirement for informed consent was waived by ethics committee of The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University due to the retrospective nature of this study. From October 2021 to October 2023, this retrospective study included 209 patients aged 52–90 years (mean age 70.8 ± 7.9) with suspected malignant prostatic disease from our hospital’s urology department who had the results of biopsy or surgical pathologic findings. The inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) ≥ 4 ng/ml suspected malignant prostatic disease. (2) Patients with biopsy or surgical pathological results. (3) The patients were over 50 years old. (4) Patients who did not undergo prostate surgery at the time of selection. The exclusion criteria were as follows: (1) no complete medical history and clinical data. (2) Patients with other malignant tumor. Seventy-five of 209 patients aged 52–85 years (mean age 69.92 ± 7.74) who completed TSWEUI were divided into 43 patients in the benignancy group and 32 patients in the malignancy group according to the results of biopsy or surgical pathologic findings. Sixty-three of the 75 patients completed MRI.
All patients were examined using an ultrasonic diagnostic instrument (Aixplorer®, SuperSonic Imagine, Aix-en-Provence, France) and an intracavitary (3–12 MHz) probe. The examination conditions were set to conventional transrectal ultrasound examination (TUE) mode, and the probe was placed into rectum to examine the size of prostate, observe tissue echo and blood flow. The ellipsoidal formula was used to calculate the prostate volume (PV), volume = upper and lower diameter (length) × transverse diameter (width) × anterior posterior diameter (height) × π/6, unit in ml.
Then, the SWE mode was activated. Instruct the patient to remain calm, ensure that the probe has appropriate pressure on the test site, and obtain clear and stable SWE images. SWE mode settings include SWE penetration mode and elasticity range 70 kPa setting. Maintain a distance of ≥ 2 mm from the inner wall of the rectum near the probe to the prostate capsule in the ultrasound image. Quantitative analysis system in the instrument (Q-Box™) was applied to measure the maximum Young’s modulus value (Emax) in the four quadrants (upper left, lower left, upper right and lower right) of the maximum cross-section. The Emax was measured three times in each quadrant. The size of the sampling circle was set up according to the size of the prostate. The diameter of the sampling circle in Quantification Box software was 3–5 mm. Scatter and randomly placed SWE sampling circle in stable areas of the SWE image. The maximum cross-section of the prostate to measure its Emax is selected according to whether there are suspicious lesions. The Emax was measured at the maximum cross-section of prostate without suspected lesion (Fig. 1 a) or at the maximum cross-section of prostate with suspected lesion (Fig. 1 b). When detecting suspicious lesions, operators referred to the B-mode image. The m-Emax of the maximum cross-section was obtained by calculating the mean of 12 measured Emax (4 quadrants, 3 times). TSWEUI examinations were performed by the same ultrasound physician with over twenty years of work experience in urological ultrasonography.
Concomitant transrectal shear wave elastography (SWE) ultrsound image and brightness mode ultrsound image. ( a ) The maximum cross-section of prostate without suspected lesion. ( b ) The maximum cross-section of prostate with suspected lesion. The red arrow in Fig. 1a indicates the distance from the inner wall of the rectum near the probe to the prostate capsule.
MRI was performed on a 3.0-Tesla superconducting unit (Magnetom Trio, Siemens, Erlangen, Germany). According to Prostate Imaging—Reporting and Data System (PI-RADS): 2015, Version 2 grading standard 7 , all MRI images were blinded reviewed by two experienced radiologists with over 10 years of experience. Any discrepancy will be resolved in consensus with a third radiologist (with over twenty years of work experience).
PI-RADS™ v2 assessment categories 7 :
PI-RADS 1—Very low (clinically significant cancer is highly unlikely to be present).
PI-RADS 2—Low (clinically significant cancer is unlikely to be present).
PI-RADS 3—Intermediate (the presence of clinically significant cancer is equivocal).
PI-RADS 4—High (clinically significant cancer is likely to be present).
PI-RADS 5—Very high (clinically significant cancer is highly likely to be present).
Body mass index (BMI) was calculated using the patient’s height and weight data from the case information system. Using the formula BMI (kg/m 2 ) = body weight (kg)/ height (m 2 ). Blood cell analysis was conducted using a blood cell analyzer to determine neutrophil absolute value, lymphocyte absolute value, platelet count, platelet to lymphocyte ratio (PLR), and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR). Venous blood was taken on an empty stomach to detect serum alkaline phosphatase using a biochemical analyzer, and serum PSA was detected using chemiluminescent immunoassay.
Statistical analysis was performed using R software (Version 4.1.3). Continuous variables conforming to a normal distribution were presented as the mean ± SD, and the comparison between groups was performed by two independent samples t tests. Nonnormally distributed data were expressed as median and interquartile-range values, and comparisons between groups were performed using the nonparametric rank sum test. Categorical variables were expressed as frequencies and proportions (%), and comparisons between groups were performed using the χ 2 test and Fisher test. The pROC package of R software was used for receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used. Combined with the restricted cubic spline (RCS) model, the dose–response relationship between m-Emax continuous changes and the PCa risk was explored. If P overall < 0.05, it indicates a dose–response relationship between m-Emax and PCa risk; If P overall < 0.05 and P nonlinear > 0.05, it indicates a linear dose–response relationship between m-Emax and PCa risk; If P overall < 0.05 and P nonlinear < 0.05, it indicates a nonlinear dose–response relationship between m-Emax and PCa risk. The “RMS” package was used to develop the nomogram. Consistency of the prediction models were evaluated by calibration curves analysis. A Z Test was used for comparing the AUCs between different curves. For all statistical tests, P < 0.05 was indicative of statistical significance.
The 209 patients’ baseline characteristics, including age, height, weight, BMI, PSA, PV, alkaline phosphatase, neutrophil absolute value, lymphocyte absolute value, platelet count, PLR, and NLR, were given in Supplementary Table 1. The univariate analysis showed that PSA ( P < 0.001), PV ( P < 0.001), platelet count ( P = 0.025), and PLR ( P = 0.003) were significantly different between the benignancy group and the malignancy group.
The baseline characteristics of 75 patients who completed TSWEUI, including PSA, PV, platelet count, PLR, and m-Emax, were given in Table 1 . The univariate analysis showed that PSA ( P < 0.001), PV ( P = 0.008) and m-Emax ( P < 0.001) were significantly different between the benignancy group and the malignancy group. The area under the ROC curve (AUC) for PSA was 0.729 (cutoff value 7.625, specificity 0.488, sensitivity 0.875, 95% confidence interval (CI) of the AUC 0.611–0.846) (Supplementary Fig. 1). The AUC for PV was 0.680 (cutoff value 36.875, specificity 0.837, sensitivity 0.562, 95% CI 0.554–0.805) (Supplementary Fig. 2). The AUC for m-Emax was 0.754 (cutoff value 64.820, specificity 0.721, sensitivity 0.750, 95% CI 0.642–0.867) (Fig. 2 ).
Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis of 75 patients for m-Emax The AUC is 0.754. m-Emax: mean Emax (maximum Young’s modulus value).
The multivariate logistic regression analysis for PV, PSA, and m-Emax showed that PV (OR = 0.09, 95% CI 0.02–0.32, P < 0.001), PSA (OR = 4.64, 95% CI 1.13–23.82, P = 0.044), and m-Emax (OR = 9.95, 95% CI 2.76–48.01, P = 0.001) were independent predictors for PCa ( P < 0.05) (Fig. 3 ). The RCS model (Fig. 4 ) showed that P overall = 0.007 and P nonlinear = 0.909. Based on the multivariate analysis results, the prediction model incorporating PV, PSA and m-Emax was developed as a nomogram (Supplementary Fig. 3). The specific scoring table of the nomogram was shown in Supplementary Table 2. The AUC for the nomogram was 0.868 (cutoff value 0.249, specificity 0.698, sensitivity 0.969, 95% CI 0.789–0.948) (Fig. 5 ). The calibration curve analysis for predicting PCa probability was shown in Supplementary Fig. 4. The Hosmer‒Lemeshow test yielded a nonsignificant statistic (χ2 = 2.309, P = 0.901).
Multivariate regression analysis for risk factors for prostate cancer (PCa), including prostate-specific antigen (PSA), prostate volume (PV), and m-Emax.
Analysis of dose–response relationship between m-Emax and prostate cancer risk based on restricted cubic spline (RCS) model.
ROC curve analysis for nomogrom.
The AUC of 63 patients for m-Emax was 0.717 (cutoff value 64.82, specificity 0.676, sensitivity 0.692, 95% CI 0.581–0.847) (Fig. 6 ). PI-RADS™ v2 assessment categories and pathological results showed in Supplementary Table 3. The AUC of 63 patients for MRI was 0.787 (cutoff value 3.5, specificity 0.649, sensitivity 0.769, 95% CI 0.687–0.886) (Fig. 6 ). A Z Test was used for comparing the AUCs between m-Emax and MRI, and there were not statistically different between m-Emax and MRI (Z = -0.913, P = 0.361) (Fig. 6 ).
ROC curve analysis of 63 patients for m-Emax and MRI A Z Test was used for comparing the AUCs between m-Emax (cutoff value 64.82, specificity 0.676, sensitivity 0.692, 95% CI 0.581–0.847) and MRI (cutoff value 3.5, specificity 0.649, sensitivity 0.769, 95% CI 0.687–0.886), and there were not statistically different between m-Emax and MRI (Z = − 0.913, P = 0.361).
With the advancement of technology and medical skills, there are many methods for clinical diagnosis of PCa, including PSA, MRI, conventional TUE, SWE, and needle biopsy 8 , 9 , 10 . Multiple needle punctures can easily trigger various complications, such as rectal bleeding, needle tract seeding, or septicemia 11 , 12 , 13 . TUE has a wide range of applications in diagnosing PCa, but it has a high rate of missed diagnosis and cannot clearly distinguish between benign and malignant prostate lesions 14 . As one of the embedding functions of ultrasound, SWE can accurately measure tissue stiffness 15 . SWE measurement of tissue stiffness and Young’s modulus values has received widespread attention in the diagnosis of prostate cancer in recent years, with the characteristics of real-time imaging, and high accuracy 16 , and it is a non-invasive method for obtaining stiffness information 17 .
During the TSWEUI examination, in order to observe the prostate as a whole and have clear images, the operator will apply pressure to the rectal wall to compress the prostate. As the pressure changes, the elastic Young’s modulus value representing prostate tissue stiffness will also change 18 . In order to avoid excessive pressure on the prostate during the examination operation of this study, the distance of ≥ 2 mm is maintained from the inner wall of the rectum near the probe to the prostate capsule in the ultrasound image as the pressure standard. Meanwhile, since malignant prostate lesions often show diffuse growth and no clear boundaries with surrounding tissues 19 , the detection rate of PCa lesions is not high by gray-scale and Doppler ultrasound 20 , 21 . Thus, only interrogating the abnormal nodules of prostate gland by SWE to differentiate PCa is not easy in practice. In the 1980s, transrectal biopsies under transrectal ultrasound guidance became the gold standard for PCa detection 22 . In the sextant technique, biopsy cores were taken from six regions of the prostate: apex, middle, and base of each lobe parasagitally in addition to any hypoechoic lesions 23 . The imaging instigation usually starts at the base of the bladder and then, by rotating the probe a full picture of the prostate can be acquired (as shown in the attached figure in cited literature, which shows the maximum cross-section of the prostate) 24 . So in our study, the Emax was measured three times in each quadrant of the maximum cross-section. The m-Emax of the maximum cross-section of prostate was obtained by calculating the mean of 12 measured Emax in the four quadrants.
In our study, the AUC for m-Emax was 0.754 (95% CI 0.642–0.867), indicating high accuracy (Fig. 2 ). The cutoff value was 64.820 kPa. The risk of prostate cancer increased when m-Emax ≥ 64.820 kPa. The cutoff value for the Young’s modulus of elasticity of the prostate was different from previous studies, such as Sun et al. 25 , Ji et al. 26 , Fu et al. 27 . This difference might be for reasons: First, the parameter of Young’s modulus value to represent the prostate tissue stiffness was different from other studies. In Sun et al. study, cutoff value of the Emax = (60.45 kPa for extracapsular extension, and 81.55 kPa for seminal vesicle invasion). A region of interest was placed on the areas in the paramedial and lateral aspects (5 mm in diameter) at the level of the base, mid-gland and apex of the prostate peripheral zone to systematically measure the stiffness (Emax) of the whole prostate. In Ji et al. study, cutoff value of the Emax = 128.48 kPa. In the transverse plane of the prostate, and the sampling box was placed on both sides of the base, the middle, and the apex of the prostate, respectively. The Young’s modulus of elasticity value (Emax, et al.) was equal to the average of the measurement results at these planes. In Fu et al. study, cutoff value of the Emax = 42 kPa. Elastic value was measured in the area prepared for systematic biopsy and suspicious lesion detected on B-mode or SWE. Second, the quality control of the detection process and calculation method of Young’s modulus value was different from other studies. There is no quality control for the pressure standard in these three literatures.
Since, the stress at a point of elastic model does not depend only on the gradient of deformation but also on the orientation, connection and distribution of its components. The fiber network displays a nonlinear stress–strain relationship due to complex interactions that vary from point to point. The progressive increase in deformation will disrupt the fibers that begin to line up in the direction of the load increasing the stiffness; the stress–strain relationship is approximately linear. Pathologies such as tumors and fibrosis involve changes in consistency, since the structural properties of these anomalies imply a stiffer area that reflects histological differences in the microstructure of the tissue 28 . Digital rectal examination found that the prostate stiffness in PCa patients was higher than that in normal individuals. In our study, the m-Emax was a strong independent predictor for PCa (OR = 9.95, P = 0.001) (Fig. 3 ). The RCS model (Fig. 4 ) showed a linear dose–response relationship between m-Emax and PCa risk (P overall = 0.007 (P overall < 0.05) and P nonlinear = 0.909 (P nonlinear > 0.05)). Therefore, the m-Emax can be used as an innovative parameter of Young’s modulus value to represent the prostate tissue stiffness in TSWEUI. By standardizing detection process and calculation method of Young’s modulus value, the data are relatively stable and reliable.
The univariate analysis for the 209 patients’ baseline characteristics showed that PSA ( P < 0.001), PV ( P < 0.001), platelet count ( P = 0.025), and PLR ( P = 0.003) were significantly different between the benignancy group and malignancy group. Based on the results of the first univariate analysis, a second univariate analysis was performed on baseline characteristics of 75 patients who completed TSWEUI, including m-Emax and clinical characteristic factors correlated with PCa, such as PSA, PV, platelet count, and PLR. The results showed that PSA ( P < 0.001), PV ( P = 0.008), and m-Emax ( P < 0.001) were statistically correlated with PCa. The AUC for PSA was 0.729 (95% CI 0.611–0.846) (Supplementary Fig. 1). The cutoff value was 7.625 ng/ml. The risk of PCa increased when PSA ≥ 7.625 ng/ml. The specificity of serum PSA testing is relatively low 29 . Threshold for abnormal PSA levels is greater than 4 ng/ml, suggesting a possible presence of PCa 30 . Risk of PCa greatly increases when PSA values reach 10 ng/ml 31 . When 4 ≤ PSA ≤ 10 ng/ml, a needle biopsy should be performed to diagnose PCa 32 . Given the complications of prostate biopsy, optimally TSWEUI could benefit patients with a PSA between 4 and 10 ng/ml as this is the group most at risk of undiagnosed malignant cancer. The subjects included in this study were patients with a PSA value of 4 ng/ml or higher. The AUC for PV was 0.680 (95% CI 0.554–0.805) (Supplementary Fig. 2). The cutoff value was 36.875 ml. PV was significantly different between the malignancy group and the benignancy group (35.11 vs. 51.3, P = 0.008) (Table 1 ). The PV in the malignancy group was smaller than that in the benignancy group. PV is an important factor affecting PSA values 33 . PV is related to the incidence of PCa 34 , and for PSA values in the range of 2.0–9.0 ng/ml, a smaller prostate volume is a predictive factor for cancer risk 35 .
The multivariate logistic regression analysis identified PSA (OR = 4.64, P < 0.05) and PV (OR = 0.09, P < 0.001) as independent predictors for PCa (Fig. 3 ). Based on the multivariate logistic regression analysis results, a prediction model incorporating the independent predictors, PSA, PV, and m-Emax, was developed as the nomogram (Supplementary Fig. 3). The specific scoring table of the nomogram is clearly shown in Supplementary Table 2 for convenience in clinical application. This study showed that the nomogram improved predictive accuracy (the AUC for the nomogram increased to 0.868. 95% CI 0.789–0.948) (Fig. 5 ). The calibration curve of the nomogram demonstrated good agreement between the probability as predicted and the actual probability (Supplementary Fig. 4).
In our study established a cancer risk prediction model for PCa clinical diagnosis by using SWE technology combined with relevant clinical characteristic factors. Due to its high prediction accuracy for suspected PCa patients, it can reduce the needle biopsy rate in the diagnosis of PCa.
MRI has been used for noninvasive assessment of the prostate gland and surrounding structures since the 1980s 7 . The PI-RADS can provide assessment categories that summarize levels of suspicion or risk of clinically significant prostate cancer that can be used to assist selection of patients for biopsies and management 7 . The AUC of 63 patients were not statistically different in ROC curve analysis between m-Emax (AUC = 0.717) and MRI (AUC = 0.787) ( P = 0.361) (Fig. 6 ), indicating no difference in the discrimination for PCa. The MRI is too expensive and time-consuming, and some contraindications (claustrophobia, pacemaker, etc.) 36 . Therefore, this study indicated that TSWEUI is more cost effective than MRI in the diagnosis of PCa.
The limitation of this study lies in the lack of comprehensive analysis and research on the selection of Young’s modulus value indicator that represent the stiffness of prostate tissue, as well as the influencing factors on indicator measurement and calculation. There is no in-depth study on the impact of pressure changes on the Young’s modulus value of the prostate. Targeted work is needed. In this study, a single operator can maintain the stability of the operation, but may produce systematic errors. Due to the small sample size of this study, an increase in the sample size could offer further evidence on the relationship between TSWEUI and PCa in research of the next step.
In this study, the m-Emax as an innovative parameter of the Young’s modulus value representing prostate tissue stiffness was statistically correlated with and good discriminability for PCa. The m-Emax was a strong independent predictor of PCa. There was a linear dose–response relationship between m-Emax and PCa risk. A prediction model incorporating PV, PSA and m-Emax could predict PCa probability well. TSWEUI combined with relevant clinical characteristic factors has important application value in the non-invasive diagnosis of PCa, which can reduce the needle biopsy rate in the diagnosis of PCa. TSWEUI is more cost effective than MRI in the diagnosis of PCa.
The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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This study was supported by the Hebei Provincial Key Research Projects, China (20377773D).
These authors contributed equally: Jieyu Duan and ZhanHui Liu.
Department of Ultrasound, First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhoug City, 450052, Henan Province, China
Department of Radiology, The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang City, 050031, Hebei Province, China
ZhanHui Liu
Department of Urology, The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang City, 050031, Hebei Province, China
Department of Ultrasound, The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, 89 Donggang Road, Yuhua District, Shijiazhuang City, 050031, Hebei Province, China
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Z, W., D, J., L, Z.H. and L, Z. contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by D, J., L, Z.H., L, Z. and W, H. D, J. and Z, W. drafted the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript.
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Duan, J., Liu, Z., Li, Z. et al. Research on the mean maximum Young’s modulus value as a new diagnostic parameter for prostate cancer. Sci Rep 14 , 16828 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-68036-z
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Former Vikings running back Cam Akers signed with the Houston Texans on Sunday evening after working out for them earlier in the day. The 25-year-old Akers, who is heading into his fifth NFL season, joins a loaded Texans offense and a running back room that already includes Joe Mixon and Dameon Pierce. If he's recovered from his November Achilles injury, he'll likely be the RB3 for one of the AFC's top contenders.
A few weeks ago, a report indicated that the Vikings would be re-signing Akers if he passed a physical. That didn't happen, which either means the report was wrong or the physical was failed. For what it's worth, Akers — who previously recovered from an Achilles injury in just six months in 2021 — appeared to be moving well on his first day in Houston.
Akers not returning to Minnesota means the Vikings' RB3 spot is wide open as training camp gets underway this week. Aaron Jones and Ty Chandler are the clear-cut top two at that position, while the other backs on the roster are Myles Gaskin, Kene Nwangwu, and DeWayne McBride. Gaskin has by far the most experience of that trio — he was one of the Dolphins' primary running backs in 2020 and '21 — but he didn't have a single touch last season. Nwangwu, the Vikings' kick returner, has 33 offensive touches in three seasons. McBride was a seventh-round pick last year who spent his rookie season on the practice squad.
Akers would've been a nice fit as the Vikings' RB3, but the combination of Gaskin, Nwangwu, and McBride might be enough. Minnesota will obviously be hoping that the 29-year-old Jones can stay healthy all year as their starter, with Chandler likely being mixed in plenty as part of that plan. If the Vikings leave training camp unsatisfied with their depth at the position, they could always look to sign a veteran RB off the street or swing a trade for one.
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Unreal escape by Josh Dobbs for a first down. And what a block by Cam Akers! pic.twitter.com/1Om5W7ZCse — Will Ragatz (@WillRagatz) November 5, 2023
The Texans now have six former Vikings on their roster: Stefon Diggs, Danielle Hunter, Case Keenum, Akers, Kris Boyd, and Chris Reed.
WILL RAGATZ
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Everybody poops, but how often people go could reveal a lot about their long-term health, according to research published Tuesday in the journal Cell Reports Medicine.. The study of more than ...
Scientific Reports - Research on the mean maximum Young's modulus value as a new diagnostic parameter for prostate cancer ... Duan, J., Liu, Z., Li, Z. et al. Research on the mean maximum Young ...
Research suggests making the decision to retire means grappling with three psychological issues. First, identity issues can loom large for any deeply engaged professional. Even a small step away ...
A few weeks ago, a report indicated that the Vikings would be re-signing Akers if he passed a physical. That didn't happen, which either means the report was wrong or the physical was failed.
About the Report. Download Report. The report presents the findings from a review of existing research to address topics identified in the Bridging the Gap for New Americans Act,1 Pub. L. No. 117-210, enacted in October 2022. The Act asks the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) to conduct a study about lawfully present immigrants and refugees admitted to the United States during the 5-year period ...
Turkiye's defence industry has undergone dramatic changes over the last 50 years and the country has become a significant defence exporter. In this report, as part of a joint project with the IISS, researchers from the Center for Foreign Policy and Peace Research explore this process and the issues lying ahead.