thesis about verbs

50 Verbs of Analysis for English Academic Essays

Note: this list is for advanced English learners (CEFR level B2 or above). All definitions are from the Cambridge Dictionary online . 

Definition: to have an influence on someone or something, or to cause a change in someone or something.

Example: Experts agree that coffee affects the body in ways we have not yet studied.

Definition: to increase the size or effect of something.

Example: It has been shown that this drug amplifies the side effects that were experienced by patients in previous trials.

Definition: to say that something is certainly true .

Example: Smith asserts that his findings are valid, despite criticism by colleagues.

Characterizes

Definition: Something that characterizes another thing is typical of it.

Example: His early paintings are characterized by a distinctive pattern of blue and yellow.

Definition: to say that something is true or is a fact , although you cannot prove it and other people might not believe it.

Example: Smith claims that the study is the first of its kind, and very different from the 2015 study he conducted.

Definition: to make something clear or easier to understand by giving more details or a simpler explanation .

Example: The professor clarified her statement with a later, more detailed, statement.

Definition: t o collect information from different places and arrange it in a book , report , or list .

Example: After compiling the data, the scientists authored a ten-page paper on their study and its findings.

Definition: to judge or decide something after thinking carefully about it.

Example: Doctor Jensen concluded that the drug wasn’t working, so he switched his patient to a new medicine.

Definition: to prove that a belief or an opinion that was previously not completely certain is true .

Example: This new data confirms the hypothesis many researchers had.

Definition: to join or be joined with something else .

Example: By including the criticisms of two researchers, Smith connects two seemingly different theories and illustrates a trend with writers of the Romanticism period.

Differentiates

Definition: to show or find the difference between things that are compared .

Example: Smith differentiates between the two theories in paragraph 4 of the second part of the study.

Definition: to reduce or be reduced in s i ze or importance .

Example: The new findings do not diminish the findings of previous research; rather, it builds on it to present a more complicated theory about the effects of global warming.

Definition: to cause people to stop respecting someone or believing in an idea or person .

Example: The details about the improper research done by the institution discredits the institution’s newest research.

Definition: to show.

Example: Smith’s findings display the effects of global warming that have not yet been considered by other scientists.

Definition: to prove that something is not true .

Example: Scientists hope that this new research will disprove the myth that vaccines are harmful to children.

Distinguishes

Definition: to notice or understand the difference between two things, or to make one person or thing seem different from another.

Example: Our study seems similar to another one by Duke University: how can we distinguish ourselves and our research from this study?

Definition: to add more information to or explain something that you have said.

Example: In this new paper, Smith elaborates on theories she discussed in her 2012 book.

Definition:  to represent a quality or an idea exactly .

Example: Shakespeare embodies English theater, but few can understand the antiquated (old) form of English that is used in the plays.

Definition: to copy something achieved by someone else and try to do it as well as they have.

Example: Although the study emulates some of the scientific methods used in previous research, it also offers some inventive new research methods.

Definition: to improve the quality , amount , or strength of something.

Example: The pharmaceutical company is looking for ways to enhance the effectiveness of its current drug for depression.

Definition: to make something necessary , or to involve something.

Example: The scientist’s study entails several different stages, which are detailed in the report.

Definition: to consider one thing to be the same as or equal to another thing.

Example: Findings from both studies equate; therefore, we can conclude that they are both accurate.

Establishes

Definition: to discover or get proof of something.

Example: The award establishes the main causes of global warming.

Definition: to make someone remember something or feel an emotion .

Example: The artist’s painting evokes the work of some of the painters from the early 1800s.

Definition: to show something.

Example: Some of the research study participants exhibit similar symptoms while taking the medicine.

Facilitates

Definition: to make something possible or easier .

Example: The equipment that facilitates the study is expensive and of high-quality.

Definition: the main or central point of something, especially of attention or interest .

Example: The author focuses on World War II, which is an era she hasn’t written about before.

Foreshadows

Definition: to act as a warning or sign of a future event .

Example: The sick bird at the beginning of the novel foreshadows the illness the main character develops later in the book.

Definition: to develop all the details of a plan for doing something.

Example: Two teams of scientists formulated the research methods for the study.

Definition: to cause something to exist .

Example: The study’s findings have generated many questions about this new species of frog in South America.

Definition:   to attract attention to or emphasize something important .

Example: The author, Dr. Smith, highlights the need for further studies on the possible causes of cancer among farm workers.

Definition: to recognize a problem , need, fact , etc. and to show that it exists .

Example: Through this study, scientists were able to identify three of the main factors causing global warming.

Illustrates

Definition:   to show the meaning or truth of something more clearly , especially by giving examples .

Example: Dr. Robin’s study illustrates the need for more research on the effects of this experimental drug.

Definition: to communicate an idea or feeling without saying it directly .

Example: The study implies that there are many outside factors (other than diet and exercise) which determine a person’s tendency to gain weight.

Incorporates

Definition: to include something as part of something larger .

Example: Dr. Smith incorporates research findings from 15 other studies in her well-researched paper.

Definition: to show, point , or make clear in another way.

Example: Overall, the study indicates that there is no real danger (other than a lack of sleep) to drinking three cups of coffee per day.

Definition: to form an opinion or guess that something is true because of the information that you have.

Example: From this study about a new medicine, we can infer that it will work similarly to other drugs that are currently being sold.

Definition: to tell someone about parti c ular facts .

Example: Dr. Smith informs the reader that there are some issues with this study: the oddly rainy weather in 2017 made it difficult for them to record the movements of the birds they were studying.

Definition: to suggest , without being direct , that something unpleasant is true .

Example: In addition to the reported conclusions, the study insinuates that there are many hidden dangers to driving while texting.

Definition: to combine two or more things in order to become more effective .

Example: The study about the popularity of social media integrates Facebook and Instagram hashtag use.

Definition: to not have or not have enough of something that is needed or wanted .

Example: What the study lacks, I believe, is a clear outline of the future research that is needed.

Legitimizes

Definition: to make something legal or acceptable .

Example: Although the study legitimizes the existence of global warming, some will continue to think it is a hoax.

Definition: to make a problem bigger or more important .

Example: In conclusion, the scientists determined that the new pharmaceutical actually magnifies some of the symptoms of anxiety.

Definition: something that a copy can be based on because it is an extremely good example of its type .

Example: The study models a similar one from 1973, which needed to be redone with modern equipment.

Definition: to cause something to have no effect .

Example: This negates previous findings that say that sulphur in wine gives people headaches.

Definition: to not give enough c a re or attention to people or things that are your responsibility .

Example: The study neglects to mention another study in 2015 that had very different findings.

Definition: to make something difficult to discover and understand .

Example: The problems with the equipment obscures the study.

Definition: a description of the main facts about something.

Example: Before describing the research methods, the researchers outline the need for a study on the effects of anti-anxiety medication on children.

Definition:   to fail to notice or consider something or someone.

Example: I personally feel that the study overlooks something very important: the participants might have answered some of the questions incorrectly.

Definition: to happen at the same time as something else , or be similar or equal to something else .

Example: Although the study parallels the procedures of a 2010 study, it has very different findings.

Converse International School of Languages offers an English for Academic Purposes course for students interested in improving their academic English skills. Students may take this course, which is offered in the afternoon for 12 weeks, at both CISL San Diego and CISL San Francisco . EAP course graduates can go on to CISL’s Aca demic Year Abroad program, where students attend one semester at a California Community College. Through CISL’s University Pathway program, EAP graduates may also attend college or university at one of CISL’s Pathway Partners. See the list of 25+ partners on the CISL website . Contact CISL for more information.  

How to Use Verbs Effectively in Your Research Paper

• Writing Research Papers
• Writing Essays
• English Grammar
• M.Ed., Education Administration, University of Georgia
• B.A., History, Armstrong State University

When you conduct a research project, one part of your job is to assert your own original thesis with an effective argument . There are a few ways to enhance your research paper so it sounds more impressive. One method to sound convincing as an authority is to elevate your vocabulary by using strong verbs.

Remember, verbs are action words . The verbs you select for your writing should represent a specific action . This means you should avoid generic verbs to keep your writing interesting and sharp. Your goal is to keep teacher or audience interested.

Try to avoid these less exciting verbs:

How to Choose Your Verbs

No matter what your grade level, you must do your best to come across as an authority on your topic. Think about the noticeable difference in these statements:

• I saw more mold on one piece of bread.
• I observed a distinct difference between the two pieces of bread. Most importantly, one piece of bread displayed a greater density of mold.

The second statement sounds more mature, because we replaced "saw" with "observed" and "had" with "displayed." In fact, the verb "observe " is more accurate. When carrying out a scientific experiment, after all, you use more than mere eyesight to scrutinize your results. You may smell, hear, or feel some results, and those are all part of observing.

Now consider these statements when writing a history essay:

• Historian Robert Dulvany says there were three main causes for the war.
• Historian Robert Dulvany asserted that three events prompted the war.

The second phrase sounds more authoritative and direct. And it's the verbs that make all the difference.

Also, make sure to use active rather than passive structure with your verbs. Active verbs make your writing clearer and more engaging. Review these statements:

• T he war on terror was launched by the United States.
• The United States launched the war on terror. 

The subject-verb construction is a more active and powerful statement.

How to Sound Like an Authority

Each discipline (like history, science or literature) has a distinct tone with certain verbs that appear frequently. As you read over your sources, observe the tone and language. 

While reviewing the first draft of your research paper, conduct an inventory of your verbs. Are they tired and weak or strong and effective? This list of verbs provides suggestions to make your research paper sound more authoritative.

affirm	ascertain	assert
cite	claim	clarify
communicate	concur	contribute
convey	debate	defend
define	detail	determine
develop	differ	discover
discuss	dispute	dissect
document	elaborate	emphasize
employ	engage	enhance
establish	estimate	evaluate
examine	explore	express
find	focus	highlight
hold	hypothesize	identify
illuminate	illustrate	imply
incorporate	infer	inquire
invest	investigate	involve
judge	justify	limn
observe	ponder	predict
proclaim	proffer	promote
provide	question	realize
recap	reconcile	refer
reflect	regard	relate
relay	remark	report
resolve	respond	reveal
review	sanction	seek
show	simplify	speculate
submit	support	surmise
survey	tangle	test
theorize	total	transpose
underestimate	underline	underscore
understand	undertake	undervalue
usurp	validate	value
verify	vex	wander

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Power Verbs for Essays (With Examples)

By The ProWritingAid Team

Adding power verbs to your academic paper will improve your reader’s experience and bring more impact to the arguments you make.

While the arguments themselves are the most important elements of any successful academic paper, the structure of those arguments and the language that is used influence how the paper is received.

Academic papers have strict formal rules, but as long as these are followed, there is still plenty of scope to make the key points of the paper stand out through effective use of language and more specifically, the effective use of power verbs.

Power verbs are verbs that indicate action and have a more positive and confident tone. Using them brings strength and confidence to the arguments you are making, while also bringing variation to your sentences and making your writing more interesting to the reader.

The best academic papers will use such verbs to support their arguments or concepts, so it is important that your paper contains at least three power verbs.

ProWritingAid will check your writing for power verbs and will notify you if you have less than three throughout your whole academic paper.

Power Verbs Boost Ideas

Examples of power verbs.

Academic papers of all disciplines are often filled with overlong and complicated sentences that are attempting to convey specific ideas and concepts. Active and powerful verbs are useful both to the reader and the author of the paper.

For the reader who is trying to tackle these ideas and concepts, the power verbs provide clarity and purpose. Compare the following sentences:

• This paper will say that there were two reasons for the start of the civil war.
• This paper asserts that there were two reasons for the start of the civil war.

Clearly the second sentence is more confident, direct, and authoritative because it has replaced the dull ‘says’ with ‘asserts.’ For the writer, the power verb expresses confidence in the idea being presented.

The following are examples of power verbs that are useful in academic writing, both for supporting an argument and for allowing you to vary the language you use.

Power Verbs for Analysis: appraise, define, diagnose, examine, explore, identify, interpret, investigate, observe.

Power Verbs to Introduce a Topic: investigate, outline, survey, question, feature.

Power Verbs to Agree with Existing Studies: indicate, suggest, confirm, corroborate, underline, identify, impart, maintain, substantiate, support, validate, acknowledge, affirm, assert.

Power Verbs to Disagree with Existing Studies: reject, disprove, debunk, question, challenge, invalidate, refute, deny, dismiss, disregard, object to, oppose.

Power Verbs to Infer: extract, approximate, surmise, deduce.

Power Verbs for Cause and Effect : impacts, compels, generates, incites, influences, initiates, prompts, stimulates, provokes, launches, introduces, advances.

Legal Power Verbs: sanctions, consents, endorses, disallows, outlaws, prohibits, precludes, protects, bans, licenses, authorizes.

Power Verbs that Say: convey, comment, state, establish, elaborate, identify, propose.

Power Verbs that Show: reveal, display, highlight, depict, portray, illustrate.

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Writing Resources

Active verbs for discussing ideas.

This handout is available for download in PDF format .

Active verbs are important components of any academic writing! Just as in other forms of writing, they work as engines, driving the action of your sentences in many potentially vivid, clear, and colorful ways.

Instead of opting for bland, unspecific expressions ("says," "writes about," "believes," "states") consider using more vivid or nuanced verbs such as "argues," "insists," "explains," "emphasizes," "challenges," "agrees," etc. The list below offers dozens of such verbs that will help you communicate your ideas and the ideas of others more clearly, expressively, and powerfully.

Action Verbs A-C	Action Verbs D-H	Action Verbs I-Q	Action Verbs R-Z
accepts	declares	identifies	ratifies
acknowledges	defends	illuminates	rationalizes
adds	defies	implies	reads
admires	demands	infers	reconciles
affirms	denies	informs	reconsiders
allows that	describes	initiates	refutes
analyzes	determines	insinuates	regards
announces	diminishes	insists	rejects
answers	disagrees	interprets	relinquishes
argues	discusses	intimates	reminds
assaults	disputes	judges	repudiates
assembles	disregards	lists	resolves
asserts	distinguishes	maintains	responds
assists	emphasizes	marshals	retorts
buttresses	endorses	narrates	reveals
categorizes	enumerates	negates	reviews
cautions	exaggerates	observes	seeks
challenges	experiences	outlines	sees
claims	experiments	parses	shares
clarifies	explains	perceives	shifts
compares	exposes	persists	shows
complicates	facilitates	persuades	simplifies
concludes	formulates	pleads	states
condemns	grants	points out	stresses
confirms	guides	postulates	substitutes
conflates	handles	praises	suggests
confronts	hesitates	proposes	summarizes
confuses	highlights	protects	supplements
considers	hints	provides	supplies
contradicts	hypothesizes	qualifies	supports
contrasts			synthesizes
convinces			tests
criticizes			toys with
critiques			treats
			uncovers
			undermines
			urges
			verifies
			warns

• "mentions," unless you mean "refer to something briefly and without going into detail."*
• "notion" as a synonym for "idea" implies "impulsive," "whimsical," not well considered.*

Adapted from a list by Cinthia Gannett by Doug Kirshen and Robert B. Cochran, Brandeis University Writing Program, 2020.

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How to create ‘authoritative voice’ in your writing

For some inexplicable reason, perhaps to do with Woodstock, kaftans, free love and the rest, the education department in Australia decided to abandon the teaching of grammar in the late sixties and didn’t start again, as far as I can tell, until the mid 80s. I am the ultimate product of a 1970’s education, therefore I am profoundly grammar challenged .

Some teachers resisted this free wheelin’ trend of course and Mr Thesis Whisperer was lucky enough to have one. He is under instruction to correct me when I use bought instead of brought, then instead of than and so on. With his patient help I no longer embarrass myself at middle class dinner parties and in correspondence with the bank. I’m pleased to see fashions have changed and Thesis Whisperer Jnr, aged 11 and a half, has more technical grammar knowledge than I did at his age (and basic math knowledge for that matter).

Getting through two theses with a white knuckled grip on what little grammar I knew was a nightmare , but instructive. I had to re-learn, pretty much from scratch, many of the technicalities. My poor supervisors had to struggle with me and I thank them from the bottom of my grammar challenged heart.

There’s a saying that the worst students make the best teachers and this is probably why I am such a popular and in demand writing teacher today. I’m not a perfect writer, but I get by. My students quickly realise they can equal or exceed me with little effort. Sometimes imperfection is just what you need in a thesis writing role model – at least that’s what I tell myself.

My approach to teaching writing is deeply informed by my own struggles. I don’t try to teach the technicalities because I can’t. The grammar rules just don’t ‘stick’ as easily when you are an adult. So I developed tools for myself using advice I found in books. I share these tools with PhD students in my workshops and, over the years, their feedback has helped me improve them.

A couple of months ago my friend Margaret Kammel, who is a high school teacher and blogger , read my ebook and discovered some of my tools. She told me about the ‘blackline masters’ books that school teachers use . These are formatted A4 sheets with exercises and information for teachers to use in class. A lesson can be built around one or two of these A4 sheets. Margaret suggested I reformat some of my tools and put them online . I loved this idea and the Thesis Whisperer BLM series was born.

The first one I published was the Thesis Whisperer Verb Cheat Sheet (PDF) . One of the major break throughs I had in my own academic writing was the realisation that verbs are judgy (which I know is not a word, but I like it – that 70’s attitude coming through I suppose). In your literature review a verb should describe what you think about the author, as well as what you think the author is doing . Why? I like to think it’s because academia is a passive aggressive, uptight, emotionally challenged culture. We rarely say what we think directly, we imply it in the way we use verbs.

For example, it’s more complimentary to say…

Inger argues that academia is a passive aggressive culture

… than to say…

Inger asserts that academia is a passive aggressive culture.

Look up the two definitions in the dictionary if you don’t believe me. An argument implies that there are reasons given to support a point of view, an assertion is a confident and forceful statement of opinion. Looking up verbs in the dictionary all the time is annoying, so the verb cheat sheet was born. I made it for myself a long time ago when I realised that my over reliance on a small set of verbs was making my writing boring. On the sheet I have classified my verbs in groups which, to me, express how I feel about the work I am referencing: “This work is awesome”, “I feel neutral”, “this work is poor”.

It’s important to emphasise that this is my personal/disciplinary verb taxonomy – it’s not automatically generalisable. Different disciplines have different conventions around verbs – science types tend to use many more neutral verbs for example. The idea of providing the BLM text as both a PDF and a webpage is that you can easily lift the text and alter it to suit yourself. I encourage you to make your own verb list tailored to your needs.

It would be wonderful, if you do this, if you would send me the revised list so I can add it as a variation. Share the love I say!

The verb list was inspired by the work of Barbara Kamler and Pat Thomson (of the ‘Patter’ blog – add it to your reading list right now people) who talk about the importance of creating a ‘credible persona’ in the text . They borrow and extend on the work of James Hyland, a linguist, who has published a set of resources for building ‘writerly stances’. Kamler and Thomson offer his classification scheme in five parts:

Hedges: words like possible, might, perhaps, believe etc Emphatics: clearly, in fact, definitely, it is obvious. Attitude markers: I agree, we prefer, unfortunately, hopefully etc, as well as puncuation: scare quotes, exclamation marks and so on. Relational markers: where you address the audience directly, much like a narrative character in a Shakespeare play: “Where does this lead?”, “I you recall …” Person markers: how you signal the author presence: I, we, our, my, mine etc.

Kamler and Thomson, and other writing teachers, show us that ‘authoritative writing’ can be produced by small, but strategic changes in the words you use to join up sentences (I’m sure there’s a technical term for this, but I’ve forgotten). I’m working through my store of writing text books to make more black line masters for you to use.

Students are sometimes told their text is not quite ‘right’ or ‘scholarly’ enough, but offered little concrete guidance to fix it. I suspect that’s because their supervisors are grammar challenged in the same way that I am. Many of us can write well, but can’t explain how we do it . I hope this BLM series will help if you have a supervisor like this.

Luckily many supervisors ARE skilled at grammar and helping students to write.  I’m finding my colleagues are a rich source of knowledg e and inspiration for this BLM work. For example, I was inspired to make the Conjunctive Adverb conjurer by my friend Dr Scott Mayson . Of course, I had to look up what a conjunctive adverb was on wikipedia first!

So what about you? Do you have grammar problems like me? Or do you have resources to share – sites, worksheets or books which have helped? I’d love to hear about them in the comments.

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The Thesis Whisperer is written by Professor Inger Mewburn, director of researcher development at The Australian National University . New posts on the first Wednesday of the month. Subscribe by email below. Visit the About page to find out more about me, my podcasts and books. I'm on most social media platforms as @thesiswhisperer. The best places to talk to me are LinkedIn , Mastodon and Threads.

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• How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on January 11, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on August 15, 2023 by Eoghan Ryan.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . It usually comes near the end of your introduction .

Your thesis will look a bit different depending on the type of essay you’re writing. But the thesis statement should always clearly state the main idea you want to get across. Everything else in your essay should relate back to this idea.

You can write your thesis statement by following four simple steps:

• Start with a question
• Write your initial answer
• Develop your answer
• Refine your thesis statement

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Table of contents

What is a thesis statement, placement of the thesis statement, step 1: start with a question, step 2: write your initial answer, step 3: develop your answer, step 4: refine your thesis statement, types of thesis statements, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about thesis statements.

A thesis statement summarizes the central points of your essay. It is a signpost telling the reader what the essay will argue and why.

The best thesis statements are:

• Concise: A good thesis statement is short and sweet—don’t use more words than necessary. State your point clearly and directly in one or two sentences.
• Contentious: Your thesis shouldn’t be a simple statement of fact that everyone already knows. A good thesis statement is a claim that requires further evidence or analysis to back it up.
• Coherent: Everything mentioned in your thesis statement must be supported and explained in the rest of your paper.

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The thesis statement generally appears at the end of your essay introduction or research paper introduction .

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts and among young people more generally is hotly debated. For many who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education: the internet facilitates easier access to information, exposure to different perspectives, and a flexible learning environment for both students and teachers.

You should come up with an initial thesis, sometimes called a working thesis , early in the writing process . As soon as you’ve decided on your essay topic , you need to work out what you want to say about it—a clear thesis will give your essay direction and structure.

You might already have a question in your assignment, but if not, try to come up with your own. What would you like to find out or decide about your topic?

For example, you might ask:

After some initial research, you can formulate a tentative answer to this question. At this stage it can be simple, and it should guide the research process and writing process .

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Now you need to consider why this is your answer and how you will convince your reader to agree with you. As you read more about your topic and begin writing, your answer should get more detailed.

In your essay about the internet and education, the thesis states your position and sketches out the key arguments you’ll use to support it.

The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education because it facilitates easier access to information.

In your essay about braille, the thesis statement summarizes the key historical development that you’ll explain.

The invention of braille in the 19th century transformed the lives of blind people, allowing them to participate more actively in public life.

A strong thesis statement should tell the reader:

• Why you hold this position
• What they’ll learn from your essay
• The key points of your argument or narrative

The final thesis statement doesn’t just state your position, but summarizes your overall argument or the entire topic you’re going to explain. To strengthen a weak thesis statement, it can help to consider the broader context of your topic.

These examples are more specific and show that you’ll explore your topic in depth.

Your thesis statement should match the goals of your essay, which vary depending on the type of essay you’re writing:

• In an argumentative essay , your thesis statement should take a strong position. Your aim in the essay is to convince your reader of this thesis based on evidence and logical reasoning.
• In an expository essay , you’ll aim to explain the facts of a topic or process. Your thesis statement doesn’t have to include a strong opinion in this case, but it should clearly state the central point you want to make, and mention the key elements you’ll explain.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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• Choosing Essay Topic
• Write a College Essay
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• College Essay Format & Structure
• Comparing and Contrasting in an Essay

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A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

Follow these four steps to come up with a thesis statement :

• Ask a question about your topic .
• Write your initial answer.
• Develop your answer by including reasons.
• Refine your answer, adding more detail and nuance.

The thesis statement should be placed at the end of your essay introduction .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, August 15). How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved July 27, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-essay/thesis-statement/

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Best Active Verbs for Research Papers with Examples

What are active verbs.

Active verbs, often referred to as "action verbs," depict activities, processes, or occurrences. They energize sentences by illustrating direct actions, like "run," "write," or "discover." In contrast, linking verbs connect the subject of a sentence to its complement, offering information about the subject rather than denoting an action. The most common linking verb is the "be" verb (am, is, are, was, were, etc.), which often describes a state of being. While active verbs demonstrate direct activity or motion, linking and "be" verbs serve as bridges, revealing relations or states rather than actions.

While linking verbs are necessary to states facts or show connections between two or more items, subjects, or ideas, active verbs usually have a more specific meaning that can explain these connections and actions with greater accuracy. And they captivate the reader’s attention! (See what I did there?)

Why are active verbs important to use in research papers?

Using active verbs in academic papers enhances clarity and precision, propelling the narrative forward and making your arguments more compelling. Active verbs provide clear agents of action, making your assertions clearer and more vigorous. This dynamism ensures readers grasp the research's core points and its implications.

For example, using an active vs passive voice sentence can create more immediate connection and clarity for the reader. Instead of writing "The experiment was conducted by the team," one could write, "The team conducted the experiment."

Similarly, rather than stating "Results were analyzed," a more direct approach would be "We analyzed the results." Such usage not only shortens sentences but also centers the focus, making the statements about the research more robust and persuasive.

Best Active Verbs for Academic & Research Papers

When writing research papers , choose active verbs that clarify and energize writing: the Introduction section "presents" a hypothesis, the Methods section "describes" your study procedures, the Results section "shows" the findings, and the Discussion section "argues" the wider implications. Active language makes each section more direct and engaging, effectively guiding readers through the study's journey—from initial inquiry to final conclusions—while highlighting the researcher's active role in the scholarly exploration.

Active verbs to introduce a research topic

Using active verbs in the Introduction section of a research paper sets a strong foundation for the study, indicating the actions taken by researchers and the direction of their inquiry.

Stresses a key stance or finding, especially when referring to published literature.

Indicates a thorough investigation into a research topic.

Draws attention to important aspects or details of the study topic you are addressing.

Questions or disputes established theories or beliefs, especially in previous published studies.

Highlights and describes a point of interest or importance.

Inspects or scrutinizes a subject closely.

Sets up the context or background for the study.

Articulates

Clearly expresses an idea or theory. Useful when setting up a research problem statement .

Makes something clear by explaining it in more detail.

Active verbs to describe your study approach

Each of these verbs indicates a specific, targeted action taken by researchers to advance understanding of their study's topic, laying out the groundwork in the Introduction for what the study aims to accomplish and how.

Suggests a theory, idea, or method for consideration.

Investigates

Implies a methodical examination of the subject.

Indicates a careful evaluation or estimation of a concept.

Suggests a definitive or conclusive finding or result.

Indicates the measurement or expression of an element in numerical terms.

Active verbs to describe study methods

The following verbs express a specific action in the methodology of a research study, detailing how researchers execute their investigations and handle data to derive meaningful conclusions.

Implies carrying out a planned process or experiment. Often used to refer to methods in other studies the literature review section .

Suggests putting a plan or technique into action.

Indicates the use of tools, techniques, or information for a specific purpose.

Denotes the determination of the quantity, degree, or capacity of something.

Refers to the systematic gathering of data or samples.

Involves examining data or details methodically to uncover relationships, patterns, or insights.

Active verbs for a hypothesis or problem statement

Each of the following verbs initiates a hypothesis or statement of the problem , indicating different levels of certainty and foundations of reasoning, which the research then aims to explore, support, or refute.

Suggests a hypothesis or a theory based on limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.

Proposes a statement or hypothesis that is assumed to be true, and from which a conclusion can be drawn.

Attempts to identify

Conveys an explicit effort to identify or isolate a specific element or relationship in the study.

Foretells a future event or outcome based on a theory or observation.

Theorizes or puts forward a consideration about a subject without firm evidence.

Proposes an idea or possibility based on indirect or incomplete evidence.

Active verbs used to interpret and explain study results

In the Discussion section , the findings of your study are interpreted and explained to the reader before moving on to study implications and limitations . These verbs communicate the outcomes of the research in a precise and assertive manner, conveying how the data aligns with the expectations and hypotheses laid out earlier in the paper.

Shows or unveils findings from the data.

Demonstrates

Clearly shows the result of an experiment or study, often implying evidence of a cause-and-effect relationship.

Illustrates

Shows or presentes a particular result or trend.

Provides evidence in favor of a theory or hypothesis.

Establishes the truth or validity of an anticipated outcome or theory.

Visually presents data, often implying the use of figures or tables.

Active verbs to discuss study implications

In the discussion of study implications, these verbs help to weave the results into a broader context, suggesting relevance, highlighting importance, and pointing out potential consequences within the respective field of research.

Proposes a possible interpretation or implication without making a definitive statement.

Points to broader consequences or significances hinted at by the results.

Indicates a logical consequence or a meaning that is not explicitly stated.

Strengthens the validity or importance of a concept or finding.

Emphasizes certain findings and their broader ramifications.

Underscores

Underlines or emphasizes the significance or seriousness of an implication.

Active verbs to discuss study limitations

Discussing study limitations with these verbs allows researchers to maintain transparency about their study's weaknesses, thus providing a clearer picture of the context and reliability of the research findings.

Acknowledges

Recognizes the existence of potential weaknesses or restrictions in the study.

Directly confronts a specific limitation and often discusses ways it has been mitigated.

Makes an observation of a limitation that could affect the interpretation of the results.

Reflects on or thinks about a limitation in the context of the study's impact or scope.

Points out and describes a specific limitation.

Makes known or reveals a limitation that could have an effect on the study's conclusions.

Active verbs for the Conclusion section

In the Conclusion section , these verbs are pivotal in crystallizing the core findings, implications, and the future trajectory of research initiated by the study.

Signifies drawing a final inference or judgement based on the results.

Provides a brief statement of the main points of the research findings.

States positively or asserts the validity of the findings.

Advises on a course of action based on the results obtained.

Highlights the importance or significance of the research outcomes.

Use an AI Grammar Checker to Correct Your Research Verbs

While lists like these will certainly help you improve your writing in any academic paper, it can still be a good idea to revise your paper using an AI writing assistant during the drafting process, and with professional editing services before submitting your work to journals.

Wordvice’s AI Proofreading Tool , AI Paraphrasing Tool , AI Summarizer , AI Translator , AI Grammar Checker , AI Plagiarism Checker , and AI Detector are ideal for enhancing your academic papers. And with our professional editing services, including academic proofreading and paper editing services, you get high-quality English editing from experts in your paper’s subject area.

>>   

Graduate students in science and engineering at Rice University generated the following list of verbs. Read through them for choices that could help make your own writing more precise and persuasive.

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Grammar: Verb Tenses

Most common verb tenses in academic writing.

According to corpus research, in academic writing, the three tenses used the most often are the simple present , the simple past , and the present perfect (Biber et al., 1999; Caplan, 2012). The next most common tense for capstone writers is the future ; the doctoral study/dissertation proposal at Walden is written in this tense for a study that will be conducted in the future.

Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., & Finegan, E. (1999). Longman grammar of written and spoken English . Pearson. https://doi.org/10.1162/089120101300346831

Caplan, N. A. (2012). Grammar choices for graduate and professional writers . University of Michigan Press.

Simple present: Use the simple present to describe a general truth or a habitual action. This tense indicates that the statement is generally true in the past, present, and future.

• Example: The hospital admits patients whether or not they have proof of insurance.

Simple past : Use the simple past tense to describe a completed action that took place at a specific point in the past (e.g., last year, 1 hour ago, last Sunday). In the example below, the specific point of time in the past is 1998.

• Example: Zimbardo (1998) researched many aspects of social psychology.

Present perfect: Use the present perfect to indicate an action that occurred at a nonspecific time in the past. This action has relevance in the present. The present perfect is also sometimes used to introduce background information in a paragraph. After the first sentence, the tense shifts to the simple past.

• Example: Numerous researchers have used this method.
• Example: Many researchers have studied how small business owners can be successful beyond the initial few years in business. They found common themes among the small business owners.

Future: Use the future to describe an action that will take place at a particular point in the future (at Walden, this is used especially when writing a proposal for a doctoral capstone study).

• Example: I will conduct semistructured interviews.

Keep in mind that verb tenses should be adjusted after the proposal after the research has been completed. See this blog post about Revising the Proposal for the Final Capstone Document for more information.

APA Style Guidelines on Verb Tense

APA calls for consistency and accuracy in verb tense usage (see APA 7, Section 4.12 and Table 4.1). In other words, avoid unnecessary shifts in verb tense within a paragraph or in adjacent paragraphs to help ensure smooth expression.

• Use the past tense (e.g., researchers presented ) or the present perfect (e.g., researchers have presented ) for the literature review and the description of the procedure if discussing past events.
• Use the past tense to describe the results (e.g., test scores improved significantly).
• Use the present tense to discuss implications of the results and present conclusions (e.g., the results of the study show …).

When explaining what an author or researcher wrote or did, use the past tense.

• Patterson (2012) presented, found, stated, discovered…

However, there can be a shift to the present tense if the research findings still hold true:

• King (2010) found  that revising a document three times improves the final grade.
• Smith (2016) discovered that the treatment is effective.

Verb Tense Guidelines When Referring to the Document Itself

To preview what is coming in the document or to explain what is happening at that moment in the document, use the present or future tense:

• In this study, I will describe …
• In this study, I describe …
• In the next chapter, I will discuss …
• In the next chapter, I discuss …

To refer back to information already covered, such as summaries of discussions that have already taken place or conclusions to chapters/sections, use the past tense:

• Chapter 1 contained my original discussion of the research questions.
• In summary, in this section, I presented information on…

Simple Past Versus the Present Perfect

Rules for the use of the present perfect differ slightly in British and American English. Researchers have also found that among American English writers, sometimes individual preferences dictate whether the simple past or the present perfect is used. In other words, one American English writer may choose the simple past in a place where another American English writer may choose the present perfect.

Keep in mind, however, that the simple past is used for a completed action.  It often is used with signal words or phrases such as "yesterday," "last week," "1 year ago," or "in 2015" to indicate the specific time in the past when the action took place.

• I went to China in 2010 .
• He completed the employee performance reviews last month .

The present perfect focuses more on an action that occurred without focusing on the specific time it happened. Note that the specific time is not given, just that the action has occurred.

• I have travelled to China.

The present perfect focuses more on the result of the action.

• He has completed the employee performance reviews.

The present perfect is often used with signal words such as "since," "already," "just," "until now," "(not) yet," "so far," "ever," "lately," or "recently."

• I have already travelled to China.
• He has recently completed the employee performance reviews.
• Researchers have used this method since it was developed.

Summary of English Verb Tenses

The 12 main tenses:

• Simple present : She writes every day.
• Present progressive: She is writing right now.
• Simple past : She wrote last night.
• Past progressive: She was writing when he called.
• Simple future : She will write tomorrow.
• Future progressive: She will be writing when you arrive.
• Present perfect : She has written Chapter 1.
• Present perfect progressive: She has been writing for 2 hours.
• Past perfect: She had written Chapter 3 before she started Chapter 4.
• Past perfect progressive: She had been writing for 2 hours before her friends arrived.
• Future perfect: She will have written Chapter 4 before she writes Chapter 5.
• Future perfect progressive: She will have been writing for 2 hours by the time her friends come over.

Conditionals:

Zero conditional (general truths/general habits).

• Example: If I have time, I write every day.

First conditional (possible or likely things in the future).

• Example: If I have time, I will write every day.

Second conditional (impossible things in the present/unlikely in the future).

• Example : If I had time, I would write every day.

Third conditional (things that did not happen in the past and their imaginary results)

• Example : If I had had time, I would have written every day.

Subjunctive : This form is sometimes used in that -clauses that are the object of certain verbs or follow certain adjectives. The form of the subjective is the simple form of the verb. It is the same for all persons and number.

• Example : I recommend that he study every day.
• Example: It is important that everyone set a writing schedule.

Verbs Video Playlist

Note that these videos were created while APA 6 was the style guide edition in use. There may be some examples of writing that have not been updated to APA 7 guidelines.

• Grammar for Academic Writers: Common Verb Tenses in Academic Writing (video transcript)
• Grammar for Academic Writers: Verb Tense Consistency (video transcript)
• Grammar for Academic Writers: Advanced Subject–Verb Agreement (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Helping Verbs (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Past Tense (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Present Tense (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Future Tense (video transcript)

Related Resources

Knowledge Check: Verb Tenses

Didn't find what you need? Email us at [email protected] .

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100+ Research Vocabulary Words & Phrases

The academic community can be conservative when it comes to enforcing academic writing style , but your writing shouldn’t be so boring that people lose interest midway through the first paragraph! Given that competition is at an all-time high for academics looking to publish their papers, we know you must be anxious about what you can do to improve your publishing odds.

To be sure, your research must be sound, your paper must be structured logically, and the different manuscript sections must contain the appropriate information. But your research must also be clearly explained. Clarity obviously depends on the correct use of English, and there are many common mistakes that you should watch out for, for example when it comes to articles , prepositions , word choice , and even punctuation . But even if you are on top of your grammar and sentence structure, you can still make your writing more compelling (or more boring) by using powerful verbs and phrases (vs the same weaker ones over and over). So, how do you go about achieving the latter?

Below are a few ways to breathe life into your writing.

1. Analyze Vocabulary Using Word Clouds

Have you heard of “Wordles”? A Wordle is a visual representation of words, with the size of each word being proportional to the number of times it appears in the text it is based on. The original company website seems to have gone out of business, but there are a number of free word cloud generation sites that allow you to copy and paste your draft manuscript into a text box to quickly discover how repetitive your writing is and which verbs you might want to replace to improve your manuscript.

Seeing a visual word cloud of your work might also help you assess the key themes and points readers will glean from your paper. If the Wordle result displays words you hadn’t intended to emphasize, then that’s a sign you should revise your paper to make sure readers will focus on the right information.

As an example, below is a Wordle of our article entitled, “ How to Choose the Best title for Your Journal Manuscript .” You can see how frequently certain terms appear in that post, based on the font size of the text. The keywords, “titles,” “journal,” “research,” and “papers,” were all the intended focus of our blog post.

2. Study Language Patterns of Similarly Published Works

Study the language pattern found in the most downloaded and cited articles published by your target journal. Understanding the journal’s editorial preferences will help you write in a style that appeals to the publication’s readership.

Another way to analyze the language of a target journal’s papers is to use Wordle (see above). If you copy and paste the text of an article related to your research topic into the applet, you can discover the common phrases and terms the paper’s authors used.

For example, if you were writing a paper on  links between smoking and cancer , you might look for a recent review on the topic, preferably published by your target journal. Copy and paste the text into Wordle and examine the key phrases to see if you’ve included similar wording in your own draft. The Wordle result might look like the following, based on the example linked above.

If you are not sure yet where to publish and just want some generally good examples of descriptive verbs, analytical verbs, and reporting verbs that are commonly used in academic writing, then have a look at this list of useful phrases for research papers .

3. Use More Active and Precise Verbs

Have you heard of synonyms? Of course you have. But have you looked beyond single-word replacements and rephrased entire clauses with stronger, more vivid ones? You’ll find this task is easier to do if you use the active voice more often than the passive voice . Even if you keep your original sentence structure, you can eliminate weak verbs like “be” from your draft and choose more vivid and precise action verbs. As always, however, be careful about using only a thesaurus to identify synonyms. Make sure the substitutes fit the context in which you need a more interesting or “perfect” word. Online dictionaries such as the Merriam-Webster and the Cambridge Dictionary are good sources to check entire phrases in context in case you are unsure whether a synonym is a good match for a word you want to replace. 

To help you build a strong arsenal of commonly used phrases in academic papers, we’ve compiled a list of synonyms you might want to consider when drafting or editing your research paper . While we do not suggest that the phrases in the “Original Word/Phrase” column should be completely avoided, we do recommend interspersing these with the more dynamic terms found under “Recommended Substitutes.”

A. Describing the scope of a current project or prior research

To express the purpose of a paper or research		This paper + [use the verb that originally followed “aims to”] or This paper + (any other verb listed above as a substitute for “explain”) + who/what/when/where/how X. For example:
To introduce the topic of a project or paper
To describe the analytical scope of a paper or study		*Adjectives to describe degree can include: briefly, thoroughly, adequately, sufficiently, inadequately, insufficiently, only partially, partially, etc.
To preview other sections of a paper		[any of the verbs suggested as replacements for “explain,” “analyze,” and “consider” above]

B. Outlining a topic’s background

To discuss the historical significance of a topic		Topic significantly/considerably + + who/what/when/where/how…   *In other words, take the nominalized verb and make it the main verb of the sentence.
To describe the historical popularity of a topic		verb] verb]
To describe the recent focus on a topic
To identify the current majority opinion about a topic
To discuss the findings of existing literature
To express the breadth of our current knowledge-base, including gaps
To segue into expressing your research question

C. Describing the analytical elements of a paper

To express agreement between one finding and another
To present contradictory findings
To discuss limitations of a study

D. Discussing results

To draw inferences from results
To describe observations

E. Discussing methods

To discuss methods
To describe simulations		This study/ research… + “X environment/ condition to..” + [any of the verbs suggested as replacements for “analyze” above]

F. Explaining the impact of new research

To explain the impact of a paper’s findings
To highlight a paper’s conclusion
To explain how research contributes to the existing knowledge-base

Wordvice Writing Resources

For additional information on how to tighten your sentences (e.g., eliminate wordiness and use active voice to greater effect), you can try Wordvice’s FREE APA Citation Generator and learn more about how to proofread and edit your paper to ensure your work is free of errors.

Before submitting your manuscript to academic journals, be sure to use our free AI Proofreader to catch errors in grammar, spelling, and mechanics. And use our English editing services from Wordvice, including academic editing services , cover letter editing , manuscript editing , and research paper editing services to make sure your work is up to a high academic level.

We also have a collection of other useful articles for you, for example on how to strengthen your writing style , how to avoid fillers to write more powerful sentences , and how to eliminate prepositions and avoid nominalizations . Additionally, get advice on all the other important aspects of writing a research paper on our academic resources pages .

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What tense to use when writing a thesis?

I am well aware of the fact that there are a number of questions that talk about tenses in research, but I still have not found exactly what I am after.

Basically my question is this, in a Master dissertation, should the tense be the same throughout the entire text? Or is it acceptable (or even required) to use different tenses in different structures?

Assuming the following structure, if you believe that there should be separate tenses, would the suggestions in brackets be correct?

• Title ( Present )
• Abstract ( Imperfect Past )
• Introduction ( Present + Future )
• Methodology ( Past Perfect, Present, Future or Mix? )
• Results ( Past Perfect )
• Discussion ( Present* )
• Conclusion ( Mix?, conditional present )

*Would the choice of any present tense put all preceding sections in a past tense?

Looking at that structure I find it hard to see that only one tense should be adopted throughout the entire text.

Sources: This , this and that .

• writing-style

• I was about to say "The correct tense for the correct sections" but I see you are already thinking in terms of sections. Good question. It might be interesting to run corpus linguistics on this to find out. –  Frames Catherine White Commented Jul 4, 2017 at 15:39
• 1 I would use the past only for discussion of prior work. –  gerrit Commented Jul 4, 2017 at 17:09
• @gerrit: In papers involving experiments, the experiments are typically described in the past tense. –  Peter Shor Commented Jul 4, 2017 at 18:51
• @PeterShor Maybe so. That makes me a minority. I don't destroy my instruments after use so when I describe them, I do so in the present tense. I might use them again! Consistency is most important, however. –  gerrit Commented Jul 4, 2017 at 18:57
• @gerrit: I can see writing "The apparatus consists of ..." , but do you mean you would also write "500 observations are taken for each value of the electric field" ? –  Peter Shor Commented Jul 4, 2017 at 19:27

The answer to this question varies across disciplines. Your dissertation presumably falls within some academic discipline. Look at other papers in the same discipline, and see what tenses they use. For example, unlike your suggestion, in math papers the abstract is usually present tense.

If some of the premier journals in your discipline have a style guide, look at these style guides and see what they say.

The journal Nature , in which the majority of articles are in the sciences, has the following suggestions for verb tense (I've left out a few of their examples):

Past tense Work done We collected blood samples from . . . Consequently, astronomers decided to rename . . . Work reported Jankowsky reported a similar growth rate . . . In 2009, Chu published an alternative method to . . . Observations The mice in Group A developed, on average, twice as much . . . The conversion rate was close to 95% . . . Present tense General truths Microbes in the human gut have a profound influence on . . . The Reynolds number provides a measure of . . . Atemporal facts This paper presents the results of . . . Section 3.1 explains the difference between . . . Behbood's 1969 paper provides a framework for . . . Future tense Perspectives In a follow-up experiment, we will study the role of . . . The influence of temperature will be the object of future research . . .

• "We collected blood samples from . . ." That's strange. I thought they want you to avoid I and We? "Blood samples were collected from..." sounds much more like a nature paper. –  user64845 Commented Jul 4, 2017 at 22:01
• @DSVA: There has been a rethinking of the tradition of never using we or I in scientific papers. While some journals still maintain this rule, many welcome use of the first person plural. Another quote from that same link: 'As a second argument against a systematic preference for the passive voice, readers sometimes need people to be mentioned. A sentence such as "The temperature is believed to be the cause for . . . " is ambiguous. Readers will want to know who believes this — the authors of the paper, or the scientific community as a whole? ' (continued ...) –  Peter Shor Commented Jul 4, 2017 at 23:55
• 'To clarify the sentence, use the active voice and set the appropriate people as the subject, in either the third or the first person, as in the examples below. Biologists believe the temperature to be . . . Keustermans et al. (1997) believe the temperature to be . . . The authors believe the temperature to be . . . We believe the temperature to be . . . ' –  Peter Shor Commented Jul 4, 2017 at 23:55
• And let me modify the Nature suggestions. I have the impression that work done and observations are usually past tense, but work reported is often present perfect tense — Jankowsky has reported a similar growth rate ... Of course, if you mention a year with work reported, then for grammatical reasons it has to be past tense. –  Peter Shor Commented Aug 27, 2017 at 20:16

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Grammar In PhD Theses – Adjectives & Tense, Voice & Contractions of Verbs

Posted by Rene Tetzner | Oct 31, 2021 | PhD Success | 0 |

5.4.6 Adjectives, Adverbs and Split Infinitives

Adjectives and adverbs are often overused when authors are attempting to be precise, with long strings of adjectives particularly common in some theses, so do check for this while proofreading your draft and pay special attention to instances in which you may have used a large number of adjectival nouns. In almost all cases, it is best to use as few adjectives as possible, and such a policy can lead to the use of more precise or expressive adjectives, which is always preferable. When you decide that several adjectives are definitely required, be sure to punctuate them effectively and in a consistent manner throughout your thesis (see Section 5.6.1). Adverbs are especially problematic when they split the infinitive forms of English verbs. In most languages, the infinitive of a verb is a single word: the infinitive forms of the famous Latin phrase ‘veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered),’ for instance, are ‘venire,’ ‘videre’ and ‘vincere.’ In English, however, the infinitives of verbs are formed through the addition of ‘to’ – ‘to come, to see, to conquer’ – and the two elements of the infinitive (‘to’ and ‘conquer’) should no sooner be separated from each other in formal writing than should the ‘ – ire’ or ‘ – ere’ ending be separated from the stem of one of the Latin infinitives. Infinitives are usually split by an adverb inserted between the two parts of the verb (as in Star Trek ’s famous ‘to boldly go’), and such split infinitives sometimes sound entirely natural because they tend to be used daily in casual speech and informal written communications. In the twenty-first century, split infinitives are even tolerated in scholarly prose (though not by all university departments and thesis committees), so if you find that you simply cannot do without an adverb and yet it proves impossible to word the sentence effectively without splitting the infinitive, the adverb can in some cases be retained within the infinitive of the verb. Some readers still consider split infinitives incorrect grammar, however, so do check with your supervisor, keep such usage to a minimum in your thesis and remember that the safest policy is to reword split infinitives whenever possible, replacing ‘to successfully write a thesis,’ for instance, with ‘to write a thesis successfully.’ Rewording sentences containing split infinitives will no doubt prove challenging at times, and in certain instances a sentence may have to be thoroughly rewritten to accommodate a necessary adverb or adverbial phrase more effectively, but do make your best effort before deciding to retain a split infinitive.

5.4.7 Verbs: Tense, Voice and Contractions

The correct use of verb tenses (present, perfect, pluperfect etc.) can be tricky and thus problematic at times. The nuances of the various tenses communicate different temporal messages, and the temporal message of each verb should accurately reflect the reality reported, be consistent with other verbs expressing similar temporal messages and change according to the nature of the content. The problem is complicated in scholarly prose because referring accurately and effectively to the ideas and results found in sources can be challenging. As a general rule, much of what is said in previous scholarship can be referred to in the present tense: for example, ‘Taylor (1996) argues that’ and ‘according to Fergusson (2013), the argument is.’ However, when studies done at different times are compared or contrasted, the tense will need to be varied: ‘Taylor (1996) argued [perfect] that the problem could not be overcome, but Fergusson (2013) sheds [present] new light on the situation.’ Often using a compound form with ‘has’ or ‘have’ is more effective than a simple past or perfect tense when speaking of scholarly trends or developments: for instance, ‘several studies of the problem have been published since the 1980s.’ However, studies that are already published were in fact conducted in the past, so the perfect tense, too, can be correctly used when referring to sources and their authors: for example, ‘Fergusson (2013) explored the problem by following the recommendations of Taylor (1996).’ Sensitivity to the expression of temporal reality through appropriate verb tenses should be applied not just to the discussion of sources, but to the whole of your thesis.

The use of the passive rather than the active voice can also present problems in formal scholarly prose. In the active voice, a subject is clearly stated and the verb is active: ‘I investigated the use of domestic robots among elderly residents of the Sunset Manor.’ In the passive voice, on the other hand, the object becomes the subject and the verb is passive: ‘The use of domestic robots among elderly residents of the Sunset Manor was investigated.’ Both sentences are correct English, but because the passive voice does not name the person (or people) doing the investigating, it can fail to convey with precision who did the research – the author of the present thesis as part of the current study, for instance, or a third party (or parties) working at some other time who ought to be cited? Some doctoral candidates will deliberately use the passive voice in an abstract, perhaps due to a misconception that the passive voice is scholarly, but a scholarly voice is never vague as the passive voice can be, and some guidelines will ask that the passive voice be avoided, especially in abstracts where precision expressed via as few words as possible is particularly important. However, the passive voice can be used effectively (and often is in the sciences) when the point is to emphasise the object of research rather than the agent doing the research, so do check university and department guidelines and/or ask your supervisor about the use of the passive voice. When proofreading your thesis draft, pay careful attention to what sentences using the passive voice actually say and do not say, and whenever you think that such sentences might prove imprecise, ineffective or confusing for your readers, reword them using the active voice.

Contractions of verbs, which are frequently used in casual speech, often slip into formal prose, especially when an author is writing quickly as he or she thinks through problems. Examples include ‘didn’t’ (for ‘did not’), ‘shouldn’t’ (for ‘should not’), ‘won’t’ (for ‘will not’), ‘can’t’ (for ‘cannot’) and ‘wouldn’t’ (for ‘would not’) in which a verb is combined with the word ‘not,’ as well as verbs combined with pronouns such as ‘I’ll’ (for ‘I will’), ‘he’s’ (for ‘he is’ or ‘he has’), ‘it’s’ (for ‘it is’ or ‘it has’) and ‘they’re’ (for ‘they are’). Such contractions are not considered scholarly and should only be used in your thesis when you are accurately quoting direct speech and similar informal text from sources that use contractions (I use them in some of my examples, for instance). In your own prose, however, all such contractions should be expanded, so do watch for these as you proofread your chapter drafts. For more information on contractions, including those that are acceptable in scholarly prose, see Section 5.6.3.

5.4.8 Consistency and Variation in Word Use

It is important to strike a balance between consistency and variation in the vocabulary used in a thesis. While variety can contribute to an interesting writing style and is important for retaining the reader’s interest, precision and consistency are absolutely essential to reporting results and presenting an argument effectively, so it is always better to tip the scales in favour of clear communication. Many minor words in a sentence can easily be changed or eliminated to create variety and avoid repetition without altering the meaning of your text, but if you vary or eliminate terms that define important aspects and elements of your research, methodology and argument or that report the precise results of tests and trials, ambiguity and misinterpretation can result. In the case of comparison, for instance, the exact details of each side of a comparison or contrast should be clearly outlined, and a sentence such as ‘I compared the scores the executives earned in the third trial with the employees’ is confusing and simply wrong: the scores earned by the executives were no doubt compared with the scores earned by the employees (not the employees themselves), and the employees’ scores were probably obtained in a numbered trial as well, so the reader needs more precise information. A statement such as ‘purple hats were given to half of the executives, but yellow to employees’ is also problematic. The reader can easily supply the verb (‘were given’) missing from the second half of the sentence and it is also fairly clear that ‘yellow’ stands for ‘yellow hats,’ but he or she may be wondering ‘to how many employees?’ Does the author mean that hats were given to half of the employees or to all employees included in the study? Clearly, further explanation is needed here as well, and the use of specific numbers and percentages would probably be far more effective. Finally, the terms and definitions used for specific concepts and categories should remain consistent throughout a thesis, especially when those concepts and categories are central to the study or argument: for example, if the study groups have been introduced as ‘smokers group,’ ‘nonsmokers group’ and ‘control group,’ that terminology should not change part way through the thesis or be different in tables and figures that accompany the thesis; and if questionnaires are labelled A, B and C, they should not be referred to without the letters or via numbers instead because such references can increase the possibility of unnecessary confusion.

PRS Tip: The well-educated proofreaders at PRS are specialists in a variety of disciplines and experts in the English language. They know how scholarly writing in English should read because they are scholars, and some of them have published their own academic or scientific writing. So there is a great deal they can do to help you make your scholarly voice just what it should be, but it is essential that you do everything you can to ensure that your vocabulary, grammar and syntax are as correct and clear as possible before you send your thesis or proposal chapters for proofreading. Remember that if a seasoned professional proofreader familiar with academic and scientific prose, your specific discipline and the errors commonly encountered when working across languages is not able to make sense of what you are trying to say, it is very difficult for him or her to provide assistance. When PRS proofreaders read documents for clients, they generally strike up a dialogue in marginal comments, and clients are welcome to initiate a dialogue with their proofreaders as well. If you are having trouble with a particular construction or a specific section in your thesis, you should therefore feel free to explain the problem as well as you can in a marginal comment within your Word document or in the instructions you include with the document. This sort of proactive approach will enable your proofreader to direct attention where it is most needed and help you maximise the effect of the money you spend on professional proofreading.

Why PhD Success?

To Graduate Successfully

This article is part of a book called "PhD Success" which focuses on the writing process of a phd thesis, with its aim being to provide sound practices and principles for reporting and formatting in text the methods, results and discussion of even the most innovative and unique research in ways that are clear, correct, professional and persuasive.

The assumption of the book is that the doctoral candidate reading it is both eager to write and more than capable of doing so, but nonetheless requires information and guidance on exactly what he or she should be writing and how best to approach the task. The basic components of a doctoral thesis are outlined and described, as are the elements of complete and accurate scholarly references, and detailed descriptions of writing practices are clarified through the use of numerous examples.

The basic components of a doctoral thesis are outlined and described, as are the elements of complete and accurate scholarly references, and detailed descriptions of writing practices are clarified through the use of numerous examples. PhD Success provides guidance for students familiar with English and the procedures of English universities, but it also acknowledges that many theses in the English language are now written by candidates whose first language is not English, so it carefully explains the scholarly styles, conventions and standards expected of a successful doctoral thesis in the English language.

Individual chapters of this book address reflective and critical writing early in the thesis process; working successfully with thesis supervisors and benefiting from commentary and criticism; drafting and revising effective thesis chapters and developing an academic or scientific argument; writing and formatting a thesis in clear and correct scholarly English; citing, quoting and documenting sources thoroughly and accurately; and preparing for and excelling in thesis meetings and examinations. 

Completing a doctoral thesis successfully requires long and penetrating thought, intellectual rigour and creativity, original research and sound methods (whether established or innovative), precision in recording detail and a wide-ranging thoroughness, as much perseverance and mental toughness as insight and brilliance, and, no matter how many helpful writing guides are consulted, a great deal of hard work over a significant period of time. Writing a thesis can be an enjoyable as well as a challenging experience, however, and even if it is not always so, the personal and professional rewards of achieving such an enormous goal are considerable, as all doctoral candidates no doubt realise, and will last a great deal longer than any problems that may be encountered during the process.

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Rene Tetzner

Rene Tetzner's blog posts dedicated to academic writing. Although the focus is on How To Write a Doctoral Thesis, many other important aspects of research-based writing, editing and publishing are addressed in helpful detail.

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