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How to Cite a Case Study in APA, MLA, or Chicago

When citing a case study, the format in MLA and APA is similar to that of a report, and in Chicago style, it is similar to that of a book. For all three citation styles, you will need the name of the author(s), the title of the case study, the year it was published, the publishing organization/publisher, and URL (if applicable). The templates and examples below will demonstrate how to cite a case study in MLA, APA, and Chicago styles.

Author Last Name, Author First Name.  Title of Case Study . Edition (if applicable), volume number (if applicable), Publisher, year of publication, URL without http:// or https:// (if applicable).

Hill, Linda A., et al. HCL Technologies (A). Rev. edition, Harvard Business School, 2008, www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=34784.

In-text Citation:

(Author Last Name(s) page #)

(Hill et al. 8)

Author Last Name, Author Initial. (Publication Year). Title of Case Study (Case # if applicable). Publishing Organization. URL

Hill, L., Khanna, T., & Stecker, E. (2008). HCL Technologies (A) (Case 408-004). Harvard Business School. https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=34784

(Author Last Name, Publication Year)

(Hill et al., 2008)

Notes-bibliography style

Author Last Name, First Name.  Title of the Case Study . Publishing City: Publishing Organization, Publication Year. URL.

Hill, Linda A., Tarun Khanna, and Emily Stecker. HCL Technologies (A).  Boston: Harvard Business School, 2008. https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=34784.

1. Author First Name Last Name, Title of the Case Study (Publishing City: Publishing Organization, Publication Year), URL.

1. Linda A. Hill, Tarun Khanna, and Emily Stecker, HCL Technologies (A) ( Boston: Harvard Business School, 2008), https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=34784.

Author-date style

Author Last Name, First Name. Publication Year. Title of the Case Study . Publishing City: Publishing Organization. URL.

Hill, Linda A., Tarun Khanna, and Emily Stecker. 2008. HCL Technologies (A).  Boston: Harvard Business School. https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=34784.

In-text citation: 

(Author Last Name Publication Date)

(Holl, Khanna, and Stecker 2008)

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APA Citation Guide (APA 7th Edition): Case Studies

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Case Study from a Library Database

Case study from a website.

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Case Study from a Print Book or eBook

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Reference : Author/editor Last name, Initials. (Year) 'Title of case study' [Case Study], Journal Title, Volume (Issue), pp. page numbers. Available at: URL [Accessed Day Month Year].

Ofek, E., Avery, J., Rudolph, S., Martins Gomes, V., Saadat, N., Tsui, A., & Shroff, Y. (2014) 'Case study second thoughts about a strategy shift' [Case Study], Harvard Business Review , 92(12), pp. 125-129. Available at: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=99621003&site=ehost-live [Accessed 10 December 2014].

In-Text-Citation :

• (Author last name, Year)
• Author last name (Year)...
• In their case study Ofek et al. (2014) describe how marketing to the young generation...

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Still unsure why you need to reference all this information? Check here . 

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Published February 4, 2021. Updated August 9, 2021.

To create a reference or citation for a case study, you will need to know basic information including the name of the author, title of the case study, journal or book title, and publication year.

The templates and examples below will show you how to cite a case study in MLA style, APA style, Chicago style, and Harvard referencing style.

Easily cite a case study in the style of your choice using the  Chegg Writing citation generator .

Help protect your paper against accidental plagiarism with the Chegg Writing  plagiarism checker  and  citation generator .

Citing a case study in MLA style

In-text citation template and example:

(Author Surname Page number)

(Rapp and Caramazza 373)

Works cited entry template and example:

Surname, First M. “Title of the Case Study.”  Name of Publication , Volume number, Issue number, Publication Day Month Year, Page number. Case study.

Rapp, Brenda, and Alfonso Caramazza. “Selective Difficulties with Spoken Nouns and Written Verbs: A Single Case Study.”  Journal of Neurolinguistics , vol. 15, no. 3, 2002, pp. 373–402. Case Study.

Citing a case study in APA style

(Author Surname, Year)

(Rapp & Caramazza, 2002)

Reference list entry template and example:

Surname, F. M. (Publication Year). Title of the case study [Case study].  Name of Publication , Volume(Issue), Page number.

Rapp, B., & Caramazza, A. (2002). Selective difficulties with spoken nouns and written verbs: A single case study [Case study].  Journal of Neurolinguistics,  15(3), 373–402.

Citing a case study in Chicago style, notes-bibliography

Footnote template and example:

Author Full Name, “Title of the Case Study,”

Name of Publication

Volume number, Issue number (Publication Month Day, Year): Page number.

Brenda Rapp and Alfonso Caramazza, “Selective Difficulties with Spoken Nouns and Written Verbs: A Single Case Study,”

Journal of Neurolinguistics

15, no. 3 (2002): 373.

Shortened Note

Author Surname, “Shortened Title of the Case Study,” Page number.

Rapp and Caramazza, “Selective Difficulties,” 402.

Bibliography entry template and example:

Author Surname, First M. “Title of the Case Study.”  Name of Publication  Volume number, Issue number (Publication Month Day, Year): Page number.

Rapp, Brenda, and Alfonso Caramazza. “Selective Difficulties with Spoken Nouns and Written Verbs: A Single Case Study.”  Journal of Neurolinguistics  15, no. 3 (2002): 373–402.

Citing a case study in Chicago style, author-date

(Author Surname Publication year)

(Rapp and Caramazza 2002)

Author Surname, First M. Publication year. “Title of the Case Study.”  Name of Publication  Volume number, Issue number: Page number.

Rapp, Brenda, and Alfonso Caramazza. 2002. “Selective Difficulties with Spoken Nouns and Written Verbs: A Single Case Study.”  Journal of Neurolinguistics  15, no. 3: 373–402.

How to cite a case study in Harvard referencing style

(Author Surname, Publication Year)

(Rapp and Caramazza, 2002)

Author Surname, F.M. (Publication Year) ‘Title of case study’,  Name of Journal , Volume(Issue), pp. #-#.

Rapp, B. and Caramazza, A. (2002) ‘Selective difficulties with spoken nouns and written verbs: A single case study’,  Journal of Neurolinguistics , 15(3-5), pp. 373–402.

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Q. How do I cite a case study in APA Style?

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APA Style (7th ed.)

Case study with a DOI

If the case study has an assigned DOI (print or online versions), include the DOI in the reference.

Khan, S. (2019). Managing a leadership transition in an non-governmental organization [Case study]. SAGE Business Cases Originals. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526465061

• In-text citation: (Khan, 2019, p. X)

Case study without a DOI retrieved from an academic research database

Peters, C., Thomas, J., Aponte, M., Connelly, R., & Judge, S. (2014).  Media Arts Group and the case of channel conflict [Case study]. Society for Case Research.

• In-text citation: (Peters et al., 2014, p. X)

American Psychological Association. (2020).  Publication manual of the American Psychological Association  (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

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How to Cite a Case Study in APA: A Comprehensive Guide

If you’re writing an academic paper, you may need to cite a case study. But how do you do that? This guide will explain everything you need to know about citing a case study in APA format.

Table of Contents

What is APA?

APA stands for American Psychological Association. It is a style guide used by many academic disciplines, including psychology, sociology, and business. The purpose of the APA style is to provide a consistent format for academic writing, making it easier for readers to understand and follow the author’s argument.

Why is it important to cite a case study?

Citing a case study is important for several reasons. First, it gives credit to the original author for their work. Second, it allows readers to find the source if they want to learn more. Finally, it adds credibility to your work by demonstrating that you have researched and referenced other relevant studies.

How to cite a case study in APA format

Here are the steps you need to follow to cite a case study in APA format:

Step 1: Start with the author’s last name and first initial.

The first step in citing a case study is to list the author’s last name and first initial. For example Smith, J.

Step 2: Include the year of publication in parentheses.

Next, you need to include the year of publication in parentheses. For example: (2018).

Step 3: Provide the title of the case study in italics.

After the year of publication, you need to provide the title of the case study in italics. For example The impact of social media on adolescent mental health.

Step 4: Add the name of the publisher.

The next step is to add the name of the publisher. For example Harvard Business Review Press.

Step 5: Include the DOI or URL.

Finally, you need to include the DOI or URL where the case study can be found. For example https://doi.org/10.1145/1234567.1234567

Here’s what the final citation should look like:

Smith, J. (2018). The impact of social media on adolescent mental health. Harvard Business Review Press. https://doi.org/10.1145/1234567.1234567

What to do if there is no DOI or URL

If you cannot find a DOI or URL for the case study, you can omit it from the citation. In that case, you should include the name of the database where you found the case study instead. For example:

Smith, J. (2018). The impact of social media on adolescent mental health. Harvard Business Review Press. Academic Search Complete.

Tips for citing a case study in APA format

• Always check the specific requirements of your instructor or publisher to ensure that you are following their guidelines correctly.
• Double-check your citations to make sure that you have included all the necessary information.
• If you are citing multiple case studies from the same author or publisher, you can use a shortened version of the citation after the first one. For example Smith (2018, p. 25).

Citing a case study in APA format may seem daunting at first, but it is quite simple once you know the steps. By following the guidelines in this article, you can ensure that your citations are accurate and complete and that you are giving credit to the original authors for their work.

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FAQ: How do I cite a Harvard Business Review case study in APA Style?

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Last Updated: Jul 16, 2024 Views: 76239

The APA Manual does not include instructions on how to cite a Harvard Business Review case study. When citing case studies in APA style you will want to include the typical citation elements and apply general formatting guidelines. The following are examples of how case studies could be cited in APA style, but be sure to check with your professor about how they would like you to cite case studies in your work.

In-Text Citations

Kotter (1990) explains the steps British Airways took to reverse a horrible customer service atmosphere and financial crisis.

… as the case study concluded (Bisell & Tram, 2007).

Groysberg and Connolly (2015) concluded in their case study that….

Reference List

General format.

Author(s). (Year). Title of case study . HBS No. number of case study. Publisher.

Example, one author

Kotter, J. (1990). Changing the culture at British Airways . HBS No. 491-009. Harvard Business School Publishing.

Example, two authors

Groysberg, B., & Connolly, K. (2015). BlackRock: Diversity as a driver for success . HBS No. 415-047. Harvard Business School Publishing.

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This information is intended to be a guideline, not expert advice. Please be sure to speak to your professor about the appropriate way to cite sources in your class assignments and projects.

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• Case studies

General format

There is no specific way to reference a case study in APA style. Case studies are typically published as an article or report, or within a book. Format the reference list entry according to the type of publication. Following are some examples of case studies in business.

Business case study

Author(s). (Year).   Title of case study . Number of case study. URL

Harvard business school case study

Dey, A. (2022). Corporate governance: A three pillar framework. HBS No. 491-009.  https://hbsp.harvard.edu/cases/

Ivey business school case study

Dunbar, C., & Southam, C. (2005). London youth symphony. Ivey ID: 9B05009.  http://iveycases.com

Style notes

• If the case study is not numbered, leave it out of the reference entry.
• If the source is a book, format the reference according to the rules for books.
• If the source is a journal, format the reference according to the rules for journal articles.
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How to Cite a Case Study

Last Updated: March 6, 2024

This article was reviewed by Gerald Posner and by wikiHow staff writer, Jennifer Mueller, JD . Gerald Posner is an Author & Journalist based in Miami, Florida. With over 35 years of experience, he specializes in investigative journalism, nonfiction books, and editorials. He holds a law degree from UC College of the Law, San Francisco, and a BA in Political Science from the University of California-Berkeley. He’s the author of thirteen books, including several New York Times bestsellers, the winner of the Florida Book Award for General Nonfiction, and has been a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize in History. He was also shortlisted for the Best Business Book of 2020 by the Society for Advancing Business Editing and Writing. This article has been viewed 37,854 times.

Particularly in research for business studies or papers in the social sciences, you may want to cite a case study completed by a university or other organization. While case studies have titles and publication information like other articles, they often have a unique case study number that is typically included in your citation. While Chicago citation style is most frequently used in business schools, you may also use the American Psychological Association (APA) or Modern Language Association (MLA) style.

Sample Citations

• Example: Lee, Stan.
• If there is more than one author, list the additional authors' names in first-middle initial-last format. Separate author's names with commas, with the word "and" before the last author's name.

• Example: Lee, Stan. "DC Comics in 2016." HBS No. 999-111.

• Example: Lee, Stan. "DC Comics in 2016." HBS No. 999-111. Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2017.

• Example: Lee, Stan. "DC Comics in 2016." HBS No. 999-111. Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2017. http://hbsp.harvard.edu, accessed July 2018.

• Print example: Stan Lee, "DC Comics in 2016," HBS No. 999-111 (Boston, Harvard Business School Publishing, 2017), p. 14.
• Online example: Stan Lee, "DC Comics in 2016," HBS No. 999-111 (Boston, Harvard Business School Publishing, 2017), http://hbsp.harvard.edu, accessed July 2018.

• Example: Lee, S.
• Separate the names of multiple authors with commas, placing an ampersand before the last author's name.

• Example: Lee, S. (2017).
• If there is no year of publication listed, use the abbreviation "n.d." in the parentheses.

• Example: Lee, S. (2017). DC Comics in 2016 .

• Example: Lee, S. (2017). DC Comics in 2016 . HBS No. 999-111.

• Example: Lee, S. (2017). DC Comics in 2016 . HBS No. 999-111. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing.

• Example: (Lee, 2017).

• If there are 2 authors, place the word "and" between their names. For 3 or more, use commas with the word "and" before the final author. After the first author, list subsequent authors with their first name followed by their last name. For example: Lee, Stan and Clark Kent.

• Example: Lee, Stan. DC Comics in 2016. Case Study.

• Example: Lee, Stan. DC Comics in 2016. Case Study. Boston. Harvard Business School Publishing, 2017.
• Note that unlike many other citation styles, the unique case study number is not necessarily included for MLA citations. Ask your instructor or supervisor if they want this information included in your citation.

• Print example: Lee, Stan. DC Comics in 2016. Case Study. Boston. Harvard Business School Publishing, 2017. Print.
• Web example: Lee, Stan. DC Comics in 2016. Case Study. Boston. Harvard Business School Publishing, 2017. Web. 17 July 2018.
• If you accessed the case study online, you may put the URL of the case study. However, this isn't required by MLA style. Ask your instructor or supervisor for their preference.

• Example: (Lee 27).

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• ↑ https://guides.library.ualberta.ca/apa-citation-style/case-studies
• ↑ http://libanswers.snhu.edu/faq/128490
• ↑ http://libanswers.walsh.edu/faq/147917
• ↑ http://maag.guides.ysu.edu/businesscitations/mla

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Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible. 

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

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McCombes, S. (2023, January 30). Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved 2 September 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/case-studies/

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Answer Last Updated: Aug 23, 2023     Views: 20547

Author's Last Name, Author's First Name. "Title of Case Study." Case Study Number (if given), Publisher, Year of Publication.  Database Name . Case Study.

Havard, Cody T. " Basketball at the Most Magical Place on Earth: A Case Study of the NBA’s Season Conclusion at Walt Disney World Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic." SAGE, 2021.  SAGE Business Cases . Case Study.   

  According to APA, case studies do not have their own citation style or process, instead, cite as an article. 

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How to Cite a Case Study: Different Styles

November 20, 2023

Properly citing case studies plays a crucial role in academic writing for several reasons. Firstly, citing case studies demonstrates the credibility and reliability of your arguments and research. By referencing the original sources, you show that you have conducted thorough research and have used reputable and authoritative information to support your claims.

Secondly, citing case studies allows readers to further explore the topic and verify the information provided. It enables them to locate and read the full case study if they wish to delve deeper into the details and findings. This promotes transparency and fosters a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.

Finally, citing case studies acknowledges the contributions of the original authors and researchers. By giving proper credit, you adhere to ethical standards of academic integrity and avoid plagiarism. It also ensures that the individuals responsible for the case study receive recognition for their work.

In summary, citing case studies is essential in academic writing to enhance credibility, facilitate further exploration, and acknowledge the original authors’ contributions.

Basic Guidelines for Citing a Case Study

When citing a case study in your essay, it is important to follow some basic guidelines to ensure accuracy and consistency. Here are the key guidelines to keep in mind:

• Identify the case study: Start by providing the full title of the case study, along with the names of the authors or researchers involved. Include any relevant publication information, such as the name of the journal or book in which the case study is published.
• Format the citation style: Depending on the citation style required by your academic institution or professor, format your case study citation accordingly. Common citation styles include APA, MLA, Chicago, and Harvard. Each style has specific rules for formatting and referencing case studies, so familiarize yourself with the requirements of the chosen style.
• Include the case study publication date: In addition to the authors’ names and title, mention the date on which the case study was published. This provides important chronological context for your readers and allows them to assess the relevance and currency of the information presented.
• Provide a direct link or source: Whenever possible, include a direct link or source to the case study. This could be a URL to an online version of the case study, a DOI (Digital Object Identifier), or the volume and page numbers if it is published in a journal or book. This helps readers locate the case study easily and access it for further reading.

By adhering to these basic guidelines, you can ensure that your case study citations are accurate, consistent, and accessible for your readers. Remember to consult the specific guidelines of your chosen citation style to ensure complete adherence.

Citing a Case Study in APA Format

When citing a case study in APA format, follow these guidelines to accurately reference the source:

• Author(s) of the case study: Include the last name(s) and initials of the author(s) of the case study. If there are multiple authors, separate their names with commas and use an ampersand (&) before the last author’s name.
• Year of publication: Provide the year the case study was published in parentheses.
• Title of the case study: Use sentence case capitalization for the title. Only capitalize the first word and proper nouns.
• Source information: Depending on the source type, include additional details following the title. For example:
• If it is a journal article, include the journal name in italics, volume number(issue number), and page range.
• If it is a book chapter, include the book title in italics and the editors’ names.
• If it is an online source, provide the URL and the date of access.

Example APA citation for a case study:

• Single author: Author, A. (Year). Title of case study. Source information.
• Multiple authors: Author, A., & Author, B. (Year). Title of case study. Source information.

Make sure to properly format the citation, including hanging indents, use of italics, and punctuation. Additionally, list all the case studies you cited in a separate references page at the end of your essay, following APA formatting guidelines.

Citing a Case Study in MLA Format

When citing a case study in MLA format, follow these guidelines to reference the source accurately:

• Authors of the case study: Include the author’s name(s) in the order they appear in the source, but inverted (last name, first name).
• Title of the case study: Use sentence case capitalization. Capitalize the first word, proper nouns, and any other words that would normally be capitalized. Italicize the title.
• Title of the source: Use italics to indicate the title of the source. This could be the name of the journal, book, or website.
• Publication information: Depending on the source type, include additional details following the source title. For example:
• If it is a journal article, include the name of the journal in italics, volume number (issue number), and page range.
• If it is a book chapter, include the book title in italics, the editors’ names, publisher, year of publication, and page range.
• If it is an online source, provide the name of the website in italics, the date of publication, the name of the publisher, the URL, and the date of access.

Example MLA citation for a case study:

• Single author: Author last name, First name. “Title of case study.” Title of source, Publication information.
• Multiple authors: Last name, First name and First name Last name. “Title of case study.” Title of source, Publication information.

Remember to properly format the citation, including hanging indents, use of italics, and punctuation. Additionally, list all the case studies you cited in a separate works cited page at the end of your essay, following MLA formatting guidelines.

Citing a Case Study in Chicago Style

When citing a case study in Chicago style, follow these guidelines to reference the source accurately:

• Title of the case study: Use sentence case capitalization. Capitalize the first word, proper nouns, and any other words that would normally be capitalized. Enclose the title in double quotation marks.

Example Chicago citation for a case study:

• Single author: Author last name, first name. “Title of case study.” In Title of source, publication information.
• Multiple authors: Last name, first name, and first name last name. “Title of case study.” In Title of source, publication information.

Remember to properly format the citation, including hanging indents and punctuation. Additionally, list all the case studies you cited in a separate bibliography page at the end of your essay, following Chicago formatting guidelines.

Citing a Case Study in Harvard Style

When citing a case study in Harvard style, follow these guidelines to accurately reference the source:

• Authors of the case study: Include the last name(s) and initials of the author(s) of the case study. Separate multiple authors’ names with commas and use an ampersand (&) before the last author’s name.
• Title of the case study: Use sentence case capitalization for the title. Capitalize the first word, proper nouns, and any other words that would normally be capitalized. Italicize the title.

Example Harvard citation for a case study:

Ensure the citation is properly formatted, including punctuation, use of italics, and indentation. Also, list all the case studies cited in a separate references list at the end of the essay, following Harvard formatting guidelines.

Online Databases for Finding Case Studies

Finding case studies for your essay is made easier with the availability of online databases. These databases compile various case studies from different disciplines, allowing you to access a wide range of relevant examples. Here are some online databases you can use to find case studies:

• Google Scholar : This widely-used search engine provides access to scholarly articles, including case studies. Use specific keywords to narrow down your search and include the phrase “cite a case study” to find articles that specifically discuss how to cite case studies.
• EBSCOhost : EBSCOhost is a popular online research platform that offers access to multiple databases such as Academic Search Complete, Business Source Complete, and Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection. These databases contain numerous case studies across various fields.
• JSTOR : JSTOR is a digital library that provides access to academic journals, books, and primary sources. It covers diverse disciplines and includes a vast collection of case studies that can be useful for your research.
• ProQuest : ProQuest is another comprehensive research tool that offers access to a wide range of databases, including scholarly journals, newspapers, and dissertations. It houses a substantial collection of case studies covering multiple subject areas.

When searching in these databases, use keywords specific to your topic, such as the name of the industry or concept you are focusing on. Additionally, if you find a relevant case study, make sure to cite it correctly using the appropriate citation style.

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Harvard Referencing Style: Case Studies & Standards

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Referencing Case Studies

IN-TEXT CITATION

Spar and Burns (2000) ...

.... (Spar & Burns, 2000)

"....." (Spar & Burns, 2000:8)

FORMAT OF A REFERENCE TO A CASE STUDY

Author’s surname, Initials. Year. ‘Title.’ Case number. Place: Publisher or Institution.

Note that the title is not italicised.

EXAMPLE OF A REFERENCE TO A PRINTED CASE STUDY

Spar, D. and Burns, J. 2000. ‘Hitting the wall: Nike and International Labor Practices.’ HBS 700047.  Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing.

EXAMPLE OF A REFERENCE TO AN ELECTRONIC CASE STUDY FROM A DATABASE

Mathu, K.M. and Scheepers, C . 2016.  'L eading change towards sustainable green coal mining'. Available from: Emerald Emerging Markets Case Studies, < https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/full/10.1108/ EEMCS-01-2016-0007> [Accessed on: 7 June 2017].

Referencing Standards

South African Bureau of Standards (2013) ...

... (South African Bureau of Standards, 2013).

"....." (South African Bureau of Standards, 2013: 3).

FORMAT OF A REFERENCE  TO A STANDARD

Name of the Authorizing Body. Year.  Number and Title of Standard.  Place of Publication: Publisher.

 EXAMPLE OF A REFERENCE TO A PRINT STANDARD

British Standards Institute.2015.  ​BS ISO 14001:Environmental management systems. Requirements with guidance for use.  ​London: British Standards Institute.

EXAMPLE OF A REFERENCE  TO AN ELECTRONIC STANDARD TAKEN FROM A DATABASE

South African Bureau of Standards. 2013.  SANS 1300​: Quality management — Customer satisfaction — Guidelines for monitoring and measuring ​. [online]. Pretoria: South African Bureau of Standards. Available from:<https://www.sabs.co.za/Standardss/index.asp> [ Accessed on: 17 March 2014].

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How to Cite a Case Study in APA Format

Researchers in the behavioral and social sciences often use case studies to analyze new phenomena. The sixth edition of the "Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association" offers style and format guidelines for these writers. However, a case study does not have its own citation style. Instead, reference the book or journal that published the study.

In-Text Citation

After discussing a case study in text, include a reference citation within parentheses. Insert the author's last name, a comma and the date, such as (Doe, 1998). If you mention the author in text, omit the name.

Book Reference

Include in-text citations of case studies on the References page. For a book, begin with the author's last name, a comma, initials and a period. Put the publication date inside parentheses. Add a period. Insert the italicized title of the book in sentence case and a period. Conclude with the publication location, a colon, the publisher and a period;

for example: Doe, J. (1998). Psychological case studies. New York: Psych Books.

Journal Reference

Put an in-text citation to a case study from an article on the References page. Start with the author's last name, a comma, initials and a period. Insert the year inside parentheses. Add a period. List the title of the article in sentence case followed by a period. Include the italicized title of the journal, a comma and volume number. Add a comma, the hyphenated page numbers and a period;

for instance: Smith, T. (2009). An economic case study. Economics Today, 27, 156-167.

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Living in upstate New York, Susan Sherwood is a researcher who has been writing within educational settings for more than 10 years. She has co-authored papers for Horizons Research, Inc. and the Capital Region Science Education Partnership. Sherwood has a Ph.D. in curriculum and instruction from the University at Albany.

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• Knowledge Base
• Citing sources

How to Cite Sources | Citation Generator & Quick Guide

Citing your sources is essential in  academic writing . Whenever you quote or paraphrase a source (such as a book, article, or webpage), you have to include a  citation crediting the original author.

Failing to properly cite your sources counts as plagiarism , since you’re presenting someone else’s ideas as if they were your own.

The most commonly used citation styles are APA and MLA. The free Scribbr Citation Generator is the quickest way to cite sources in these styles. Simply enter the URL, DOI, or title, and we’ll generate an accurate, correctly formatted citation.

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Table of contents

When do you need to cite sources, which citation style should you use, in-text citations, reference lists and bibliographies.

Scribbr Citation Generator

Other useful citation tools

Citation examples and full guides, frequently asked questions about citing sources.

Citations are required in all types of academic texts. They are needed for several reasons:

• To avoid plagiarism by indicating when you’re taking information from another source
• To give proper credit to the author of that source
• To allow the reader to consult your sources for themselves

A citation is needed whenever you integrate a source into your writing. This usually means quoting or paraphrasing:

• To quote a source , copy a short piece of text word for word and put it inside quotation marks .
• To paraphrase a source , put the text into your own words. It’s important that the paraphrase is not too close to the original wording. You can use the paraphrasing tool if you don’t want to do this manually.

Citations are needed whether you quote or paraphrase, and whatever type of source you use. As well as citing scholarly sources like books and journal articles, don’t forget to include citations for any other sources you use for ideas, examples, or evidence. That includes websites, YouTube videos , and lectures .

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Usually, your institution (or the journal you’re submitting to) will require you to follow a specific citation style, so check your guidelines or ask your instructor.

In some cases, you may have to choose a citation style for yourself. Make sure to pick one style and use it consistently:

• APA Style is widely used in the social sciences and beyond.
• MLA style is common in the humanities.
• Chicago notes and bibliography , common in the humanities
• Chicago author-date , used in the (social) sciences
• There are many other citation styles for different disciplines.

If in doubt, check with your instructor or read other papers from your field of study to see what style they follow.

In most styles, your citations consist of:

• Brief in-text citations at the relevant points in the text
• A reference list or bibliography containing full information on all the sources you’ve cited

In-text citations most commonly take the form of parenthetical citations featuring the last name of the source’s author and its year of publication (aka author-date citations).

An alternative to this type of in-text citation is the system used in numerical citation styles , where a number is inserted into the text, corresponding to an entry in a numbered reference list.

There are also note citation styles , where you place your citations in either footnotes or endnotes . Since they’re not embedded in the text itself, these citations can provide more detail and sometimes aren’t accompanied by a full reference list or bibliography.

A reference list (aka “Bibliography” or “Works Cited,” depending on the style) is where you provide full information on each of the sources you’ve cited in the text. It appears at the end of your paper, usually with a hanging indent applied to each entry.

The information included in reference entries is broadly similar, whatever citation style you’re using. For each source, you’ll typically include the:

• Author name
• Publication date
• Container (e.g., the book an essay was published in, the journal an article appeared in)
• Location (e.g., a URL or DOI , or sometimes a physical location)

The exact information included varies depending on the source type and the citation style. The order in which the information appears, and how you format it (e.g., capitalization, use of italics) also varies.

Most commonly, the entries in your reference list are alphabetized by author name. This allows the reader to easily find the relevant entry based on the author name in your in-text citation.

In numerical citation styles, the entries in your reference list are numbered, usually based on the order in which you cite them. The reader finds the right entry based on the number that appears in the text.

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The AI-powered Citation Checker helps you avoid common mistakes such as:

• Missing commas and periods
• Incorrect usage of “et al.”
• Ampersands (&) in narrative citations
• Missing reference entries

Because each style has many small differences regarding things like italicization, capitalization , and punctuation , it can be difficult to get every detail right. Using a citation generator can save you a lot of time and effort.

Scribbr offers citation generators for both APA and MLA style. Both are quick, easy to use, and 100% free, with no ads and no registration required.

Just input a URL or DOI or add the source details manually, and the generator will automatically produce an in-text citation and reference entry in the correct format. You can save your reference list as you go and download it when you’re done, and even add annotations for an annotated bibliography .

Once you’ve prepared your citations, you might still be unsure if they’re correct and if you’ve used them appropriately in your text. This is where Scribbr’s other citation tools and services may come in handy:

Plagiarism Checker

Citation Checker

Citation Editing

Plagiarism means passing off someone else’s words or ideas as your own. It’s a serious offense in academia. Universities use plagiarism checking software to scan your paper and identify any similarities to other texts.

When you’re dealing with a lot of sources, it’s easy to make mistakes that could constitute accidental plagiarism. For example, you might forget to add a citation after a quote, or paraphrase a source in a way that’s too close to the original text.

Using a plagiarism checker yourself before you submit your work can help you spot these mistakes before they get you in trouble. Based on the results, you can add any missing citations and rephrase your text where necessary.

Try out the Scribbr Plagiarism Checker for free, or check out our detailed comparison of the best plagiarism checkers available online.

Scribbr Plagiarism Checker

Scribbr’s Citation Checker is a unique AI-powered tool that automatically detects stylistic errors and inconsistencies in your in-text citations. It also suggests a correction for every mistake.

Currently available for APA Style, this is the fastest and easiest way to make sure you’ve formatted your citations correctly. You can try out the tool for free below.

If you need extra help with your reference list, we also offer a more in-depth Citation Editing Service.

Our experts cross-check your in-text citations and reference entries, make sure you’ve included the correct information for each source, and improve the formatting of your reference page.

If you want to handle your citations yourself, Scribbr’s free Knowledge Base provides clear, accurate guidance on every aspect of citation. You can see citation examples for a variety of common source types below:

And you can check out our comprehensive guides to the most popular citation styles:

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

The abbreviation “ et al. ” (Latin for “and others”) is used to shorten citations of sources with multiple authors.

“Et al.” is used in APA in-text citations of sources with 3+ authors, e.g. (Smith et al., 2019). It is not used in APA reference entries .

Use “et al.” for 3+ authors in MLA in-text citations and Works Cited entries.

Use “et al.” for 4+ authors in a Chicago in-text citation , and for 10+ authors in a Chicago bibliography entry.

The Scribbr Citation Generator is developed using the open-source Citation Style Language (CSL) project and Frank Bennett’s citeproc-js . It’s the same technology used by dozens of other popular citation tools, including Mendeley and Zotero.

You can find all the citation styles and locales used in the Scribbr Citation Generator in our publicly accessible repository on Github .

APA format is widely used by professionals, researchers, and students in the social and behavioral sciences, including fields like education, psychology, and business.

Be sure to check the guidelines of your university or the journal you want to be published in to double-check which style you should be using.

MLA Style  is the second most used citation style (after APA ). It is mainly used by students and researchers in humanities fields such as literature, languages, and philosophy.

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How to Write a Case Study - All You Wanted to Know

What do you study in your college? If you are a psychology, sociology, or anthropology student, we bet you might be familiar with what a case study is. This research method is used to study a certain person, group, or situation. In this guide from our dissertation writing service , you will learn how to write a case study professionally, from researching to citing sources properly. Also, we will explore different types of case studies and show you examples — so that you won’t have any other questions left.

What Is a Case Study?

A case study is a subcategory of research design which investigates problems and offers solutions. Case studies can range from academic research studies to corporate promotional tools trying to sell an idea—their scope is quite vast.

What Is the Difference Between a Research Paper and a Case Study?

While research papers turn the reader’s attention to a certain problem, case studies go even further. Case study guidelines require students to pay attention to details, examining issues closely and in-depth using different research methods. For example, case studies may be used to examine court cases if you study Law, or a patient's health history if you study Medicine. Case studies are also used in Marketing, which are thorough, empirically supported analysis of a good or service's performance. Well-designed case studies can be valuable for prospective customers as they can identify and solve the potential customers pain point.

Case studies involve a lot of storytelling – they usually examine particular cases for a person or a group of people. This method of research is very helpful, as it is very practical and can give a lot of hands-on information. Most commonly, the length of the case study is about 500-900 words, which is much less than the length of an average research paper.

The structure of a case study is very similar to storytelling. It has a protagonist or main character, which in your case is actually a problem you are trying to solve. You can use the system of 3 Acts to make it a compelling story. It should have an introduction, rising action, a climax where transformation occurs, falling action, and a solution.

Here is a rough formula for you to use in your case study:

Problem (Act I): > Solution (Act II) > Result (Act III) > Conclusion.

Types of Case Studies

The purpose of a case study is to provide detailed reports on an event, an institution, a place, future customers, or pretty much anything. There are a few common types of case study, but the type depends on the topic. The following are the most common domains where case studies are needed:

• Historical case studies are great to learn from. Historical events have a multitude of source info offering different perspectives. There are always modern parallels where these perspectives can be applied, compared, and thoroughly analyzed.
• Problem-oriented case studies are usually used for solving problems. These are often assigned as theoretical situations where you need to immerse yourself in the situation to examine it. Imagine you’re working for a startup and you’ve just noticed a significant flaw in your product’s design. Before taking it to the senior manager, you want to do a comprehensive study on the issue and provide solutions. On a greater scale, problem-oriented case studies are a vital part of relevant socio-economic discussions.
• Cumulative case studies collect information and offer comparisons. In business, case studies are often used to tell people about the value of a product.
• Critical case studies explore the causes and effects of a certain case.
• Illustrative case studies describe certain events, investigating outcomes and lessons learned.

Need a compelling case study? EssayPro has got you covered. Our experts are ready to provide you with detailed, insightful case studies that capture the essence of real-world scenarios. Elevate your academic work with our professional assistance.

Case Study Format

The case study format is typically made up of eight parts:

• Executive Summary. Explain what you will examine in the case study. Write an overview of the field you’re researching. Make a thesis statement and sum up the results of your observation in a maximum of 2 sentences.
• Background. Provide background information and the most relevant facts. Isolate the issues.
• Case Evaluation. Isolate the sections of the study you want to focus on. In it, explain why something is working or is not working.
• Proposed Solutions. Offer realistic ways to solve what isn’t working or how to improve its current condition. Explain why these solutions work by offering testable evidence.
• Conclusion. Summarize the main points from the case evaluations and proposed solutions. 6. Recommendations. Talk about the strategy that you should choose. Explain why this choice is the most appropriate.
• Implementation. Explain how to put the specific strategies into action.
• References. Provide all the citations.

How to Write a Case Study

Let's discover how to write a case study.

Setting Up the Research

When writing a case study, remember that research should always come first. Reading many different sources and analyzing other points of view will help you come up with more creative solutions. You can also conduct an actual interview to thoroughly investigate the customer story that you'll need for your case study. Including all of the necessary research, writing a case study may take some time. The research process involves doing the following:

• Define your objective. Explain the reason why you’re presenting your subject. Figure out where you will feature your case study; whether it is written, on video, shown as an infographic, streamed as a podcast, etc.
• Determine who will be the right candidate for your case study. Get permission, quotes, and other features that will make your case study effective. Get in touch with your candidate to see if they approve of being part of your work. Study that candidate’s situation and note down what caused it.
• Identify which various consequences could result from the situation. Follow these guidelines on how to start a case study: surf the net to find some general information you might find useful.
• Make a list of credible sources and examine them. Seek out important facts and highlight problems. Always write down your ideas and make sure to brainstorm.
• Focus on several key issues – why they exist, and how they impact your research subject. Think of several unique solutions. Draw from class discussions, readings, and personal experience. When writing a case study, focus on the best solution and explore it in depth. After having all your research in place, writing a case study will be easy. You may first want to check the rubric and criteria of your assignment for the correct case study structure.

Read Also: ' WHAT IS A CREDIBLE SOURCES ?'

Although your instructor might be looking at slightly different criteria, every case study rubric essentially has the same standards. Your professor will want you to exhibit 8 different outcomes:

• Correctly identify the concepts, theories, and practices in the discipline.
• Identify the relevant theories and principles associated with the particular study.
• Evaluate legal and ethical principles and apply them to your decision-making.
• Recognize the global importance and contribution of your case.
• Construct a coherent summary and explanation of the study.
• Demonstrate analytical and critical-thinking skills.
• Explain the interrelationships between the environment and nature.
• Integrate theory and practice of the discipline within the analysis.

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Case Study Outline

Let's look at the structure of an outline based on the issue of the alcoholic addiction of 30 people.

Introduction

• Statement of the issue: Alcoholism is a disease rather than a weakness of character.
• Presentation of the problem: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there.
• Explanation of the terms: In the past, alcoholism was commonly referred to as alcohol dependence or alcohol addiction. Alcoholism is now the more severe stage of this addiction in the disorder spectrum.
• Hypotheses: Drinking in excess can lead to the use of other drugs.
• Importance of your story: How the information you present can help people with their addictions.
• Background of the story: Include an explanation of why you chose this topic.
• Presentation of analysis and data: Describe the criteria for choosing 30 candidates, the structure of the interview, and the outcomes.
• Strong argument 1: ex. X% of candidates dealing with anxiety and depression...
• Strong argument 2: ex. X amount of people started drinking by their mid-teens.
• Strong argument 3: ex. X% of respondents’ parents had issues with alcohol.
• Concluding statement: I have researched if alcoholism is a disease and found out that…
• Recommendations: Ways and actions for preventing alcohol use.

Writing a Case Study Draft

After you’ve done your case study research and written the outline, it’s time to focus on the draft. In a draft, you have to develop and write your case study by using: the data which you collected throughout the research, interviews, and the analysis processes that were undertaken. Follow these rules for the draft:

Use Data to Illustrate Key Points in Your Case Study

Even though your case study is a story, it should be based on evidence. Use as much data as possible to illustrate your point. Without the right data, your case study may appear weak and the readers may not be able to relate to your issue as much as they should. Let's see the examples from essay writing service :

‍ With data: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there. Without data: A lot of people suffer from alcoholism in the United States.

Try to include as many credible sources as possible. You may have terms or sources that could be hard for other cultures to understand. If this is the case, you should include them in the appendix or Notes for the Instructor or Professor.

Finalizing the Draft: Checklist

After you finish drafting your case study, polish it up by answering these ‘ask yourself’ questions and think about how to end your case study:

• Check that you follow the correct case study format, also in regards to text formatting.
• Check that your work is consistent with its referencing and citation style.
• Micro-editing — check for grammar and spelling issues.
• Macro-editing — does ‘the big picture’ come across to the reader? Is there enough raw data, such as real-life examples or personal experiences? Have you made your data collection process completely transparent? Does your analysis provide a clear conclusion, allowing for further research and practice?

Problems to avoid:

• Overgeneralization – Do not go into further research that deviates from the main problem.
• Failure to Document Limitations – Just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study, you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis.
• Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications – Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings.

How to Create a Title Page and Cite a Case Study

Let's see how to create an awesome title page.

Your title page depends on the prescribed citation format. The title page should include:

• A title that attracts some attention and describes your study
• The title should have the words “case study” in it
• The title should range between 5-9 words in length
• Your name and contact information
• Your finished paper should be only 500 to 1,500 words in length.With this type of assignment, write effectively and avoid fluff

Here is a template for the APA and MLA format title page:

There are some cases when you need to cite someone else's study in your own one – therefore, you need to master how to cite a case study. A case study is like a research paper when it comes to citations. You can cite it like you cite a book, depending on what style you need.

Citation Example in MLA ‍ Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing, 2008. Print.

Citation Example in APA ‍ Hill, L., Khanna, T., & Stecker, E. A. (2008). HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing.

Citation Example in Chicago Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies.

Case Study Examples

To give you an idea of a professional case study example, we gathered and linked some below.

Eastman Kodak Case Study

Case Study Example: Audi Trains Mexican Autoworkers in Germany

To conclude, a case study is one of the best methods of getting an overview of what happened to a person, a group, or a situation in practice. It allows you to have an in-depth glance at the real-life problems that businesses, healthcare industry, criminal justice, etc. may face. This insight helps us look at such situations in a different light. This is because we see scenarios that we otherwise would not, without necessarily being there. If you need custom essays , try our research paper writing services .

Get Help Form Qualified Writers

Crafting a case study is not easy. You might want to write one of high quality, but you don’t have the time or expertise. If you’re having trouble with your case study, help with essay request - we'll help. EssayPro writers have read and written countless case studies and are experts in endless disciplines. Request essay writing, editing, or proofreading assistance from our custom case study writing service , and all of your worries will be gone.

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What Is A Case Study?

How to cite a case study in apa, how to write a case study.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

How do I cite a case study that is in my textbook both in-text and for my reference page - APA format?

To see how to cite a textbook (and a case study from it), visit the  APA Help  guide:

• Click on References and In-text Citation Examples
• See the drop down arrow by Books  for one that matches your textbook.

Books: General Format

Author Last Name, First & Middle Initials. (Year).  Title of book: Subtitle of book.  City, ST: Publisher.

In-text : Paraphrase : (Last Name, Year).  Quotation : (Last Name, Year, p. Page Number).

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Psychological Theories

What are psychological theories.

Psychological theories are systematic explanations of human mental processes and behaviors, developed through both empirical research and field observation. These theories provide frameworks for understanding how and why people think, feel, and act the way they do, and guide both academic research and practical applications in areas like therapy, education, marketing, and public policy.

The Basic Idea

Theory, meet practice.

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If you’ve ever snoozed your alarm and then been late to work or school, you may look back and ask yourself: why did I do that? Maybe your bus driver saw you running for the bus and chose to keep on driving, and you ask yourself: what was going through his mind? Or maybe the day turned out okay, because you came home to your loving partner, and you thought to yourself: why am I so compatible with this person but not others? To begin unpacking these questions and more, we can turn to psychological theories to help us understand ourselves and the people around us.

Psychological theories are systematic frameworks for understanding, predicting, and explaining human behavior and mental processes. These theories include everything from cognitive theories , which focus on mental processes such as perception and memory, to behavioral theories , which examine the relationship between stimuli and responses. Although there are many ways to explain how and why we are the way we are, it is the constant testing and refining of different psychological theories that guides research and helps us to consistently improve our understanding of humans—both within academia and beyond. 

Most Influential Psychological Theories: 

• Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud): Focuses on the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior and uses concepts like the id, ego, superego, and psychosexual stages of development.
• Behaviorism (John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner): Emphasizes the study of observable behaviors and the role of environmental stimuli in shaping behavior, including classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
• Cognitive Development Theory (Jean Piaget): Explains how children's thinking evolves as they grow, identifying four stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational).
• Humanistic Psychology (Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow): Emphasizes individual potential, self-actualization, and the importance of personal growth and free will. This also includes Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Rogers' client-centered therapy.
• Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura): Proposes that people learn behaviors through observation, imitation, and modeling, rather than solely through direct reinforcement and uses reciprocal determinism, where behavior, personal factors, and the environment interact and influence each other.

The world makes much less sense than you think. The coherence comes mostly from the way your mind works. – Daniel Kahneman

Cognition: Mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension, including thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving.

Psychoanalysis: A therapy developed aimed at exploring the unconscious mind to understand and treat psychological disorders.

Positive Reinforcement : In behaviorism, the process of encouraging or establishing a pattern of behavior by offering a reward when the desired behavior is exhibited.

Montessori Method: An educational approach developed by Dr. Maria Montessori that emphasizes self-directed learning, hands-on activities, creativity, and a love for learning and collaborative play in a child-centered environment.

Herzberg's Motivation Theory: Also known as the two-factor theory, this theory proposes that job satisfaction is influenced by two distinct sets of factors: hygiene factors and motivator factors. Hygiene factors pertain to external conditions such as the workplace environment and salary, while motivator factors are typically intangible elements like receiving recognition or opportunities for personal growth.

As long as there have been humans, there have been questions about why we think and act the way we do. There have likely been countless theories developed throughout time that we have no written record of, such as those developed by native peoples. For many, the known history of psychological theories goes back to ancient philosophical inquiries about the human mind and behavior. Early thinkers like Plato and Aristotle laid the groundwork for understanding the mind's complexities, focusing on issues of perception, memory, and motivation. Hundreds of years later, the 17th century marked a significant shift with the rise of empiricism, championed by philosophers like John Locke who proposed that knowledge is derived from sensory experience. This idea laid the foundation for later psychological theories that emphasize the role of the environment in shaping behavior. 1

The formal birth of psychology as a scientific discipline is often credited to Wilhelm Wundt, who established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. Wundt's work marked the beginning of experimental psychology, where he used introspection to explore the structure of the conscious mind. His approach, known as structuralism, aimed to break down mental processes into their most basic components. Around the same time, William James in the United States was developing his own approach called functionalism, which focused on the purpose of consciousness and behavior in helping individuals adapt to their environment. These early schools of thought laid the groundwork for more complex psychological theories. 1

The early 20th century saw the emergence of several influential psychological theories that have shaped the field as we know it today. Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory introduced the idea of the unconscious mind and the role of early childhood experiences in shaping personality (he’s the guy who you usually picture talking to a patient while they lay on a couch, discovering a repressed memory). While Freud's ideas were revolutionary, they were (and still are) controversial, spurring the development of alternative theories. Behaviorism, led by John Watson and later B.F. Skinner, rejected the introspective methods of the past and focused instead on observable behavior, emphasizing the role of environmental stimuli in shaping actions. Behaviorism dominated psychology from the 1920s to the 1950s, particularly in the United States, influencing everything from education to advertising. 1

Toward the mid-20th century emerged a cognitive revolution, as cognitive psychologists began challenging the behaviorist movement by reintroducing the importance of mental processes. Pioneers like Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky argued that studying internal cognitive processes (like thinking, memory, and language) was crucial for a complete understanding of behavior. This shift led to the development of cognitive psychology, which remains one of the most prominent areas of the field today. Additionally, humanistic psychology, which was considered more of a ‘counter-movement’ to behaviorism, emerged during this time, with figures like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow emphasizing personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of people. All of these diverse perspectives have contributed to a more comprehensive and multifaceted understanding of human behavior, continuing to influence psychological research and practice today. 2

Plato (c. 427-347 BCE) : Greek philosopher from Athens known for his works on philosophy and the mind, including the theory of forms and the allegory of the cave.

Aristotle (384-322 BCE) : Greek philosopher from Stagira who studied under Plato and is renowned for his contributions to logic, metaphysics, and psychology, particularly his theory of the soul.

John Locke (1632-1704) : English philosopher, often called the "father of liberalism," known for his theory of empiricism, which posits that knowledge is derived from sensory experience.

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) : German psychologist, often regarded as the "father of modern psychology," who established the first psychology laboratory and developed the theory of structuralism.

William James (1842-1910) : American philosopher and psychologist, known as the "father of American psychology," who founded the school of functionalism and authored the first psychology textbook, The Principles of Psychology.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) : Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, known for his theories on the unconscious mind, psychosexual development, and defense mechanisms.

John B. Watson (1878-1958) : American psychologist, best known for founding behaviorism, which focuses on the study of observable behavior rather than internal mental processes.

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) : American psychologist and behaviorist, known for developing the theory of operant conditioning and his work on reinforcement and punishment.

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) : Swiss psychologist, famous for his theory of cognitive development, which outlines how children's thinking evolves through distinct stages.

Noam Chomsky (b. 1928) : American linguist, philosopher, and cognitive scientist, known for his theory of universal grammar and his critique of behaviorism in language acquisition.

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) : American psychologist, one of the founders of humanistic psychology, known for his client-centered therapy and emphasis on self-actualization.

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) : American psychologist, best known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory that outlines the stages of human motivation from basic needs to self-actualization.

Consequences

The impact of psychological theories extends far beyond academic research; scientifically understanding our own thoughts and behavior has influenced almost all aspects of modern life, shaping practices in education, marketing, public policy, and business.

In the realm of education, psychological theories have revolutionized teaching and learning methodologies. For example, certain developmental theories have provided educators with insights into how children think and learn at different stages. Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children progress through specific stages of cognitive growth, with each stage characterized by distinct thinking patterns. 3 Understanding these stages allows teachers to adjust their teaching strategies to better match the cognitive capacity of their students. 

Meanwhile, Lev Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development explains the gap between what a student can learn on their own versus with help. This theory posits that the role of education is to provide children with experiences that are in their proximal development stage, encouraging and advancing individual learning through social interaction. Students can solve problems independently, applying knowledge from conversations with peers and teachers to gradually develop the skills to perform tasks without direct help. 4 Understanding this theory has helped shape the role of teachers in the classroom; sometimes, it’s more about putting students in a situation where they can teach themselves to succeed rather than being explicitly taught. 

For better or worse, psychological theories have also left a huge mark on the field of marketing and consumer behavior. Behaviorism, with its focus on conditioning and reinforcement, has been particularly influential in understanding and shaping consumer habits. Marketers have applied principles of operant conditioning to design reward systems—like loyalty programs or memberships—that encourage repeat purchases by reinforcing desired behaviors. The understanding of cognitive biases, such as the availability heuristic and the framing effect , has also allowed many marketers to craft persuasive messages that influence buyer decision-making. All of these psychological insights have helped businesses increase sales and foster brand loyalty—potentially misleading or even taking advantage of customers. 

Public policy

Public policy is another major area where psychological theories have had significant consequences. Understanding human behavior has helped policymakers create more effective campaigns to improve public health, environmental protection, education systems, and programs that better address social issues such as poverty and crime. The application of small interventions that capitalize on our biases in a nonrestrictive way (often referred to as “ nudging ”), has gained prominence in recent years. This approach, popularized by Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein, is based on the idea that small changes in the way choices are presented can have a substantial impact on behavior, like automatically enrolling employees in retirement savings plans, with the option to opt-out. A change as simple as this has been shown to dramatically increase participation rates in retirement plans. 

Organizations

If you’re in a traditional workplace, you may have experienced the influence of psychological theories in your office without realizing it. Organizational behavior and human resource management have been hugely shaped by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Herzberg’s two-factor theory. Both of these theories have changed how companies understand and manage employee motivation and satisfaction. Maslow’s theory suggests that employees (and all humans) are motivated by a hierarchy of needs, starting with basic physiological needs like food and water and progressing to self-actualization. Thus, companies that recognize and address these needs by providing a safe working environment, opportunities for social interaction, and chances for personal growth, are more likely to foster a motivated and productive workforce (perhaps this is why having free coffee and snacks in the office is so motivating?). Herzberg’s two-factor theory, which distinguishes between hygiene factors (e.g., salary, work conditions) and motivators (e.g., recognition, achievement), has also guided organizations in designing jobs and work environments to maximize employee satisfaction. 

Controversies

Psychological theories, while important to our understanding of human behavior, are theories, not facts. We can still only speculate and make educated guesses as to how and why our brains function the way they do. Many of the theories we’ve previously developed haven’t withstood the test of time, or at least not without serious criticism.

Psychoanalytic Theory

One of the most contentious figures in psychology is Freud, whose psychoanalytic theory has faced huge criticism. Although Freud's focus on the unconscious mind and his theories of psychosexual development were groundbreaking at the time, they were also largely unscientific and overly deterministic. Critics argue that many of Freud’s ideas, such as the Oedipus complex (briefly, that boys are repressing attraction to their moms and jealousy of their fathers’ genitals) and the emphasis on sexual drives, lack empirical support and are difficult if not impossible to test systematically. His theories have also been accused of being culturally biased, reflecting the patriarchal and sexually repressive values of his time, which are largely not applicable (or at least hopefully less so) today. 

Behaviorism 

Behaviorism, another major psychological theory, has also faced significant criticism, particularly for its reductionist approach. Watson and Skinner’s theory focuses exclusively on observable external behaviors and their environmental conditioning, largely ignoring the importance of internal mental processes like emotion. To no surprise, humans have a lot going on under the surface, and not taking this into account can be problematic. That’s because we are much more than machines reacting directly to the environment around us, and internal or unobservable processes (like our preferences, hunger, hormones, and social upbringing) can have dramatic influences on the way we react to stimuli. This critique helped propel the cognitive revolution to take into account the other missing piece of the puzzle: the mind. 

Cognitive Theory

Enter cognitive psychology, which has also been criticized for its heavy reliance on computational models of the mind, which can oversimplify the complexities of human cognition—after all, the brain is not a computer. Since these models usually compare the mind to a computer processing information, they’ve also been accused of neglecting the emotional, social, and cultural factors that influence thought and behavior. Thus, cognitive psychology, just like behaviorism before it, tends to focus on “universal” principles—when, of course, there are huge individual differences among people, places, and cultures. 

Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology emerged as a response to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis to introduce a more optimistic view of human nature—but hasn’t escaped its share of criticisms. While prominent figures like Rogers and Maslow emphasized the potential for personal growth and self-actualization, proposing that people are inherently good and capable of achieving their full potential, many critics argue that this perspective is overly idealistic. Much like Freud’s psychoanalysis, it can be incredibly hard to test humanistic psychology empirically which can make it even harder to find acceptance from the scientific community. Also, due to the focus on the individual’s growth and self-fulfillment, it can be easy to overlook the social and structural factors that limit personal development; essentially, the individual is responsible for their own shortcomings or inadequacies, ignoring systemic issues like poverty, discrimination, and lack of access to education.

Cultural Context

Much of the existing psychology research is on a WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) population, which has raised concerns about the generalizability of its findings to non-WEIRD populations. All theories involve some sort of bias, and no population will ever be truly representative. The role of psychological theories in perpetuating or challenging societal norms is a controversial subject because, while the field has contributed to understanding and reducing prejudice, critics argue that some research in social psychology specifically can inadvertently reinforce stereotypes or fail to account for cultural and contextual differences. 

For example, the application of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs discussed earlier posits that individuals prioritize their needs in a specific order, starting with basic physiological needs and moving up through safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. This model aligns well with WEIRD cultures, which tend to emphasize individualism and personal achievement since cultural values prioritize personal growth and self-fulfillment. However, in more collectivist cultures, where community, family, and social harmony are often prioritized over individual needs, Maslow’s hierarchy doesn’t fit quite as well. In addition, studies that categorize people into rigid social groups based on race, gender, or socioeconomic status may unintentionally perpetuate the very biases they aim to study. These critiques have led to a growing recognition of the need for more culturally sensitive research and a broader, more inclusive approach to studying behavior.

Behavioral Psychology in Education

Behavioral psychology—particularly the principles of operant conditioning—has been instrumental in shaping modern educational practices. Operant conditioning, a theory developed by Skinner, posits that behavior is influenced by the consequences that follow it. Specifically, reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, while punishment decreases it. This approach can be applied to classroom management when teachers try to promote positive behavior that leads to academic achievement.

For instance, many schools implement reward systems like tokens or points that use positive reinforcement to encourage good behavior like completing homework on time, participating in class discussions, or staying silent during reading times. Usually, these tokens are traded in for rewards like extra recess time, which can help keep kids motivated. We can also see how punishment systems like detention or extra homework can be used to discourage unwanted or disruptive behavior. All of these systems are designed based on our understanding of different psychological theories, from how we best learn to which tools are appropriate for which ages, and have informed interventions for students with special needs, behavioral disorders, or learning disabilities. 

The Montessori Method is an educational approach that is based on principles from Piaget’s developmental psychology and Vygotsky’s zone of proximal learning principles. Montessori classrooms emphasize self-directed learning, hands-on activities, and collaborative play, giving kids the chance to explore their environment at their own pace and in their own way. Educational materials are designed to support the children’s developmental stages and foster independence, curiosity, and a love of learning: key components of the developmental theory.

Psychological Theories in Therapy 

One of the most direct applications of psychological theories is in the field of clinical psychology, where theories of human behavior and mental processes have informed the development of many therapeutic techniques. For example, many people are familiar with cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) , as it’s one of the most widely used therapeutic approaches today. This type of therapy is grounded in cognitive theory by helping individuals identify and change distorted thinking patterns that lead to negative emotions and behaviors. This theory-based approach has proven effective in treating a variety of psychological disorders, including depression, anxiety, and PTSD. 5

Understanding psychological theories is crucial for developing effective therapeutic approaches to provide the foundational knowledge needed to comprehend complex mechanisms underlying mental health issues. These theories can offer structured frameworks that guide therapists in assessing, diagnosing, and treating various psychological conditions and help them address the specific needs of individuals. Since so much of the work is built on tested theory, treatment can be both scientifically grounded and practically effective.

Related TDL Content

How might behavioral science transform education.

With so much discussion about the impact of psychological theories on education, it’s important to understand some of the biggest challenges in education reform and how they can be improved. 

Financial Planning Education That Puts Humans First

Another important application is looking at how we use psychological theory to shape our financial decisions, and how banks use these same understandings for themselves. 

• Cherry, K. (2023, May 17). A Brief History of Psychology Through the Years . Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/a-brief-history-of-psychology-through-the-years-2795245  
• Wikipedia contributors. (2023, August 7). Cognitive revolution . Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_revolution
• Cherry, K. (2023, July 20). Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development . Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457
• McLeod, S. (2023). Zone of Proximal Development . Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/zone-of-proximal-development.html  
• Gaudiano, B. A. (2008). Cognitive-behavioural therapies: achievements and challenges. Evidence-based mental health, 11(1), 5-7.

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Annika completed her Masters at the London School of Economics in an interdisciplinary program combining behavioral science, behavioral economics, social psychology, and sustainability. Professionally, she’s applied data-driven insights in project management, consulting, data analytics, and policy proposal. Passionate about the power of psychology to influence an array of social systems, her research has looked at reproductive health, animal welfare, and perfectionism in female distance runners.

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• Published: 01 September 2024

Utilisation of rondavel space by amaXhosa people: a case of Mbhashe local municipality, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

• Africa Ndude 1 &
• Sinenhlanhla Memela 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1122 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Anthropology

Traditional rondavel building patterns, designs and materials have changed due to urbanisation, economic status, globalisation, and modernisation. There is limited understanding of how the architectural change has impacted the utilisation of rondavel space. This study uses the concept of habitus to understand whether the changing design of traditional rondavels has influenced their utilisation, based on a case study of the Mbhashe Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape province, South Africa. The data was collected using semi-structured interviews. The findings reveal the habitus of the AmaXhosa people on how they utilise traditional rondavels (family house) for childbirth, placing a deceased’s coffin, sleeping, seating, food preparation, serving and storage, keeping the spear, hosting ceremonies, communicating with ancestors, and interacting with the living. While the influence of contemporary architecture has changed the construction of rondavels, the inhabitants have not resisted changes to the architecture or cultural values as they have found different ways to adapt. Certain old dispositions are adaptable to contemporary structures, but some people are uninterested in adapting elements to the contemporary rondavel. Some habits of utilising traditional rondavels cannot be adapted to the contemporary rondavel because of health and medical innovations.

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Introduction.

Based on archaeological evidence, rondavels have existed since pre-colonial times as a prime settlement form in homesteads in much of South Africa and other African countries, including Botswana, Kenya, Lesotho and Eswatini (Schoenauer 2000 ; Steyn 2006 ). The rondavel is considered as a vernacular architecture: it is built using locally sourced material and forms part of a region’s culture and heritage (OpenHeritage 2016 ). Steyn ( 2006 :1) describes the rondavel as a “drum”, often built with mud and grass-thatched roofs (Fig. 1A ). They are popular indigenous settlements which are still prevalent in the rural areas. While most households have more than one rondavels (Fig. 1B ), some indigenous settlements are now roofed with zinc materials (Fig. 1B ). Going forward, this article refers to indigenous settlements as traditional rondavels.

A traditional rondavel with grass-thatched roof and ( B ) household two rondavels with zinc roof.

Traditional rondavels were used for dwelling and hosting important customary rituals and celebrations in Africa (Steyn 2006 ). Modern day rondavels exist with flat-roofed rectangular buildings or structures built using cement and zinc roofs, which will be referred to as contemporary rondavel design henceforth (Van Vuuren 2017 ).

Steyn ( 2006 ) argues that the change is a result of urbanisation and economic status because people admire urban architecture and can afford their desired building materials. A study by Aikpehae et al. ( 2016 ) reveals that globalisation, urbanisation and modernisation transformed building patterns, designs and materials used for construction. They illustrate how Nigerian building patterns and housing have transformed because of the influence of colonisation (Aikpehae et al. 2016 ). Guerrieri ( 2020 ) adds that migration has allowed the export of architecture and urban planning models from one country to another; hence, we see the same style across countries. The global intercultural contact led to the change in dwellings in southern Africa (Frescura 1981 , 2015 ) where traditional dwellings were constructed using mud, wattle and thatch grass. Missionaries introduced contemporary building constructed using sun brick and mortar with corrugated iron sheet for roofing as well as highveld and parapet housing styles, the contemporary building is illustrated in Fig. 2 .

Illustration of the contemporary building under construction.

Tapiero et al. ( 2024 ) indicates that in Montesinho Natural Park, north-east of Portugal, residents had vernacular buildings constructed using locally available wood, slate stone tiles, lime mortar, schist and granite. The availability of industrialised material and decreasing traditional labour posed a threat vernacular buildings.

The following section discusses the evolution of the traditional and modern rondavel followed by the utilisation of rondavels by amaXhosa people, detailing the study area, research methods, results, discussion and conclusion.

Traditional and modern rondavel evolution

Early African dwellings were caves, stone-walled iron shelters or houses quickly erected and dismantled as nomadic societies followed herds of animals (Frescura, 1981 ; Moremoholo, 2021 ). Frescura ( 1981 ) explains the historical development of dwelling types, presented in Fig. 3 . The earliest traditional dwelling was a beehive hut also known as ngqu-phantsi . It was made up of stakes organised in a circle with their tops arched inward to a point. The stakes were then bound together by hoops and the frame was insulated with thatched grass (Walton, 1949 ). It is possible that the need for more living space resulted in the rondavel, which is a cone-on-cylinder rondavel with a wall and roof. Although its doorway was raised higher compared to the beehive hut, it was still lower than the height of a man. The material used to construct traditional rondavel was either a thatch roof with stones and mud bricks or sticks mixed clay and dung mortar or mud and wattle (Walton 1949 ; Frescura 1981 ; Oliver 2006 ; Moremoholo 2021 ; Onyejegbu et al. 2023 ). These vernacular dwellings were constructed using locally available materials (Tapiero et al. 2024 ).

This figure is covered by Creative Commons licence.

The third iteration of dwelling development was influenced by Western ideas of hipped-on-cone, which had a linear floor plan, rooms divided into rows and triangulation of the thatch roof. The fourth dwelling type was an introduction of the highveld style with iron-sheet roofing and sun brick (Frescura 1981 ).

Western ideas influenced the cone-on-cylinder rondavel design and materials used which included the use of iron-sheet roofing and sun brick. Despite the Western influences, the traditional rondavel still exists while others have modernised (Moremoholo 2021 ; Onyejegbu et al. 2023 ). Vellinga ( 2006 ) notes that the traditional vernacular architecture has not vanished, but has rather merged with modern styles to suit the current circumstances. Tapiero et al. ( 2024 ) argue that the use of modern materials in construction does not compromise the values of the dwelling in the community. They also note that conserving vernacular architecture plays an essential role in the preservation of culture and sustainable practises by optimising energy usage (Tapiero et al. 2024 ). Onyejegbu et al. ( 2023 ) argue that some Nigerian households still have traditional mud huts that were built by their forefathers in commemoration of their culture, tradition and prowess.

Moremoholo ( 2021 ) used a case study of the Sotho community in Makgabeng, a rural area in Limpopo to investigate how indigenous values have been incorporated or retained on houses built using brick and mortar. The findings show that both traditional rondavel and modern dwellings exist and residents were able to adapt values of indigenous rondavel to modern dwellings, including practising ancestral ceremonies.

Smith ( 2022 ) suggests that the modernisation of the traditional rondavel design into contemporary sensibilities reflects the development of awareness of the diverse heritage that connects South Africa to the rest of the African continent and its people. Thus, the integration and adaptation of indigenous values into modernisation promotes self-definition for many South Africans. Moreover, it encourages a deeper appreciation of the connections between South Africa and the rest of the world. Bianco ( 2022 ) states that this hybrid form of building reflects the evolution of local culture and ways of life so that one can imagine new development aspects entrenched in the culture and environment (Bianco 2022 ). Thus, currently, vernacular architecture can be understood as the foundation of the contemporary architectural type that is rooted in integrating local building traditions (Naude 2010 ; Bianco 2022 ). The current study focuses on the amaXhosa people and intends to understand whether the changing design of traditional rondavels has influenced their utilisation.

The utilisation of rondavels by amaXhosa people

The amaXhosa people are predominantly located in the Eastern Cape province (Nyamende 1994 ; Mokhoathi 2021 ). A rondavel in a Xhosa home ( umzi ) typically exists in a cluster of other structures. Umzi , plural imizi , is a collection of physical, social and organic elements constituting a settlement component known as homestead. It typically comprises several rondavels or huts (the family house, with middle huts reserved for children and visitors as well as a traditional dispensary and consultation), an adjacent garden and a kraal with tools and equipment often used in various ways (Perry 2013 ).

The family house ( indlu enkulu ) is the main hut where everyone meets to socialise and prepare, store and eat food (McAllister 2004 ). It is a space where all rituals take place and people communicate with their ancestors (McAllister 2004 ; Mlisa 2009 ). In the past, following the birth of a child in the family house, children and men were prohibited from using the space (Kobo 2016 ). McAllister ( 2004 ) illustrates how the family house is divided, as shown in Fig. 4 .

This figure was reproduced with permission: Ethnology, Department of Anthropology at the University of Pittsburgh.

The upper part, called entla , is associated with ancestors; an appointed person will commune with the ancestors, and it serves a storage space for meat and beer if there is a ritual planned (McAllister 2004 ; Reeve 2011 ). The right side is the sitting area for men while the left is reserved women. Older people sit next to the door on either side, while the youngest generation often sits next to the upper part of the rondavel (McAllister 2004 ). At the centre is a hearth ( eziko ), where they make fire for cooking (McAllister, 2004 ; Brocious 2021 ). Kobo ( 2016 ) identifies the hearth as a pedagogical space for the girl child to learn food preparation. The way the amaXhosa people utilise the traditional family house can be purported as a gendered space.

A gendered space is “…more attractive for women than for men; men and women use the same space in different ways: some spaces give feelings of comfort and belonging to men, while women feel excluded; in some spaces, women have authority, while other spaces are under male authority” (Fortuijn et al. 2004 : 215). This is a gendered space because of how a spatial order of seating and gender roles in the utilisation of the space is enforced (McAllister 2004 ; Kobo 2016 ).

It should be noted that the number of rondavels in a homestead depends on the family’s needs. In addition to the family house, a rondavel may be reserved as a bedroom for younger family members and to accommodate visitors (Mlisa 2009 ). Moreover, a rondavel may be used by traditional healers for consultations and storing dispensary (umrawule) items. Certain people are often excluded from using such a space. Menstruating women are prohibited from accessing this space while on their cycle because of a belief that they will defile the herbs (Mlisa, 2009 ). The dispensary is only built once a rondavel has been revealed to a potential traditional healer in a dream, and a ritual is performed to officially open the rondavel and the dispensary prior to consultations being held (Mlisa, 2009 ).

Literature is ambiguous as to whether the recorded rondavel uses are performed in traditional or contemporary rondavels and whether the uses are adaptable to current rondavel designs (McAllister 2004 ; Mlisa 2009 ; Perry 2013 ; Kobo 2016 ; Brocious 2021 ). The available literature focuses on understanding traditional rondavel architecture, its utilisation, history and the changes in the design and structure (Schoenauer 2000 ; Steyn 2006 ). Vellinga ( 2006 ) also notes that publications on vernacular architecture are rarely featured and those that are available focus on drawings, forms and material. The impact of changing building designs and structures in traditional space utilisation is inadequately understood. It is against this backdrop that this study uses the concept of habitus to understand whether the changing design and structure of rondavels has influenced the traditional utilisation of rondavel spaces, based on a case study of the Mbhashe Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa.

Pierre Bourdieu, a French sociologist who was concerned with what motivates social action and behaviour (Navarro 2006 ), developed the concept of habitus, which refers to the norms, values, habits, dispositions and behaviour of a particular group. Each society has its own habitus. Habitus can then guide how a particular group feels, thinks, acts and uses the space (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). Habitus can be a product of past experiences and practices learned from parents, family experiences, and society (Hong and Zhao 2015 ). It is created and reproduced by the structures and practices of society (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). People with similar backgrounds (social class, religion, nationality, ethnicity, education and profession) usually share habitus which shapes how individuals perceive or receive the world. It is not fixed; it changes due to circumstances (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). However, when change occurs, some within the group may resist the change while others adapt to a new style of doing things. Often, others combine the traits of new and old habitus. Therefore, the theory seeks to provide an in-depth understanding of how people adapt in a changing world and circumstances resulting to change.

Bourdieu used this concept to study how the Algerian habitus changed during the liberation struggle in the 1950s (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). He analysed their norms, values, habits, dispositions and behaviour before and after colonisation. He defined Algerian peasantry as a traditional society which believed in:

the importance of group solidarity;

kinship based on patriarchal and patrilineal relationships;

patriarchal division of labour;

marriage as the primary concern of the family; and

an economy governed by pre-capitalist methods such as

subsistence farming,

products not sold but shared by the community

goods exchanged for social capital (i.e. a neighbour will lend you an ox in exchange for fresh produce).

The economy was governed by strict reciprocity and non-payment. The blacksmith was expected to provide each peasantry with all repairs in exchange for goods and services (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). Their habitus was passed from generation to generation. As determined by Bourdieu, habitus changes over time due to circumstances. The change in the Algerian habitus was a result of French colonial imposition which introduced a capitalist economy leading to a decline in agricultural activities and the establishment of factories in urban areas (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). Due to this increased urbanisation, people started working for wages, which resulted in the development of social classes (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). Subsequently, women were granted access to receiving an education and earning a living. Likewise, society was introduced to the concept of bachelorhood, with marriage being an individual choice. Communal living with neighbours sharing their fresh produce evolved into neighbours selling their produce for cash (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). Ultimately, the culture of group solidarity was destroyed, and the focus was on individualism.

Bourdieu argues that change can be adopted or resisted, as evidenced in Algeria (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). Certain Algerian norms, values, habits, dispositions and behaviours were influenced by innate traditions of peasantry and colonial imposition (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). Most older people resisted the change and continued to be trapped in the old way of life.

This study focuses on the traditional family house rondavel with the users’ social activities derived from the norms, values, habits, dispositions and behaviours of amaXhosa. Premised on the concept of habitus used by Bourdieu et al. ( 2000 ) and Navarro ( 2006 ) in the analysis of Algerian peasantry, this study unpacks the utilisation of the traditional family house rondavel before the introduction of contemporary architecture and design changes. Before the introduction of the contemporary architecture, the traditional family house rondavel was spatially divided based on gender and used for childbirth, communicating with ancestors and hosting rituals, serving and storing food and igniting a fire for warmth (McAllister 2004 ; Kobo 2016 ; Brocious 2021 ). This paper intends to understand whether the changing design and structure of rondavels has influenced its utilisation, using the case of Mbhashe Local Municipality.

Mbhashe local municipality

The Mbhashe Local Municipality extends over a geographic area of over 3200 km² and is situated within the Amathole District Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa (Mbhashe Local Municipality IDP, 2016 ; 2023 a). The municipality is named after the Mbhashe River, which tracks between the municipality’s major urban regions of Willowvale (Gatyane), Xhorha and Dutywa, the latter being the administrative centre or municipal headquarters. The municipality has a total population of approximately 240 020 people (Municipalities of South Africa 2023 ), 94% of whom speak the isiXhosa language (Mbhashe Local Municipality IDP, 2016 ; 2023 b). It is a rural region facing various challenges, including poor road infrastructure, high unemployment and inadequate access to essential services such as water and electricity (Mbhashe Local Municipality IDP, 2016 ; 2023 a). It finds significant economic leverage from tourism nodes through coastal, inland and historic or heritage site attractions.

Rondavel structures are prominent in every homestead. Over 66% of households in the municipality are traditional dwellings Footnote 1 , followed by 21 and 5% of households living in brick or concrete block structures and flat blocks, respectively (Mbhashe Local Municipality IDP, 2021 ). However, some households have a modernised rondavel and, more commonly, an octagonal-shape veranda structure, sometimes with an attached garage. Others tend not to have a rondavel at all albeit infrequently. In rural areas, the process of domestic building is not influenced by planning schemes and policies (Oliver 2006 ). Instead, rural architecture is enriched by the surrounding natural environment, local economy and livelihood of villagers (Pirzad and Moghaddam 2023 ). This offers villagers free will to build the type and design of house they desire.

Figure 5 represents the spatial location and geographical extent of Mbhashe Local Municipality in the Amathole District Municipality, with reference to the Eastern Cape Province and South Africa, respectively. The points of interest indicated in the map are examples of homesteads and places across the municipality where:

contemporary rondavels at the Village Lodge in the Dutywa urban region,

rondavel clusters in the homestead of Nqadu great place (Komkhulu ) in rural Willowvale,

Emanzothweni , a multitype dwelling homestead in Bende location, rural Dutywa (Photo: Lilitha Breakfast), and

Kwa-Nonyameko, a multitype dwelling homestead in the Mbhangcolo administration area in rural Willowvale (Photo: Luyanda Ndude).

A map representing a study area—Mbhashe Local Municipality.

Methodology

Ethical clearance was received from Rhodes University. Purposive sampling was used to select a sample population, which included participants of amaXhosa descent with a rondavel structure in their homesteads and residing within the Mbhashe Local Municipality. Ten participants, aged 24–48 years old, were interviewed; they are referred to as Participants 1 to 10 (P01–P10).

Data was collected using participatory mapping and semi-structured interviews consisting of open-ended questions. The interview schedule was developed with a purpose of obtaining an in-depth understanding of the utilisation of rondavels and changes that occurred over time because of the new architectural style. The interviews were conducted face-to-face at the participants’ residences. The participants were also given a rondavel diagram to illustrate the spatial ordering of how the rondavel family house was utilised in the Mbhashe Local Municipality. The results are presented in Fig. 6 .

Spatial ordering of how the amaXhosa family house rondavel was utilized in the Mbhashe Municipality.

The information from the participants' drawings were then used to create Fig. 6 diagram, which was constructed using ArcMap 10.7.1 software for visualisation of the activities undertaken in the family house. The circle represents a typical rondavel floorplan with a diameter of 6 m (3 m radius). The diameter of the rondavel intersects the doorway and therefore dictates the gendered sides. The points in the diagram do not represent actual geometric values, instead they are ordinal representations of circular living in the AmaXhosa family house. Data was analysed and presented using thematic analysis. The concept of habitus guided the development of the themes presented. The first theme related to the amaXhosa habitus and the utilisation of traditional rondavels in the Mbhashe Local Municipality and the second was the amaXhosa habitus and the changing rondavel design in the Mbhashe Local Municipality

In both themes, specialised quotations to highlight some pertinent statements and demonstrate how the participants make sense of the rondavels and their utilisation, using their exact words.

amaXhosa habitus and the utilisation of traditional rondavel in the Mbhashe municipality

The section of findings only focus on the traditional family house rondavel before the introduction of the contemporary architecture. Adapted from McAllister ( 2004 ), the participants were given a circle to explain the use of each space and its purpose. They also revealed some uses that were not presented in earlier sections. First, the spatial division of the family house based on gender was discussed, followed by how the Mbhashe people utilised the family house. Figure 6 illustrates the spatial division between men (right) and women (left) inside the family house. Women married into the family ( makoti ) are forbidden to access the men’s side. The mud bench, known as soze , is built on the men’s side by the door for seating.

Women sit on the floor on handcrafted mats woven from reeds or grass known as ikhukho . Behind the door on the women’s side is a place for childbirth. The participants also alluded to the statement made by Kobo ( 2016 ) that during the birthing process, children and men are prohibited from using the space. They revealed that there was no cultural significance in giving birth at home. Instead, the inaccessibility of health facilities necessitated home births. Booysen ( 2003 ) argues that, in South African rural areas, women give birth at home because health facilities are located remotely to the homesteads and they do not have the means to access them.

Regarding funeral rites, the deceased’s coffin will arrive at the homestead the day before the funeral and a night vigil – a ceremony to honour the deceased—will be held in the family house. The coffin is usually placed on the women’s side and senior women will gather to sleep next to the coffin until the funeral. An elderly family member will burn impepho (incense) and request the ancestors to welcome the deceased. It is believed that if this ritual is not performed, the deceased will not rest in peace.

In households that use the family house for sleeping, designated spaces will be allocated for men and women. A handcrafted mat is used as a base for the foam mattress on both sides. The seating arrangement in the family house is based on seniority, with younger members of the household placed toward the upper layer, as noted by McAllister ( 2004 ). The participants further explained that seniority was not based on age: married women were regarded as senior and women who were not related by blood or matrimony would occupy the upper end of the women’s side. Men’s seating arrangements depend on when one was initiated, with the youngest (the last to go to the bush) towards the upper layer.

McAllister ( 2004 ) and Reeve ( 2011 ) reveal that an appointed person will commune with the ancestors, and store meat and beer in the upper part of the rondavel if there is a ritual. Their findings concur with how the Mbhashe people utilise the space, further indicating that the upper layer is divided into A and B, as shown in Fig. 6 . On the right (men’s side) is where slaughtered meat and beer is stored. It is the responsibility of the men to serve both the meat and beer; hence, it is located on their side. Section B in Fig. 6 is a space in the uppermost end of the rondavel on the women’s side. It contains domestic essentials such as a table and cupboard, crockery, and cutlery and ilitye lokuguba , which is a flat rock which is used to grind food.

In the centre of the family house is a hearth. Kobo ( 2016 ) argues that this is where women are taught to prepare food. The findings of this study also reveal that men also use the space to roast corn. So, there are no gender-based restrictions on the use of this space. The centre also has a pole called intsika , which supports the roof structure. The door is positioned in the lower part of the family house. Section C, illustrated in Fig. 6 , is where the spear ( umkhonto) is kept by sticking it on the roof above the doorway on the men’s side. The spear is used for the slaughter of traditional animals if there is a ritual or ceremony. The spear is believed to obstruct lightning during a storm and is placed in the doorway.

The participants also utilised the rondavel for interacting with each other and the ancestors. Interaction takes place through song and dance during ceremonies. People also interact through spoken word to communicate with or appease ancestors, to socialize with each other by telling stories of love, horror, fiction, and the past, and to play games. The study’s participants expressed clearly how the family house is used which they learned from growing up in rural areas and passed from generation to generation. They have the duty to continue passing this information to the younger members of the family.

amaXhosa habitus and the changing rondavel design in the Mbhashe local municipality

People in the rural areas of the Mbhashe Local Municipality were inclined to architectural change and desire contemporary architecture and luxury, including those who did not currently own it. The contemporary rondavel design was considered progressive, cognisant of the times and, for that matter, the contemporary way of life to which there was a strong inclination to conform: “I too [wish to have a modern house] because these are the houses that are built nowadays, and they make the home beautiful” (P 01).

Notwithstanding, there was a strong consensus to preserve conventional ways of using space and adapt to the contemporary design, including the structure and shape (multi-room), the material used (no longer a thatched roof or mud walls), or hard surfaces (tiles/concrete). The respondents preferred contemporary structures because of their aesthetic and convenience: “…contemporary houses have better aesthetical value, spacious and are functional (e.g., energy consumption, natural lighting)” ( P 09).

Other uses were not adopted in the contemporary house design such as utilising the family house for childbirth because modern women mostly give birth in hospitals and clinics. Statistics South Africa ( 2020 ) revealed that the number of home deliveries has decreased from 14% in 1998 to 4% in 2016 while health facility deliveries have increased from 83.4% in 1998 to 96.7% in 2016 (Statistics South Africa 2020 ). Both 1998 and 2016 home deliveries statistics are indicative of the national level (Statistics South Africa 2020 ).

Placing the deceased’s coffin in the upper part of the family house (section B in Fig. 6 ) was adopted in contemporary rondavel utilisation until the Covid-19 pandemic when people became sceptical of disease transmission. Before the pandemic, the deceased’s body would arrive at home a day before burial, and people would gather for a final ceremony the night before the funeral (night vigil) inside the family house to honour the deceased (Bambalele 2020 ). A South African Covid-19 restriction prohibited corpses being sent home prior to the funeral and the hosting of night vigils (Bambalele 2020 ). This practice has continued since Covid-19 restrictions were relaxed, while others have stopped. However, once the deceased’s coffin arrives on the funeral day, it is taken to the upper part of the family house and a ritual will still be performed where incense is burnt and a request is made to the ancestors to welcome the deceased. Therefore, the cultural significance of the whole process does not rest with the placement of the deceased’s body a day before the funeral but the performance of the ritual.

The presence of mud benches on the men’s side no longer exists. Although the traditional rondavel structure is diminishing in the physical environment, modernisation has certainly swayed people’s sense of feeling, thinking, acting and their use of space. Admittedly, modernisation has not entirely appropriated the Xhosa people’s habitus. Some people were uninterested in adapting to some elements of the contemporary rondavel and house design: “A traditional rondavel must be present in a home. You can make fire, but it is difficult to do that on floor tiles. Still, you perform customs in traditional rondavel” (P 03).

These people continue to use traditional rondavels for the above purposes while also adapting the contemporary rondavel or house design for other uses such as sleeping, unless there is a ceremony when there is no space: “ People do not want to sleep on the floor in the rondavel, and there is no privacy and tile, or cemented floor is cold” (P 04).

While other participants preferred to continue performing traditional ceremonies and communicating with ancestors in the traditional rondavel structure, there were respondents who were open to communicating with ancestors and interacting with the living, and divide space based on gender in the contemporary rondavel – as indicated in Fig. 6 . The cultural strongholds continued to be practiced regardless of the house structure. Therefore, in the absence of a traditional rondavel structure in a homestead, any other house design such as butterfly or flat-roof corner houses can be used for traditional ceremonies: “any house structure can be used as a rondavel; it does not change the culture. It is the same” (P01).

Regarding food preparation, serving and storage, some people used the contemporary rondavel with slight changes for cooking. For example, food is prepared in the family house’s upper part (B section in Fig. 6 ) using a gas or electric stove instead of a hearth at the centre. Others will prepare food and store it in the kitchen of the main house, but people will be served in the contemporary rondavel.

This paper used the concept of habitus to understand whether the changing design and structure of rondavels has influenced its utilisation. Habitus refers to the norms, values, habits, dispositions and behaviours of a particular group, which can then guide how they feel, think, act, and use the space. Habitus can be a product of past experiences and practices learned from parents, family experiences, and society (Hong and Zhao 2015 ). It is created and reproduced by structures and practices of society; it is not fixed and changes over time due to particular circumstances (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). The study discussed the amaXhosa people’s habitus on the utilisation of the traditional family house rondavel and how it has been influenced by the introduction of contemporary architectural designs. It is noted that architectural change brought by society does not change cultural norms, values, habits, dispositions and behaviours attached to rondavels but results in finding ways to accommodate and preserve its utilisation in new architectural developments and selectively choosing ideas to be transmitted to the contemporary house design. The cultural norms, values, habits, dispositions, and behaviours attached to rondavels have also been influenced by advancements in health and medical innovation, as well as Covid-19.

The findings revealed the habitus of the amaXhosa people at the Mbhashe Local Municipality. The utilisation of the traditional family house rondavel includes childbirth, placement of the deceased’s coffin, sleeping, seating, food preparation, serving and storage, keeping the spear, hosting ceremonies, communicating with ancestors, and interacting with the living. The amaXhosa habitus is acquired by growing up in the Xhosa society, being taught by parents, and observing how things are done, which has been passed down from generation to generation. The influence of contemporary architecture brought changes in the construction of rondavel.

Home births are no longer practised because of advancements in health and medicine. The placement of the deceased’s coffin in the upper part of the rondavel a day prior to the funeral has been adopted in the use of a contemporary rondavel; however, it is no longer prevalent because of the Covid-19 restrictions. However, on the day of the funeral, the deceased’s coffin is placed in the upper part of the rondavel for a shorter period and a ritual burning incense and asking the ancestors to welcome the deceased is performed because it is a critical cultural practice.

People also do not opt to sleep on the floor unless there is a ceremony. The preparation of food, its serving and storage differs in that there is no hearth in the new contemporary house; so food is prepared in the main house or the upper part of the rondavel. The gendered division of space, hosting ceremonies, communicating and interacting with ancestors has been adopted in contemporary houses too. However, some still prefer to host ceremonies and communicate with the ancestors in traditional rondavels instead.

People have not resisted new architectural designs or changing cultural norms, values, habits, dispositions and behaviours but have found ways to adapt. Certain old dispositions are adaptable to contemporary structures. Also, a study conducted by Moremoholo ( 2021 ) reveals that some indigenous values such as practising ancestral ceremonies can be incorporated or retained in modern house structure. However, some people are not interested in adapting elements to the contemporary rondavel. They would rather have two structures – the current rondavel design and a traditional rondavel to be utilised for uses that cannot be adapted to the contemporary rondavel. The presence of traditional rondavel in modern times is also witnessed even in Nigeria (Onyejegbu et al. 2023 ).

Some cultural norms, values, old habits, dispositions, and behaviours of utilising traditional rondavels were not adapted to the contemporary rondavel because of health and medical innovations such as childbirth and placing the deceased’s coffin in the rondavel. Clearly, some amaXhosa cultural practices are modified but not completely forgotten.

Future studies can focus on profiling architectural designs found in the Mbhashe Local Municipality and investigate their origins and influencing factors. Others could also focus on rondavels utilised by traditional healers to understand how they have been impacted by architectural changes to space utilisation. It will be also interesting to understand why people still opt for traditional rondavels despite the existence of beautiful modern buildings.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and additional information is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

A traditional dwelling has walls made of less durable material, such as dried clay, sun-dried bricks, bamboo or latticework, with the roof made of reeds, palm fronds or straw (World bank, 2018).

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AD indicates atopic dermatitis; OCS, oral corticosteroid.

a Rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, systemic lupus erythematosus, psoriasis, Crohn disease, ulcerative colitis, Sjögren syndrome, systemic sclerosis, dermatomyositis, polymyositis, thromboangiitis obliterans, Behçet disease, sarcoidosis, pemphigus, and vitiligo.

b Patients who received a diagnosis of the outcomes of interest (osteoporosis, fracture, type 2 diabetes, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, avascular necrosis, cataract, or glaucoma) during 1 year before or 1 year after the cohort entry date were excluded.

OR indicates odds ratio.

a Modified definition of the exposure from cumulative duration of more than 30 days per year and more than 90 days per year to a cumulative duration of more than 60 days per year.

b The long-term use of oral corticosteroids was defined as a cumulative supply of more than 30 days or more than 90 days with a greater than 5-mg daily prednisolone-equivalent dose of oral corticosteroids, which places patients at risk of systemic adverse effects, and we assessed the long-term use of oral corticosteroids annually. To exclude potential use of oral corticosteroids for conditions other than atopic dermatitis, we restricted exposure to prescriptions for patients with a diagnosis of atopic dermatitis.

c Restricted to patients who could be followed up for at least 3 years from the cohort entry date.

d Restricted to patients who could be followed up for at least 5 years from the cohort entry date.

eTable 1. Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Cases and Controls of Adult Patients (>18 Years) With Atopic Dermatitis for Composite Outcome

eTable 2. Codes Used to Define Exclusion Criteria, Exposures, Outcomes, and Covariates

eTable 3. Exposure Definition Regarding to Long-Term Oral Corticosteroid Usage in the Previous Studies

eTable 4. Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Cases and Controls of Adult Patients (>18 Years) With Atopic Dermatitis, Comparison Between Ever Long-Term Use of OCS Over 30 Days vs 90 Days

eTable 5. Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Cases and Controls of Adult Patients (>18 Years) With Atopic Dermatitis: Osteoporosis

eTable 6. Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Cases and Controls of Adult Patients (>18 Years) With Atopic Dermatitis: Fracture

eTable 7. Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Cases and Controls of Adult Patients (>18 Years) With Atopic Dermatitis: Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

eTable 8. Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Cases and Controls of Adult Patients (>18 Years) With Atopic Dermatitis: Hyperlipidemia

eTable 9. Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Cases and Controls of Adult Patients (>18 Years) With Atopic Dermatitis: Hypertension

eTable 10. Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Cases and Controls of Adult Patients (>18 Years) With Atopic Dermatitis: Myocardial Infarction

eTable 11. Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Cases and Controls of Adult Patients (>18 Years) With Atopic Dermatitis: Stroke

eTable 12. Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Cases and Controls of Adult Patients (>18 Years) With Atopic Dermatitis: Heart Failure

eTable 13. Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Cases and Controls of Adult Patients (>18 Years) With Atopic Dermatitis: Avascular Necrosis

eTable 14. Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Cases and Controls of Adult Patients (>18 Years) With Atopic Dermatitis: Cataract

eTable 15. Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Cases and Controls of Adult Patients (>18 Years) With Atopic Dermatitis: Glaucoma

eTable 16. E-Values for Point Estimates of Different Outcomes of Interest for Primary Exposure: >30 Days a Year

eTable 17. E-Values for Point Estimates of Different Outcomes of Interest for Primary Exposure: >90 Days a Year

eFigure 1. Overall Design of This Nested-Case Control Study

eFigure 2. Case-Control Matching Using Risk-Set Sampling Method

eFigure 3 . Explanation for the Exposure Status According to 1) Ever Long-Term OCS, 2) Cumulative No. of Years of Long-Term OCS, 3) Consecutive No. of Years of Long-Term OCS for the Primary (>30 Days) and Secondary (>90 Days) Exposure Definition

eFigure 4. Subgroup Analysis According to the Age Stratification for Evaluating the Risk of Composite Adverse Outcomes Associated With Long-Term Use of OCS

eFigure 5. Subgroup Analysis According to the Sex Stratification for Evaluating the Risk of Composite Adverse Outcomes Associated With Long-Term Use of OCS

eFigure 6. Subgroup Analysis According to the Severity of AD Stratification for Evaluating the Risk of Composite Adverse Outcomes Associated With Long-Term Use of OCS

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Jang YH , Choi E , Lee H, et al. Long-Term Use of Oral Corticosteroids and Safety Outcomes for Patients With Atopic Dermatitis. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(7):e2423563. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.23563

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Long-Term Use of Oral Corticosteroids and Safety Outcomes for Patients With Atopic Dermatitis

• 1 Department of Dermatology, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Kyungpook National University Hospital, Daegu, Korea
• 2 School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, South Korea
• 3 Department of Biohealth Regulatory Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, South Korea
• 4 Research Department of Practice and Policy, School of Pharmacy, University College London, London, United Kingdom
• 5 School of Pharmacy, Aston University, Birmingham, United Kingdom
• 6 Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
• 7 Department of Inflammation & Immunology Medical Affairs, Pfizer Pharmaceuticals Korea Ltd, Seoul, South Korea
• 8 Department of Clinical Research Design & Evaluation, Samsung Advanced Institute for Health Sciences and Technology (SAIHST), Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, South Korea
• 9 Department of Dermatology, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea

Question   What duration of oral corticosteroid use is associated with adverse effects among adult patients with atopic dermatitis?

Findings   In this nested case-control study including 1 025 270 patients with atopic dermatitis, use of oral corticosteroids for more than 90 days during 1 year was associated with a slightly increased risk of composite adverse outcomes. There was no increased risk with use of oral corticosteroids for more than 30 days.

Meaning   This study suggests that for patients with exacerbations of atopic dermatitis, limiting the duration of oral corticosteroid treatment to 90 days or less may limit adverse effects.

Importance   The use of oral corticosteroids for prolonged periods may be associated with adverse events (AEs). Nevertheless, the risk of AEs with oral corticosteroids, especially among patients with atopic dermatitis (AD), has not been comprehensively investigated and lacks evidence on duration of treatment.

Objective   To assess the association between long-term exposure to oral corticosteroids and AEs among adult patients with AD.

Design, Setting, and Participants   This nested case-control study used data from the Health Insurance Review and Assessment Service database of South Korea between January 1, 2012, and October 31, 2021, which included 1 year prior to the cohort entry date of January 1, 2013, for assessing exclusion criteria and baseline characteristics, and 1 year after the study end date of October 31, 2020, to ensure a minimum duration for assessing exposure. Among the population of adults with AD, patients diagnosed with any of 11 AEs were matched with patients who had never received a diagnosis of any of the 11 AEs.

Exposure   Long-term use of oral corticosteroids was defined as cumulative supply of more than 30 days or more than 90 days of oral corticosteroid prescription per year.

Main Outcomes and Measures   We used multivariable conditional logistic regression analyses to measure the risk of 11 individual outcomes (osteoporosis, fracture, type 2 diabetes, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, avascular necrosis, cataract, or glaucoma) as the composite outcome, controlling for potential confounders. We further classified the composite outcome to individual outcomes to evaluate the AE-specific risk.

Results   Among 1 025 270 patients with AD between 2013 and 2020, 164 809 cases (mean [SD] age, 39.4 [14.8]; 56.9% women) were matched with 328 303 controls (mean [SD] age, 39.3 [14.7]; 56.9% women) for sex, age, cohort entry date, follow-up duration, and severity of AD, where the balance of most baseline characteristics was achieved. A total of 5533 cases (3.4%) and 10 561 controls (3.2%) were exposed to oral corticosteroids for more than 30 days, while 684 cases (0.4%) and 1153 controls (0.4%) were exposed to oral corticosteroids for more than 90 days. Overall, there was no increased risk of AEs with use of oral corticosteroids for more than 30 days (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 1.00; 95% CI, 0.97-1.04), whereas the risk was slightly higher with use of oral corticosteroids for more than 90 days (AOR, 1.11; 95% CI, 1.01-1.23). The small elevation in experiencing an AE was observed with each cumulative or consecutive year of ever long-term use.

Conclusions and Relevance   This case-control study found a slightly increased risk of AEs associated with use of oral corticosteroids for more than 90 days per year, which warrants future research to fully elucidate the observed findings.

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory disease that causes serious morbidity, such as pruritus, impaired quality of life, and a range of comorbidities. 1 , 2 AD is a lifelong condition that relapses chronically and needs constant care. 3 Although AD is considered primarily a pediatric disease, studies have shown high rates of AD among adults as well. 4 The prevalence of AD among adults ranged from 2.1% to 4.9% across countries, and up to 10% of adults required medication for moderate to severe AD due to inadequate response to topical therapies; the prevalence rates were higher among adult patients than among pediatric patients, of whom 1.5% required medication for moderate to severe AD. 5 - 7

As AD treatment strategies, international guidelines and expert opinions generally recommend that oral corticosteroids should generally be avoided or limited to the short term only as rescue therapy. 8 - 11 Nonetheless, given the benefits of oral corticosteroids, including their effectiveness in allergic diseases, short-term safety, and low cost, many patients with moderate to severe AD are treated with oral corticosteroids for prolonged periods, which may constitute inappropriate or excessive use. 12 , 13 However, oral corticosteroid treatment for prolonged periods could have an association with oral corticosteroid–related complications. 14 Hence, clinical evidence informing patients and practitioners regarding the management of AD exacerbations in routine clinical practice is warranted.

Although previous studies among patients with asthma or rheumatic disease have suggested associations between long-term use of oral corticosteroids and various adverse events (AEs), there are few studies of patients with AD, to our knowledge. 15 - 21 In addition, existing studies about corticosteroid use among patients with AD were conducted to evaluate the safety concerns primarily about topical corticosteroids. 22 - 29 Considering the frequent use of oral corticosteroids among adults with AD and the potential association between long-term use of oral corticosteroids and AEs, some of which are severe, there is a need to investigate the safety of the long-term use of oral corticosteroids among adults with AD. 6 , 30 , 31 Accordingly, we aimed to investigate the association between long-term use of oral corticosteroids and AEs among adult patients with AD in South Korea.

We used the nationwide Health Insurance Review and Assessment Service (HIRA) database of South Korea between January 1, 2012, and October 31, 2021, which included 1 year prior to the cohort entry date of January 1, 2013, for assessing exclusion criteria and baseline characteristics, and 1 year after the study end date of October 31, 2020, to ensure a minimum duration for assessing exposure. It encompasses comprehensive data on health care use for every resident of South Korea, ensuring that patient identifiers are anonymized. The database collects information on socioeconomic and demographic variables, diagnosis ( International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision diagnostic code; setting of diagnosis; date of diagnosis; and others), and medications prescribed (national drug chemical code, days’ supply, dose, date of prescription, route of administration, and others) until the occurrence of emigration or death. A prior validation study examined diagnosis codes documented in the HIRA in comparison with those in electronic medical records and found an overall positive predictive value of 82.3%. 32 This study was approved by the institutional review board of Sungkyunkwan University, which waived the informed consent because only deidentified data were used in this study. This study followed the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology ( STROBE ) reporting guideline. 33

The study cohort comprised patients who were prescribed oral corticosteroids at least once with an AD diagnosis code from January 1, 2013, to October 31, 2020. The cohort entry date was defined as the first date of the prescription of oral corticosteroids with an AD diagnosis within the study period to include the new users of oral corticosteroids. Eligible case and control groups were identified after excluding the following: (1) patients with a diagnosis of immune-mediated inflammatory diseases during a 1-year window of exclusion assessment before the cohort entry date, to evaluate the risk of AEs from oral corticosteroid use for AD; (2) patients with a diagnosis of any of 11 outcomes of interest during the exclusion assessment window of 1 year before and 1 year after the cohort entry date, to investigate the association of oral corticosteroid use with newly occurred outcomes; and (3) patients who were younger than 18 years of age on the cohort entry date, to include adult patients ( Figure 1 ).

Cases were defined as patients with AD who received a diagnosis of any of our outcomes of interest after the cohort entry date, and the index date was defined as the first date of outcome occurrence. The composite outcome of interest consisted of osteoporosis, fracture, type 2 diabetes, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, avascular necrosis (AVN), cataract, and glaucoma. We defined controls as patients with AD who never received a diagnosis of our outcomes of interests after the cohort entry date. We matched each case with up to 2 controls without replacement, using risk-set sampling on the cohort entry date (±30 days), follow-up duration (between the cohort entry date and the index date [±30 days]), age, sex, and severity of AD. Disease severity of AD was classified as moderate to severe on the basis of the current treatment guidelines for AD. 7 Moderate to severe AD was defined as patients who were receiving at least 1 immunosuppressant, alitretinoin, intravenous immunoglobulin, dupilumab, or phototherapy during the 1 year prior to the cohort entry date. The index dates of the control group were aligned with the corresponding index date of their respective matched cases. For individual outcomes, each case was matched with up to 5 or 10 controls, using different numbers from the composite outcome for ensuring statistical power according to the size of cases for each outcome variable, using risk-set sampling as well (eFigure 2 in Supplement 1 ).

We defined the exposure ascertainment window as the period between the cohort entry date and the index date, segmenting the period into yearly intervals to assess exposure year by year to determine whether patients met the definition for long-term use of oral corticosteroids. Owing to the absence of consensus for a definition of long-term oral corticosteroid use among patients with AD, and even for other diseases, we set the classification of long-term oral corticosteroid use as follows: cumulatively more than 30 days as the primary definition for modest long-term use or more than 90 days as a secondary definition for extensive long-term use, both with greater than a 5-mg daily prednisolone-equivalent dose of oral corticosteroids per year, which places patients at risk of systemic adverse effects. 17 To exclude potential use of oral corticosteroids for related conditions other than AD, we restricted exposure to prescriptions of oral corticosteroids to patients with a diagnosis of AD. Ever long-term use was defined as patients with a history of long-term use of oral corticosteroids for at least 1 year, and all remaining patients were defined as no long-term use . Primarily, ever long-term use was defined as a binary variable using 2 thresholds (>30 days and >90 days). In addition, to examine the duration-response association with long-term use of oral corticosteroids, we used the year, which met the definition for the long-term use, as a continuous variable. We assessed the risk of each outcome associated with the number of cumulative years (considering all the intermittent years of long-term use of oral corticosteroids) throughout the exposure ascertainment period. We also evaluated the risk associated with the number of consecutive years (considering only the continuous years of long-term use of oral corticosteroids) within the exposure ascertainment period. Details of the exposure assessment are shown in eFigure 3 in Supplement 1 .

We discerned a sufficient collection of confounding variables that adequately accounted for potential biases in our analysis: demographic characteristics (eg, sex, age, and medical aid recipients), comorbidities (eg, allergic rhinitis, depression, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and thyroid disorders), comedications (eg, antidepressants, antibiotics, estrogens, and proton-pump inhibitors), proxies of overall health status (eg, history of hospitalization, number of outpatient visits, and Charlson Comorbidity Index score), and severity of AD. The characteristic assessment window was defined as the 1-year period before the cohort entry date (eFigure 1 in Supplement 1 ; the demographic characteristics [sex, age, insurance] were assessed on the cohort entry date and other characteristics such as comorbidities, comedications, proxies of health status, and severity of AD during the 1 year prior to cohort entry). The details of exclusion criteria, exposures, outcomes, and covariates are presented in eTable 2 in Supplement 1 .

The demographic characteristics of the cases and controls were presented as frequency (proportion) for categorical variables and as mean (SD) or median (IQR) values for continuous variables. The same analysis used to evaluate the demographic characteristics of the cases and controls of patients with AD were repeated for each of the 11 outcomes as secondary outcomes. Differences in baseline covariates between cases and controls were evaluated using the absolute standardized difference, where an absolute standardized difference greater than 0.1 indicates a statistical imbalance existing between 2 groups.

The association between long-term oral corticosteroid use and the risk of the composite and individual outcomes were investigated using multivariable conditional logistic regression analyses to estimate adjusted odds ratios (AORs) with 95% CIs, adjusting for unbalanced comorbidities, comedications, and proxies of health status after the matching. We conducted additional analyses by considering the number of cumulative or consecutive years of long-term use of oral corticosteroids throughout the entire exposure ascertainment window as continuous variables, to investigate the monotonic duration-response association.

The potential heterogeneity of long-term treatment adverse effects in selected subgroups of patients with AD was examined for the composite adverse outcomes according to age (18-39, 40-64, and ≥65 years), sex (male or female), and severity of AD (mild or moderate to severe AD). To evaluate the robustness of the main findings, sensitivity analyses were first conducted by modifying the definition of exposure from a cumulative duration of more than 30 days or more than 90 days per year to more than 60 days per year. Second, we restricted the population to patients who could be followed up for at least 3 years or 5 years from the cohort entry date. All statistical tests were 2 sided. Analyses were conducted using SAS Enterprise Guide, version 7.1 (SAS Institute Inc), provided by HIRA through a virtual access machine.

Of 1 025 270 patients with AD who had at least 1 prescription of oral corticosteroids between 2013 and 2020, we matched 164 809 cases (mean [SD] age, 39.4 [14.8]; 56.9% women and 43.1% men) with 328 303 controls (mean [SD] age, 39.3 [14.7]; 56.9% women and 43.1% men) ( Table 1 ) by 1:2 matching using risk-set sampling. Cases and controls were matched for sex, age, cohort entry date, follow-up duration, and severity of AD; balance was achieved for most covariates between the 2 groups, with an absolute standardized difference of less than 0.1 ( Table 1 ; whole baseline characteristics of cases and controls are presented in eTable 1 in Supplement 1 , individual outcomes in eTables 5-15 in Supplement 1 , and modest long-term [>30 days] vs extensive long-term [>90 days] in eTable 4 in Supplement 1 ). The most common comorbidity was allergic rhinitis (cases, 42.2%; controls, 38.7%), and the most prevalently prescribed concurrent medication was antibiotics (cases, 71.3% and controls, 66.8%). All the imbalanced variables of concurrent medication use and number of outpatient visits were additionally adjusted in the multivariable logistic regression.

Among the 164 809 cases and 328 303 controls, 5533 cases (3.4%) and 10 561 controls (3.2%) were exposed to oral corticosteroids over 30 days, and 684 cases (0.4%) and 1153 controls (0.4%) were exposed to oral corticosteroids over 90 days. Overall, the risk of AEs was not associated with use of oral corticosteroids exceeding 30 days (AOR, 1.00; 95% CI, 0.97-1.04) ( Table 2 ), while use of oral corticosteroids exceeding 90 days was associated with an 11% increased risk of the composite adverse outcome (AOR, 1.11; 95% CI, 1.01-1.23) ( Table 3 ). Each cumulative or consecutive additive year of long-term exposure (>90 days a year) was associated with a slightly increased risk of having an AE (AOR, 1.06; 95% CI, 1.00-1.13 and AOR, 1.06; 95% CI, 1.00-1.13, respectively).

In the analyses of individual outcomes, an increased risk for hypertension (AOR, 1.09; 95% CI, 1.03-1.15), AVN (AOR, 2.56; 95% CI, 1.82-3.62), and cataract (AOR, 3.22; 95% CI, 1.05-9.85) was associated with use of oral corticosteroids for more than 30 days ( Table 2 ). An increased risk for fracture (AOR, 1.22; 95% CI, 1.05-1.42), hyperlipidemia (AOR, 1.16; 95% CI, 1.03-1.30), myocardial infarction (AOR, 2.22; 95% CI, 1.17-4.22), and AVN (AOR, 6.88; 95% CI, 3.53-13.42) was associated with use of oral corticosteroids for more than 90 days ( Table 3 ). In our subgroup analysis, as compared with unexposed patients, the risk of composite AEs associated with long-term use of oral corticosteroids was generally consistent with the main analyses. No differences were observed in the stratified analyses according to the age group, sex, and severity of AD (eFigures 4-6 in Supplement 1 ). Furthermore, the results of composite outcomes demonstrated a high degree of consistency across all sensitivity analyses regarding the point estimates ( Figure 2 ).

We identified 164 809 cases and 328 303 controls of comparable patients with AD. The risk of composite adverse outcomes was not associated with with ever long-term use of oral corticosteroids exceeding 30 days, whereas the risk was slightly associated with ever long-term use exceeding 90 days. Also, the cumulative and consecutive years of ever long-term use throughout entire exposure ascertainment period was associated with a monotonic elevated risk of having an AE, although there was not a large discrepancy between the 2 distinctive analyses of additive years. Furthermore, small increased risks were identified in the examination of individual outcomes of fracture, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, myocardial infarction, AVN, and cataract. Generally consistent findings, with regard to point estimates, were observed across a range of sensitivity analyses.

Considering the overlapping pathogenetic mechanism between AD and asthma, we referred to studies of patients with asthma for comparison. One cohort study using Medicaid data found that the use of medium and high doses of systemic corticosteroids was associated with bone, cardiovascular, metabolic, and ocular AEs. 34 Another cohort study using 2000-2014 MarketScan data showed a similar increased risk of various AEs associated with the use of 1 to 3 oral corticosteroid prescriptions (AOR, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.01-1.06) and the use of 4 or more prescriptions (AOR, 1.29; 95% CI, 1.20-1.37); the cumulative burden also increased as the number of years accumulated. 20 Although previous research evaluated the frequency of oral corticosteroid use based on prescription numbers, our study provided more conclusive and valid clinical evidence by defining long-term use based on exact duration.

For individual outcomes, in line with previous studies, we also identified fracture, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and myocardial infarction as AEs associated with long-term use of oral corticosteroids, owing to interruption of endocrine function and metabolism. 20 , 35 - 38 We observed risks of AVN and cataract with long-term oral corticosteroid use, although the risks of these 2 conditions were inconclusive in past studies. For the underlying mechanisms for AVN of the femoral head, the use of oral corticosteroids leads to intravascular coagulation that results in a inhibition of blood flow to the bones, which consequently triggers ischemic injury. 39 - 41 Although existing evidence regarding an association of AVN with duration of oral corticosteroid treatment is unclear, AVN could be induced from use of just over 30 days, and cumulative exposure is the important determining factor, as shown in our results. 39 Furthermore, although a complete elucidation remains uncertain, the mechanisms of new-onset cataract associated with modest long-term use of oral corticosteroids may be due to disturbances in osmotic equilibrium, oxidative detriment, and perturbations in lens growth factors. 42 , 43 Another potential hypothesis involves nonenzymatic Schiff base intermediates that form between the corticosteroid’s C-20 ketone group and its nucleophilic groups, undergoing Heyns rearrangement to produce stable amine-substituted adducts seen only in corticosteroid-induced posterior subcapsular cataracts. 44 , 45 No association or subtle increased hazard was observed with osteoporosis, glaucoma, stroke, or heart failure, implying that the dose and duration of corticosteroid treatment may not pose a risk for these conditions among patients with AD.

This study has some strengths. Concerns about conducting this study arose from the lack of consensus regarding the definition of long-term corticosteroid treatment, as different criteria have been used and variations have been observed (eTable 3 in Supplement 1 ). Accordingly, we combined the NICE (National Institute for Health and Care Excellence) guidelines 17 with the opinions of clinicians practicing in clinical settings. Even though evidence for a safe continuous duration of corticosteroid treatment was not available as we developed criteria for the definition of long-term treatment for the dichotomous variable, our criteria are expected to serve as a primary threshold for deciding the duration of treatment. In addition, although the long-term use of oral corticosteroids is not recommended in the guideline for treatment of AD, relatively prolonged use of oral corticosteroids is identified frequently in clinical practice. 12 Thus, this study addresses a significant gap in research by investigating the association between long-term oral corticosteroid use and a comprehensive range of AEs specifically among adults with AD. With its substantial sample size, the study provides robust statistical power to detect associations between oral corticosteroid use and relatively rare outcomes, adding to the existing evidence.

This study also has some limitations. First, disparities arose between the diagnoses recorded and the actual diseases a patient had. 46 In addition, HIRA data do not include clinical data; accordingly, the diagnostic standard criteria for AD, such as the Hanifin-Rajka criteria, 47 , 48 were infeasible. To comply with this issue, we included patients with AD who had at least 1 oral corticosteroid prescription and restricted prescriptions to patients with a diagnosis of AD. Second, due to the inbuilt characteristics of database recording drugs that are prescribed rather than drugs that are taken, the exposure measurement could be uncertain. However, we set the exposed group from the modest long term (>30 days) to the extensive long term (>90 days) and also included the numbers of cumulative or consecutive years of ever long-term use, from which the cumulative burden would be appropriately measured. Third, inhaled corticosteroids, which have some degree of systemic bioavailability, and topical and eye drop formulations of corticosteroids were not accounted for in this study. Fourth, for some of the individual study outcomes, we could not rule out the failure to detect the true effect due to the lack of statistical power; thus, future studies are warranted to corroborate these results. Fifth, due to the nature of the case-control design, it is not possible to completely exclude reverse causality. Sixth, although we considered moderate to severe AD using prescriptions of medication based on the treatment guideline, the influence of AD-related disease severity cannot be eliminated. Seventh, we addressed residual or unmeasured confounders by calculating E-values (eTables 16 and 17 in Supplement 1 ), but unmeasured confounders may be present, and the results should be interpreted with caution.

In this large population-based case-control study, we discovered that oral corticosteroid use of more than 90 days among individuals with AD was associated with a small increased risk of composite adverse outcomes. Future investigations are warranted to confirm this potential risk of AEs associated with long-term use of oral corticosteroids for patients with exacerbations of AD, and health care professionals should thoroughly weigh the benefits associated with oral corticosteroids against the observed small risk of AEs, while continuously monitoring for AEs.

Accepted for Publication: May 23, 2024.

Published: July 19, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.23563

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC-ND License . © 2024 Jang YH et al. JAMA Network Open .

Corresponding Authors: Ju-Young Shin, PhD, School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, 2066 Saburo, Jangan-gu, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 16419, South Korea ( [email protected] ); Yang Won Lee, MD, PhD, Department of Dermatology, Konkuk University School of Medicine, 120-1 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05030, South Korea ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Drs Shin and Y. W. Lee had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis. Drs Jang and Choi contributed equally to this work.

Concept and design: All authors.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: H. Lee, Noh, Jeon, Yoo.

Drafting of the manuscript: Jang, Choi, Woo, Jeon, Yoo.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Jang, H. Lee, Woo, Park, Noh, Jeon, Yoo, Shin, Y. W. Lee.

Statistical analysis: Choi, H. Lee, Woo, Park.

Obtained funding: Jeon, Yoo, Shin.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Jeon, Yoo, Shin, Y. W. Lee.

Supervision: Jang, Shin.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Park reported receiving support from the AIR@innoHK programme of the Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Innovation and Technology Commission. Dr Noh reported receiving grants from the Ministry of Health and Welfare outside the submitted work. Drs Jeon and Yoo reported receiving personal fees from Pfizer Pharmaceuticals Korea Ltd outside the submitted work. Dr Shin reported receiving grants from the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety, the Ministry of Health and Welfare, the National Research Foundation of Korea, Celltrion, and SK Bioscience outside the submitted work. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: This work was supported by Pfizer Pharmaceuticals Korea Ltd.

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: Pfizer Pharmaceuticals Korea Ltd had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 2 .

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New ICC case studies provide guidance for trade digitalisation   

• 3 September 2024

A new ICC Digital Standards Initiative collection of case studies aims to guide businesses and governments seeking to digitalise trade.

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The ICC Digital Standards Initiative has launched a report, featuring 22 case studies that illustrates how supply chain actors have successfully leveraged digital tools and interoperable global standards to address challenges in their supply chains.  

Case studies in the “Key Trade Documents and Data Elements on the Frontlines” report cover both private and public sector actions across four critical areas of digitalisation:  

• Shipping and logistics , focusing on electronic Bills of Lading (eBL) and other tools to reduce transaction times, enhance data integrity, and improve operational efficiency. 
• Commercial documents and product-related information , using technologies like blockchain and digital identity to increase transparency, reduce costs, and improve traceability and trust. 
• Cross-border regulatory compliance , featuring implementation of national single windows and streamlined customs procedures to enhance compliance and operational efficiency. 
• Financial services and fraud prevention , where innovations in trade finance, digital identity, and consent-based data sharing have increased security, speed, and accessibility, benefiting both financial institutions and small businesses. 

The case studies demonstrate that digitalisation can begin at any point in the supply chain, and be supported by off-the-shelf, proprietary, or a combination of internal and external resources. In addition to localised benefits, digitalisation also brings unexpected advantages, including increased employee engagement, customer loyalty, and innovation opportunities. They also show that a continuous, iterative approach with ongoing learning can maximise benefits over time. 

The case studies loosely build on the Key Trade Documents and Data Element (KTDDE) Framework, launched in April 2024, which proposes a unified approach to aligning data across key trade documents, to promote interoperability and data sharing.  

Pamela Mar, Managing Director of ICC DSI , said:

“Our goal is to motivate businesses to advance their digitalisation efforts by showcasing diverse paths to transformation. This report provides concrete examples that can widen the circles of action.” 

“This report is crucial as it provides actionable insights and real-world examples that can guide organisations through the complexities of digital transformation,” said Stephan Wolf, DSI Industry Advisory Board Chair , and Robert Beideman, DSI Industry Advisory Board Vice Chair.

“It moves us from strategic vision to practical implementation.” 

Raphaelle Hemmerlin, Chief Transformation Officer at SUCAFINA SA and a contributor to the report , added:

“Standardised data elements have streamlined our shipping processes, reduced email exchanges and processing times, and allowed us to focus on continuous improvement rather than administrative tasks.” 

To explore the key findings from the report and learn more about the KTDDE Framework, visit the ICC DSI website . 

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Title: legacy learning using few-shot font generation models for automatic text design in metaverse content: cases studies in korean and chinese.

Abstract: Generally, the components constituting a metaverse are classified into hardware, software, and content categories. As a content component, text design is known to positively affect user immersion and usability. Unlike English, where designing texts involves only 26 letters, designing texts in Korean and Chinese requires creating 11,172 and over 60,000 individual glyphs, respectively, owing to the nature of the languages. Consequently, applying new text designs to enhance user immersion within the metaverse can be tedious and expensive, particularly for certain languages. Recently, efforts have been devoted toward addressing this issue using generative artificial intelligence (AI). However, challenges remain in creating new text designs for the metaverse owing to inaccurate character structures. This study proposes a new AI learning method known as Legacy Learning, which enables high-quality text design at a lower cost. Legacy Learning involves recombining existing text designs and intentionally introducing variations to produce fonts that are distinct from the originals while maintaining high quality. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method in generating text designs for the metaverse, we performed evaluations from the following three aspects: 1) Quantitative performance evaluation 2) Qualitative evaluationand 3) User usability evaluation. The quantitative and qualitative performance results indicated that the generated text designs differed from the existing ones by an average of over 30% while still maintaining high visual quality. Additionally, the SUS test performed with metaverse content designers achieved a score of 95.8, indicating high usability.

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