can you use past tense in a research paper

Using the right tense

In your scientific paper, use verb tenses (past, present, and future) exactly as you would in ordinary writing. Use the past tense to report what happened in the past: what you did, what someone reported, what happened in an experiment, and so on. Use the present tense to express general truths, such as conclusions (drawn by you or by others) and atemporal facts (including information about what the paper does or covers). Reserve the future tense for perspectives: what you will do in the coming months or years. Typically, most of your sentences will be in the past tense, some will be in the present tense, and very few, if any, will be in the future tense.

Work done We collected blood samples from . . . Groves et al. determined the growth rate of . . . Consequently, astronomers decided to rename . . . Work reported Jankowsky reported a similar growth rate . . . In 2009, Chu published an alternative method to . . . Irarrázaval observed the opposite behavior in . . . Observations The mice in Group A developed , on average, twice as much . . . The number of defects increased sharply . . . The conversion rate was close to 95% . . .

Present tense

General truths Microbes in the human gut have a profound influence on . . . The Reynolds number provides a measure of . . . Smoking increases the risk of coronary heart disease . . . Atemporal facts This paper presents the results of . . . Section 3.1 explains the difference between . . . Behbood's 1969 paper provides a framework for . . .

Future tense

Perspectives In a follow-up experiment, we will study the role of . . . The influence of temperature will be the object of future research . . .

Note the difference in scope between a statement in the past tense and the same statement in the present tense: "The temperature increased linearly over time" refers to a specific experiment, whereas "The temperature increases linearly over time" generalizes the experimental observation, suggesting that the temperature always increases linearly over time in such circumstances.

In complex sentences, you may have to combine two different tenses — for example, "In 1905, Albert Einstein postulated that the speed of light is constant . . . . " In this sentence, postulated refers to something that happened in the past (in 1905) and is therefore in the past tense, whereas is expresses a general truth and is in the present tense.

Choosing between active and passive voice

In English, verbs can express an action in one of two voices. The active voice focuses on the agent: "John measured the temperature." (Here, the agent — John — is the grammatical subject of the sentence.) In contrast, the passive voice focuses on the object that is acted upon: "The temperature was measured by John." (Here, the temperature, not John, is the grammatical subject of the sentence.)

To choose between active and passive voice, consider above all what you are discussing (your topic) and place it in the subject position. For example, should you write "The preprocessor sorts the two arrays" or "The two arrays are sorted by the preprocessor"? If you are discussing the preprocessor, the first sentence is the better option. In contrast, if you are discussing the arrays, the second sentence is better. If you are unsure what you are discussing, consider the surrounding sentences: Are they about the preprocessor or the two arrays?

The desire to be objective in scientific writing has led to an overuse of the passive voice, often accompanied by the exclusion of agents: "The temperature was measured " (with the verb at the end of the sentence). Admittedly, the agent is often irrelevant: No matter who measured the temperature, we would expect its value to be the same. However, a systematic preference for the passive voice is by no means optimal, for at least two reasons.

For one, sentences written in the passive voice are often less interesting or more difficult to read than those written in the active voice. A verb in the active voice does not require a person as the agent; an inanimate object is often appropriate. For example, the rather uninteresting sentence "The temperature was measured . . . " may be replaced by the more interesting "The measured temperature of 253°C suggests a secondary reaction in . . . ." In the second sentence, the subject is still temperature (so the focus remains the same), but the verb suggests is in the active voice. Similarly, the hard-to-read sentence "In this section, a discussion of the influence of the recirculating-water temperature on the conversion rate of . . . is presented " (long subject, verb at the end) can be turned into "This section discusses the influence of . . . . " The subject is now section , which is what this sentence is really about, yet the focus on the discussion has been maintained through the active-voice verb discusses .

As a second argument against a systematic preference for the passive voice, readers sometimes need people to be mentioned. A sentence such as "The temperature is believed to be the cause for . . . " is ambiguous. Readers will want to know who believes this — the authors of the paper, or the scientific community as a whole? To clarify the sentence, use the active voice and set the appropriate people as the subject, in either the third or the first person, as in the examples below.

Biologists believe the temperature to be . . . Keustermans et al. (1997) believe the temperature to be . . . The authors believe the temperature to be . . . We believe the temperature to be . . .

Avoiding dangling verb forms

A verb form needs a subject, either expressed or implied. When the verb is in a non-finite form, such as an infinitive ( to do ) or a participle ( doing ), its subject is implied to be the subject of the clause, or sometimes the closest noun phrase. In such cases, construct your sentences carefully to avoid suggesting nonsense. Consider the following two examples.

To dissect its brain, the affected fly was mounted on a . . . After aging for 72 hours at 50°C, we observed a shift in . . .

Here, the first sentence implies that the affected fly dissected its own brain, and the second implies that the authors of the paper needed to age for 72 hours at 50°C in order to observe the shift. To restore the intended meaning while keeping the infinitive to dissect or the participle aging , change the subject of each sentence as appropriate:

To dissect its brain, we mounted the affected fly on a . . . After aging for 72 hours at 50°C, the samples exhibited a shift in . . .

Alternatively, you can change or remove the infinitive or participle to restore the intended meaning:

To have its brain dissected , the affected fly was mounted on a . . . After the samples aged for 72 hours at 50°C, we observed a shift in . . .

In communication, every detail counts. Although your focus should be on conveying your message through an appropriate structure at all levels, you should also save some time to attend to the more mechanical aspects of writing in English, such as using abbreviations, writing numbers, capitalizing words, using hyphens when needed, and punctuating your text correctly.

Using abbreviations

Beware of overusing abbreviations, especially acronyms — such as GNP for gold nanoparticles . Abbreviations help keep a text concise, but they can also render it cryptic. Many acronyms also have several possible extensions ( GNP also stands for gross national product ).

Write acronyms (and only acronyms) in all uppercase ( GNP , not gnp ).

Introduce acronyms systematically the first time they are used in a document. First write the full expression, then provide the acronym in parentheses. In the full expression, and unless the journal to which you submit your paper uses a different convention, capitalize the letters that form the acronym: "we prepared Gold NanoParticles (GNP) by . . . " These capitals help readers quickly recognize what the acronym designates.

• Do not use capitals in the full expression when you are not introducing an acronym: "we prepared gold nanoparticles by… "
• As a more general rule, use first what readers know or can understand best, then put in parentheses what may be new to them. If the acronym is better known than the full expression, as may be the case for techniques such as SEM or projects such as FALCON, consider placing the acronym first: "The FALCON (Fission-Activated Laser Concept) program at…"
• In the rare case that an acronym is commonly known, you might not need to introduce it. One example is DNA in the life sciences. When in doubt, however, introduce the acronym.

In papers, consider the abstract as a stand-alone document. Therefore, if you use an acronym in both the abstract and the corresponding full paper, introduce that acronym twice: the first time you use it in the abstract and the first time you use it in the full paper. However, if you find that you use an acronym only once or twice after introducing it in your abstract, the benefit of it is limited — consider avoiding the acronym and using the full expression each time (unless you think some readers know the acronym better than the full expression).

Writing numbers

In general, write single-digit numbers (zero to nine) in words, as in three hours , and multidigit numbers (10 and above) in numerals, as in 24 hours . This rule has many exceptions, but most of them are reasonably intuitive, as shown hereafter.

Use numerals for numbers from zero to nine

• when using them with abbreviated units ( 3 mV );
• in dates and times ( 3 October , 3 pm );
• to identify figures and other items ( Figure 3 );
• for consistency when these numbers are mixed with larger numbers ( series of 3, 7, and 24 experiments ).

Use words for numbers above 10 if these numbers come at the beginning of a sentence or heading ("Two thousand eight was a challenging year for . . . "). As an alternative, rephrase the sentence to avoid this issue altogether ("The year 2008 was challenging for . . . " ) .

Capitalizing words

Capitals are often overused. In English, use initial capitals

• at beginnings: the start of a sentence, of a heading, etc.;
• for proper nouns, including nouns describing groups (compare physics and the Physics Department );
• for items identified by their number (compare in the next figure and in Figure 2 ), unless the journal to which you submit your paper uses a different convention;
• for specific words: names of days ( Monday ) and months ( April ), adjectives of nationality ( Algerian ), etc.

In contrast, do not use initial capitals for common nouns: Resist the temptation to glorify a concept, technique, or compound with capitals. For example, write finite-element method (not Finite-Element Method ), mass spectrometry (not Mass Spectrometry ), carbon dioxide (not Carbon Dioxide ), and so on, unless you are introducing an acronym (see Mechanics: Using abbreviations ).

Using hyphens

Punctuating text.

Punctuation has many rules in English; here are three that are often a challenge for non-native speakers.

As a rule, insert a comma between the subject of the main clause and whatever comes in front of it, no matter how short, as in "Surprisingly, the temperature did not increase." This comma is not always required, but it often helps and never hurts the meaning of a sentence, so it is good practice.

In series of three or more items, separate items with commas ( red, white, and blue ; yesterday, today, or tomorrow ). Do not use a comma for a series of two items ( black and white ).

In displayed lists, use the same punctuation as you would in normal text (but consider dropping the and ).

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Present and Past Tenses Used in Research Papers

• First Online: 30 June 2022

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• Adrian Wallwork 3  

Part of the book series: English for Academic Research ((EAR))

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Below are some guidelines on the use of the three most common tenses in research papers: present simple , present perfect , past simple . These guidelines are NOT grammatical rules. The guidelines can be broken. They vary depending on the author, the discipline, and the journal.

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Wallwork, A. (2022). Present and Past Tenses Used in Research Papers. In: Essential English Grammar and Communication Strategies. English for Academic Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95612-7_11

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In what tense (present/past) should papers be written?

That is, should it be present tense or past tense?

Should there be a difference between the abstract, main body and the conclusion?

Does the field of publication have any impact?

• publications
• writing-style

• 6 I suggest reading a copy of How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper by Robert A. Day. You could also get a copy of The Elements of Style by William Strunk Jr. and E.B. White. –  user244795 Commented Dec 3, 2012 at 17:24
• 5 Don't forget about the future tense (for discussion and open problems). :-) –  Anonymous Mathematician Commented Dec 3, 2012 at 17:55
• @user244795 +1 for Strunk and E.B. White. So much valuable information in such a small book. –  user4383 Commented Apr 19, 2013 at 4:06

2 Answers 2

The rules of thumb are:

• Established facts are reported in the present tense (“ The path of light follows Fermat's principle of least time ”). However, you should use the past tense when you refer to previous work in the field (“ Maxwell et al. demonstrated clearly in a laser cavity experiment that no mirror is perfect ”).
• The experiments, simulations or calculations you performed are narrated in the past tense (“ We dissolved the remaining solid in a 5:1 solution of acetone and benzonitrile, and heated to 200°C for three hours. ”)
• Discussion of the data presented in the paper uses the present tense (“ The results obtained, shown in Fig. 3, clearly emphasize that the cell colonies grew faster on pink toothbrushes than green ones. We attribute this to the color-sensitivity, or kawai factor. ”)
• Mathematical proofs are written using the present tense, because going through the proof occurs at the time of reading (“ From Eqn. 1, we derive the following system of inequalities ”).

Overall, the choice of tenses is actually pretty logical.

• 4 I'm not sure if I agree with the third example. If the result can be generalised, surely the results show that the cell colonies grow faster, not grew faster, on pink toothbrushes? –  gerrit Commented Oct 5, 2012 at 19:21
• 2 @gerrit I agree: here, as written , it is meant to be a specific statement about the experiment (it is “ the cell colonies grew faster”, not “cell colonies grow faster”). Both are of course possible, but have different meanings… –  F'x Commented Oct 5, 2012 at 20:23
• 14 A trickier case is describing mathematical proofs from older papers. It's "Thurston [4] claimed that 3-manifolds are ..." but "Thurston's argument [4] implies that 3-manifolds are ...". –  JeffE Commented Oct 5, 2012 at 20:42
• 2 This is a nice succinct description of tense. In the lab report guidelines I wrote for my students, I took two pages. –  Ben Norris Commented Oct 5, 2012 at 22:51
• 6 @Suresh: The subject of the first sentence is a person, who made his claim at a specific time in the past. The subject of the second sentence is an argument, which implies what it always has and always will, and oh by the way it was first articulated by Thurston. Platonism FTW! –  JeffE Commented Oct 6, 2012 at 3:15

There are two distinct general cases that bring up the question of, "Which tense should I use?", each of which follows different principles.

First, are you describing research itself and ideas from research? (This is what you are doing probably 99% of the time.) In this case, the principle that I follow is simple, regardless of whether I am describing what other people have done or describing my own work:

• Historical occurrences should be in past tense. "Historical" means anything that actually happened in the past, whether a procedure, an article publication, a statement made by anyone, or anything else that has actually happened.
• Enduring truths should be in present tense. "Enduring truth" in this context only means that the authors present such statements as ongoing facts in the past, present and future; it doesn't mean anything more than that. (In particular, even if you disagree with what some authors consider to be true, it is still an "enduring truth" in their minds, and so should be presented in present tense.)

The second case where tense is involved is trickier: are you describing your own writing process as you are writing the article? (Although you only do this 1% or less of the time, it leads to perhaps 80% of the confusion of the question as to which tense to use, so it is important to understand this.) The basic idea here is to anticipate your reader's expected or intended path of reading, which is what makes it so tricky. Here is the principle I follow here:

• When describing anything you write in the current paragraph or any paragraph below, use present tense. Future tense could also be correctly used for most things in paragraphs below, but not always. In particular, when referring to elements outside the main body of the text (such as appendices, references, footnotes, acknowledgements, etc.), you should always use present tense, since the reader should refer to such ancilliary sections simultaneously with reading the text. I find this a bit confusing, so it is simpler for me to only use present tense and never use future tense, which is perfectly acceptable.
• When describing any thing you write in preceding paragraphs, use past tense. The only exception is that when writing in appendices, you should refer to the main body of the text in present tense. (Technically, you should probably also use present tense if referring to the main body in other ancillary sections [references, footnotes, acknowledgements, etc.], but I never need to refer to the main body of the text in such sections.)

I now follow with several annotated examples to illustrate these points. Some of them are straightforward applications of the principles I have summarized above, though some could be argued as either present or past tense.

Literature review AuthorA and AuthorB (Year) studied an interesting topic. They applied a cool methodology and found that certain surprising outcomes are what actually happen.

• "AuthorA and AuthorB (Year) studied an interesting topic": The study occurred in the past, and so is in past tense.
• "They applied a cool methodology": The authors actually did some analysis in the past, and so it is in past tense.
• "and found that": The authors arrived at their results at a certain point in time in the past, when they made their conclusions; this is thus in past tense.
• "certain surprising outcomes are what actually happen": The authors concluded that their findings not only applied to their study, but indicate some general truths that would continue to apply in the future. Thus, as a description of ongoing reality, it is in present tense.

Methodology Section of My Own Article We gathered and analyzed certain pertinent data in various stages. First, we conducted an extensive survey. The respondents of the survey reported that they only partially agreed with most of the statements in the survey instrument. Second, we interviewed other relevant respondents. The interviewees enlightened us as to some of the responses on the prior survey. Third, we collected biometric data from the brain electrodes attached to the interviewees during the interviews, which was generally consistent with what they were actually saying (except for some notable discrepancies, which we discuss in more detail below). Finally, we applied some cutting-edge combined quantitative-qualitative analyses to bring everything together and make sense of it all.

• "We gathered and analyzed ", "we conducted ", "we interviewed ", "we collected ", "we applied ": Statements of research methods or procedures that we actually did are past events; hence, they are in past tense.
• "The respondents of the survey reported ", "The interviewees enlightened us", "biometric data ... was generally consistent with": Responses and results (whether by people, animals, plants, or inanimate objects) are reports of historical facts: they actually happened in the past. Thus, they should be in past tense.
• "The respondents of the survey ... only partially agreed with most of the statements in the survey instrument", "what they were actually saying ": These are tricky. But even when you are reporting what people said to be enduringly true about themselves, their saying such things is a past historical statement. That is, if you were to ask them again today, they might have changed their minds. You can only report what they said as a statement made in the past. This is probably the trickiest point, and might be argued to rather be in present tense, though I personally don't think so.
• "notable discrepancies, which we discuss in more detail below": Here you are describing what you have written in the present article, that is, part of your own writing process. This should be in present tense.

Discussion Section of My Own Article The respondents of our surveys and interviews gave us valuable responses that generally confirmed our hypotheses. We conclude from our analyses that the kind of people in our study generally act in the way that our hypotheses claim . However, the brain electrode readings give us a more nuanced understanding of our findings. They indicate that people act in that way only in certain circumstances. The appendix of this article provides more details on all this.

Here it gets quite tricky, with cases that might be argued either way. Comments:

• "respondents of our surveys and interviews gave us valuable responses": The respondents responded in the past.
• "generally confirmed our hypotheses": we conducted the tests of our hypotheses in the past. However, it could be argued to be "generally confirm our hypotheses", since the hypotheses remain confirmed eventoday and in the future by those historical tests.
• "We conclude from our analyses": Not only in the past, but now and in the future, each time we reassess our analyses, we continue to arrive at the same conclusions.
• "our hypotheses claim ": Our hypotheses have not changed; they continue to make the same claims.
• "people in our study generally act in the way", "people act in that way": We extrapolate our findings not only to the people who responded in our study, but as a general finding concerning how that type of person continues to act.
• "the brain electrode readings give us a more nuanced understanding of our findings", "They indicate that": We are referring here not to the past fact of taking the readings, but to the ongoing fact of our interpretation of those readings.
• "The appendix of this article provides more details": This refers to a supplementary section of my own writing.

Appendix of My Own Article In this appendix we provide more details about the analyses from the study. We conducted even fancier and more experimental analyses to better understand the results. Our supplementary analyses revealed some cases where the general trend did not apply. We explain our interpretation of these supplementary findings in the Discussion section of the article.

• "In this appendix we provide more details": This is the writing process of the current section of the article.
• "We conducted even fancier and more experimental analyses", "Our supplementary analyses revealed some cases": These are procedures conducted in the past.
• "the general trend did not apply: This is a past finding from a past analyses. It might be argued to be an interpretation, in which case it should be in present tense.
• "We explain our interpretation of these supplementary findings in the Discussion section": This reference to the main body of the article should always be in present tense, since it is written in an appendix.

• 1 What if in the Methods section I want to describe a procedure to calculate something, (maybe depicted in a diagram)?. Should I use past tenses because I did it or present tenses because it's something that I did but the procedure always true? For example We calculate the exposure time by taking ... and then we divide.... –  skan Commented Dec 12, 2018 at 20:40
• @skan, this would be past tense according to the principles I proposed. You said, "the procedure [is] always true", but that is not the case. In fact, if you were to repeat the study, you would not do exactly the same procedure because the data might change, the subjects might change, and you might use better procedures as you gain more experience. So, whenever you are documenting procedures, you are recording historical information of how you actually did things that one time. That should be reported in past tense. –  Tripartio Commented Dec 13, 2018 at 8:49
• @skan, you need to provide an actual concrete example otherwise I cannot tell for sure. –  Tripartio Commented Dec 13, 2018 at 11:36
• Imagine the procedure explains how to compute the minimum value of some example data and the user can also follow the procedure on a diagram. The minimum is always calculated in the same way. Would it be wrong to use the present time? I'll try to elaborate an example. –  skan Commented Dec 13, 2018 at 11:40
• 1 @skan, in your example, you are not describing the procedure you followed. You are explaining how to carry out the procedure, which is not the same thing. That should be in present tense. –  Tripartio Commented Dec 13, 2018 at 11:54

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Verb Tenses to Use in a Research Paper

Why Using the Correct Verb Tense is Important

When writing an academic paper, writers should follow the accepted grammar and style conventions: not only to abide by the institutional and domain standards, but to communicate clearly to readers what was studied, when it took place, and from what perspective you are discussing your research (and that of others) in your paper. One crucial writing element that you must consider when composing your paper is  verb tense . Which tense you use will determine the flow and coherency of your paper.

You might have found yourself thinking along these lines: “Everything in this study has already been completed, so shouldn’t I simply write everything in the simple past tense?”

The answer is no–at least not in a strict sense. The verb tense you use for a given sentence or phrase depends on your position as the author to the material you are discussing. As the author, you look at each element mentioned in your text from a distance in terms of your role: as a participant, critic, or messenger, among others. You must also take into account the chronological reasons for choosing between present and past tenses in a given instance.

Knowing which tense to use requires both knowledge of the exact guidelines set out for you in whichever formatting style you are following ( APA , AMA , etc.), as well as some discretion and savvy in choosing the tense that makes the most sense for a given statement in the paper.

While new authors should certainly familiarize themselves with the specific guidelines of the formatting style they are applying, this article will focus on the  most common rules of verb tense applied to research papers in journals and at academic institutions, reflecting basic verb usage rules in academic English and encompassing  all  formatting styles.

Bear in mind that these grammar and verb-tense issues will largely be corrected by any competent proofreading service or research paper editing service , and thus professional revision of all academic documents is recommended before submission to journals or conferences.

Rules for Present, Past, and Perfect Tense Verbs

First, there are three basic verb tenses used in research papers:  present  (simple present),  simple   past , and  present perfect . We will talk about how research paper sections determine verb tense in a minute, but first, let’s review when each tense should be used in general throughout the paper.

PRESENT TENSE VERBS

The present tense is used to talk about general facts, discuss current meanings and implications, and suggest future applications .

General facts are constant and do not change throughout time (the ultimate evolution of scientific progress notwithstanding). Always use the present when discussing general scientific facts.

Example: “Insulin and glucagon regulates blood glucose levels.” 

Implications are closely related to general facts and thus the same rule is applied.

Example: “An elevated glucose level indicates a lack of glucagon hormones in the pancreas.”

Further research is called for or stressed as important through a phrase in the present tense.

Example: “Further studies about glucagon receptors are needed.”

SIMPLE PAST TENSE VERBS

The simple past is generally used to discuss events that have been c ompleted in the past at some distinct time and/or place . It is most often applied to discrete events such as studies, experiments, or observed phenomena.

Example: “Scientists in Wales discovered a new enzyme in the liver.” Example: “Protocol X was used to analyze the data.”

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE VERBS

The present perfect tense (or simply “perfect tense”) is used in research papers to refer to  events or actions that have taken place at some unidentified time in the past or have started but are still ongoing or only recently completed . It often establishes a general background in the Introduction section , adding a backdrop on which you can explain the motivations for and purpose of your study.

Note that it is the least frequently used tense in most research papers and should not be over-employed–focus more on detailed actions by using the simple past.

Example:  “Many studies have focused on glucagon as an important regulating hormone.” Example:  “Until recently, researchers have analyzed this kind of data using Chi-Square Statistics.” Example:  “Efforts have been made to understand more about this process.”  (passive)

Appropriate Verb Tenses by Research Paper Section

It bears repeating that the “best” tense to use is the one that is recommended (or demanded) by whichever formatting manual you are using. However, there is a high degree of continuity between the common styles, and the following rules for usage in each section will likely apply to your research paper no matter where it will be published.

Abstract verb tenses

In general, use the simple past for the abstract of your manuscript; for a concise introductory sentence, use the present perfect. To establish a need for your study—–for instance, by explaining the current circumstances of the world or the specific area in which you are working—–you can also use the present tense.

Example of introductory sentence (present perfect): “Recent studies of glucagon and insulin production have led to breakthroughs in medicine.” Example of establishing background/circumstances/purpose (present): “Diabetes  accounts for a higher number of deaths in the US than previously calculated.”

For general statements and facts, the paper itself, or analysis of findings, use the present tense.

Example of a statement of fact: “In the US, diabetes is the most common endocrine disease.”

If you are stating a fact or finding from an earlier specified time or place, use the simple past:

Example: “In 2016, diabetes was the most common endocrine disease.” Have a look at our more in-depth instruction to writing an abstract for a research paper or at these do’s and don’ts of abstract writing if you need additional input.

Introduction section verb tenses

Use a mixture of present and past tense in the introduction section .

The present tense is applied when discussing something that is always true; the simple past tense is used for earlier research efforts, either your own or those reported by another group.

Example of earlier research efforts (simple past): “This same research team discovered a similar enzyme in their 2012 study.”

If the time or location of the demonstration is unknown or not important, use the present perfect.

Example: “Prior research has indicated a correlation between X and Y.”

For the concluding statements of your introduction, use the simple past or present perfect.

Example of concluding statement (simple past): “The CalTech glucagon studies were inconclusive.” Example of concluding statement (present perfect): “Prior research in this area has been inconclusive.”

Use the past perfect when you talk about something that happened or was found to be the case in the past, but which has since been revised. Example of revised information (past perfect): “The Dublonsky study had determined that X was Y, but a 2012 study found this to be incorrect.”

Literature review verb tenses

Knowing which tenses to use for a literature review (either as part of a research paper or as a stand-alone article) can be a bit tricky, as your usage depends both on which style manual you are using (APA, AMA, MLA , or others) and on how you are discussing the literature.

The simple past is usually applied when using the researcher’s name as the subject of the sentence and discussing the methods or results of that study itself

Example of describing researcher’s actions: “Pearson (1997) discovered a new enzyme using similar methods.”

Other verbs commonly found in this usage context: investigated, compared, studied, analyzed, investigated, found, confirmed, performed, etc.

When giving your opinion on another researcher’s work or bringing up the results, discussion, and conclusions they make in their work, use the present tense.

Example of discussing another’s work: “Ryuku (2005) concludes that there are no additional enzymes present in the liver, a finding this current study directly refutes.” Other verbs commonly found in this usage context: stresses, advocates, remarks, argues, claims, posits. etc.

Methods section verb tenses

The Methods section fairly clearly delineates between sections written in past and those written in present tense.

Use the simple past tense to talk about what you did. (Note that you will generally find the passive voice used when describing the actions of the researchers. This puts more focus on the actions being completed and less on the agents completing the action. Passive voice has become the general standard for research papers in recent decades, but it is okay to mix passive and active voice in order to make your paper clearer and more readable.)

Example of methods of study: “A glucose molecule was added to the mixture to see how the peptide would respond.” Example of methods of analysis: “The results were analyzed using Bayesian inference.”

Use the present tense to refer to or explain diagrams, figures, tables, and charts.

Example: “Table 5 shows the results of this first isolated test.” Example: “The results of this first isolated test are displayed in Table 5.”

Results section verb tenses

The verb tense rules for the Results section are quite similar to those applied to the Methods section.

Use the past tense to discuss actual results.

Example: “The addition of 0.02 μg of glycogen activated receptor cells.” Example: “Receptor cells were activated by the addition of 0.02 μg of glycogen.”

Use the simple present tense to explain diagrams/figures/tables. Again, sentences may use both the active and passive voice.

Discussion section verb tenses

The Discussion section consists of an analysis of the findings and a kind of translation of the meanings and implications of these findings.

Use the simple past to summarize your own findings.

Example of summarizing own findings: “The experiment yielded a number of results associated with the processing of glucose.”

Use the present tense to interpret and discuss the significance of your findings.

Example: “[This study confirms that] synthetic glucagon is two-thirds as effective at decreasing fatty acid synthesis.”

Conclusions and further work

The conclusion and call for further work to be done are either provided in the last sentence or two of your paper or in a separate (but short) section at the end of the main text (check the target journal’s author instructions to be sure you follow the journal style) and summarize or emphasize the new insights your work offers.

Use the present perfect tense to clarify that your statements still hold true at the time of reading.

Example: “Results from this study have led to a deeper understanding about how different peptides interact in this enzyme.”

Use the present tense to apply findings, state implications, and suggest further research.

Example of wider implications: “This study confirms that endogenous glucagon is even more essential in metabolism than previously thought.”

When discussing further research that is either needed or intended to be carried out, the future or present tense (or subjunctive mood) can also be used, in addition to the present tense passive voice.

Example of call for future research: “Further clinical studies are needed/will be needed/must be carried out/should be carried out to isolate the cause of this reaction.”

Follow these general rules about tenses and your paper will be clearer, more chronologically correct, and generally easier to read—meaning the important implications of your study will be more easily understood. You can always go back and edit verb tenses—the more you practice, and the more papers you read, the easier it will be to identify which tense should be used for which kind of information.

Verb tenses in scientific writing: Which tense should you use?

If you’re fluent in English, using tenses in scientific writing should come naturally to you. You shouldn’t need to flip through a grammar book, ask a freelance editor, or search online for “methods tense” or “literature review tense”.

But verb tenses may start to haunt you if you’re writing an article for a top peer-reviewed journal and you know you have to get every detail right. For example, you may wonder, What tense should be used in methodology sections? Should the introduction or literature review be written in the present tense or past tense?

In this post I’m going to answer these and other questions on verb tenses in scientific writing to make it easier for you to understand which tenses to use in a research paper.

Past or present tense in a cademic writing? It depends.

There’s  no consensus on how authors should be using verb tenses in scientific writing. Here is a summary of the main recommendations of academic writing experts on tenses in scientific writing.

Literature review verb tense

For the literature review, most academic editors recommend using the past simple or present perfect when talking about past research.

Use the past simple to discuss what was done in the past (the authors collected, investigated, analyzed, etc.).

Use present perfect to talk about findings from previous studies that are still valid today (the author has shown, has demonstrated, etc.).

If you don’t want to use the past simple or present perfect tense in literature review sections, your other option is the present simple tense. This is the so-called literary present.

Writing the literature review in the present simple tense helps simulate an ongoing academic conversation , to which you’re contributing (“Author et al. (2021) find…, discuss…, examine… imply…”).

In summary, what tense should the introduction be written in?

• Past simple or present perfect tense for past research
• Present simple for general truths or for the entire literature review section

Verb tenses in the methodology and results sections

For the methodology, almost all academic writing resources agree that the past simple tense is the logical choice. You are discussing what you did (collected data, analyzed them, and derived your results)—and all of that happened in the past.

However, you may also need to use the present simple tense to refer to figures and tables.

In summary, what tense should methods be written in?

For the methodology section, use these tenses:

• the past simple tense to explain your methods
• the present simple tense to refer to figures or tables

What tense should a discussion be written in?

Tenses for the discussion are similar to those for the introduction:

• past simple or present perfect tense when referring to what you did (past research)
• present simple for general truths or for interpretations of your data

Verb tenses in the conclusion section

For the conclusion, you may need to use several tenses. Again, when referring to general truths or implications of your results, use the present simple. When referring to what you did, use the past simple or present perfect tense.

Use the simple past when discussing the research you completed and is no longer continuing. Use the present perfect when discussing an action that started in the past and is still happening now, or an action that happens regularly.

So, for the conclusion, use these tenses:

• present simple for things that are true at the time of writing, the conclusions of your study, and its implications
• past simple or present perfect tense for past work

Knowing how to use verb tenses in scientific writing is better than imitating other authors

In scientific writing, using verb tenses inconsistently or unnecessarily shifting tenses means sloppy writing. A poorly written manuscript submitted to a peer-reviewed journal will come back with a long list of revisions—if it’s accepted for publication. Hiring a freelance editor for research papers can help you polish your writing style and improve the likelihood that your manuscript will be accepted the second time.

If you don’t want to hire a freelance editor, you may need to edit your own research paper . Mastering verb tenses in scientific writing will help you make the right choice for each section of your paper.

Try to resist the temptation to imitate others’ writing style. It’s common for new authors to learn academic writing the same way they learned to speak: by imitation. They peruse some articles published in their target journal to see what verb tenses other authors used and then make the same choices.

However, this is not such a great idea, because not all published articles are examples of good writing. You risk imitating an author that didn’t pay much attention to verb tenses in scientific writing, or whose work was edited by someone with little experience.

How to choose the right verb tenses for a research paper

If emulating others’ writing style comes with the risk of picking up bad habits, how do you choose the right verb tense to use in a scholarly paper?

Unfortunately, style guides, academic writing books, and academic editors give conflicting advice. A solution to this problem is to follow the recommendations of your university’s writing center if you’re writing a PhD thesis or dissertation. If, however, you’re writing a research paper for a journal, follow its guidelines.

Some publishers may let you choose any style guide as long as you’re consistent. In that case, go with the style popular in your academic field (for example, APA Style in social sciences).

Example: Verb tenses in APA Style

If you need to follow the APA Style, it has precise instructions on using verb tenses in research papers:

• Introduction and literature review: To talk about previous studies, use the past simple or present perfect; for findings that continue to be true, use the present simple.
• Methodology and results: To talk about your methods or results, use the past simple or present perfect.
• Conclusions: Write the conclusions of your research and implications of your findings in the present simple.

Here are some examples to help you understand how to use verb tenses in APA:

• Past simple tense to discuss past work:

Author A (2017) showed that varied populations display similar patterns, but Author B demonstrated that patterns vary wildly

• Present perfect to discuss findings from previous studies that are still valid today:

Other researchers have described similar processes in other environments

• Present simple to express general truths, facts, or ideas accepted today:

Most researchers agree that our species appeared in Africa

• Present perfect or past simple tense to describe your methods and results:

We have observed no variation in the economic growth rate, but found it depends on several factors

• Present simple tense to describe the conclusions and implications of your study:

Our results indicate a strong correlation between A and B, but we need further research in this area

Use the right tenses in scientific writing for clarity

The goal of using the right verb tenses in scientific writing is clarity. So, whether you follow your instincts, your advisor’s suggestions, an editor’s recommendations, or a style guide, aim at clarity and logic. A well-written manuscript will have a better chance of being accepted for publication. Also, it won’t require several rounds of revision to improve its language, meaning you save time and can focus on your science.

Do you need to hire a freelance editor for a research paper? Send me a message at [email protected].

Related posts:

• Write your research paper outline
• Should I edit my own research paper?
• Academic editing tips I wish I knew as a research scientist

Last revised on 23 June 2022

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• Verb Tenses in Academic Writing | Rules, Differences & Examples

Verb Tenses in Academic Writing | Rules, Differences & Examples

Published on 20 October 2022 by Shane Bryson . Revised on 11 September 2023.

Tense communicates an event’s location in time. The different tenses are identified by their associated verb forms. There are three main verb tenses: past ,  present , and  future .

In English, each of these tenses can take four main aspects:  simple ,  perfect ,  continuous  (also known as  progressive ), and  perfect continuous . The perfect aspect is formed using the verb  to have , while the continuous aspect is formed using the verb  to be .

In academic writing , the most commonly used tenses are the  present simple , the  past simple , and the  present perfect .

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Table of contents

Tenses and their functions, when to use the present simple, when to use the past simple, when to use the present perfect, when to use other tenses.

The table below gives an overview of some of the basic functions of tenses and aspects. Tenses locate an event in time, while aspects communicate durations and relationships between events that happen at different times.

It can be difficult to pick the right verb tenses and use them consistently. If you struggle with verb tenses in your thesis or dissertation , you could consider using a thesis proofreading service .

The only proofreading tool specialized in correcting academic writing

The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts and by native English editors. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students.

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The present simple is the most commonly used tense in academic writing, so if in doubt, this should be your default choice of tense. There are two main situations where you always need to use the present tense.

Describing facts, generalisations, and explanations

Facts that are always true do not need to be located in a specific time, so they are stated in the present simple. You might state these types of facts when giving background information in your introduction .

• The Eiffel tower  is in Paris.
• Light  travels faster than sound.

Similarly, theories and generalisations based on facts are expressed in the present simple.

• Average income differs by race and gender.
• Older people express less concern about the environment than younger people.

Explanations of terms, theories, and ideas should also be written in the present simple.

• Photosynthesis  refers to  the process by which plants  convert sunlight into chemical energy.
• According to Piketty (2013), inequality grows over time in capitalist economies.

Describing the content of a text

Things that happen within the space of a text should be treated similarly to facts and generalisations.

This applies to fictional narratives in books, films, plays, etc. Use the present simple to describe the events or actions that are your main focus; other tenses can be used to mark different times within the text itself.

• In the first novel, Harry learns he is a wizard and travels  to Hogwarts for the first time, finally escaping the constraints of the family that raised him.

The events in the first part of the sentence are the writer’s main focus, so they are described in the present tense. The second part uses the past tense to add extra information about something that happened prior to those events within the book.

When discussing and analyzing nonfiction, similarly, use the present simple to describe what the author does within the pages of the text ( argues , explains , demonstrates , etc).

• In The History of Sexuality , Foucault asserts that sexual identity is a modern invention.
• Paglia (1993) critiques Foucault’s theory.

This rule also applies when you are describing what you do in your own text. When summarising the research in your abstract , describing your objectives, or giving an overview of the  dissertation structure in your introduction, the present simple is the best choice of tense.

• This research  aims to synthesise the two theories.
• Chapter 3 explains  the methodology and discusses ethical issues.
• The paper  concludes with recommendations for further research.

The past simple should be used to describe completed actions and events, including steps in the research process and historical background information.

Reporting research steps

Whether you are referring to your own research or someone else’s, use the past simple to report specific steps in the research process that have been completed.

• Olden (2017) recruited 17 participants for the study.
• We transcribed and coded the interviews before analyzing the results.

The past simple is also the most appropriate choice for reporting the results of your research.

• All of the focus group participants agreed  that the new version  was an improvement.
• We  found a positive correlation between the variables, but it  was not as strong as we  hypothesised .

Describing historical events

Background information about events that took place in the past should also be described in the past simple tense.

• James Joyce  pioneered the modernist use of stream of consciousness.
• Donald Trump’s election in 2016  contradicted the predictions of commentators.

The present perfect is used mainly to describe past research that took place over an unspecified time period. You can also use it to create a connection between the findings of past research and your own work.

Summarising previous work

When summarising a whole body of research or describing the history of an ongoing debate, use the present perfect.

• Many researchers  have investigated the effects of poverty on health.
• Studies  have shown a link between cancer and red meat consumption.
• Identity politics has been a topic of heated debate since the 1960s.
• The problem of free will  has vexed philosophers for centuries.

Similarly, when mentioning research that took place over an unspecified time period in the past (as opposed to a specific step or outcome of that research), use the present perfect instead of the past tense.

• Green et al.  have conducted extensive research on the ecological effects of wolf reintroduction.

Emphasising the present relevance of previous work

When describing the outcomes of past research with verbs like fi nd ,  discover or demonstrate , you can use either the past simple or the present perfect.

The present perfect is a good choice to emphasise the continuing relevance of a piece of research and its consequences for your own work. It implies that the current research will build on, follow from, or respond to what previous researchers have done.

• Smith (2015) has found that younger drivers are involved in more traffic accidents than older drivers, but more research is required to make effective policy recommendations.
• As Monbiot (2013)  has shown , ecological change is closely linked to social and political processes.

Note, however, that the facts and generalisations that emerge from past research are reported in the present simple.

While the above are the most commonly used tenses in academic writing, there are many cases where you’ll use other tenses to make distinctions between times.

Future simple

The future simple is used for making predictions or stating intentions. You can use it in a research proposal  to describe what you intend to do.

It is also sometimes used for making predictions and stating hypotheses . Take care, though, to avoid making statements about the future that imply a high level of certainty. It’s often a better choice to use other verbs like  expect ,  predict,  and  assume to make more cautious statements.

• There  will be a strong positive correlation.
• We  expect  to find a strong positive correlation.
• H1  predicts a strong positive correlation.

Similarly, when discussing the future implications of your research, rather than making statements with will,  try to use other verbs or modal verbs that imply possibility ( can ,  could ,  may ,  might ).

• These findings  will influence  future approaches to the topic.
• These findings  could influence future approaches to the topic.

Present, past, and future continuous

The continuous aspect is not commonly used in academic writing. It tends to convey an informal tone, and in most cases, the present simple or present perfect is a better choice.

• Some scholars are suggesting that mainstream economic paradigms are no longer adequate.
• Some scholars suggest   that mainstream economic paradigms are no longer adequate.
• Some scholars have suggested   that mainstream economic paradigms are no longer adequate.

However, in certain types of academic writing, such as literary and historical studies, the continuous aspect might be used in narrative descriptions or accounts of past events. It is often useful for positioning events in relation to one another.

• While Harry is traveling to Hogwarts for the first time, he meets many of the characters who will become central to the narrative.
• The country was still recovering from the recession when Donald Trump was elected.

Past perfect

Similarly, the past perfect is not commonly used, except in disciplines that require making fine distinctions between different points in the past or different points in a narrative’s plot.

Sources for this article

We strongly encourage students to use sources in their work. You can cite our article (APA Style) or take a deep dive into the articles below.

Bryson, S. (2023, September 11). Verb Tenses in Academic Writing | Rules, Differences & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 3 September 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/english-language/verb-tenses/

Aarts, B. (2011).  Oxford modern English grammar . Oxford University Press.

Butterfield, J. (Ed.). (2015).  Fowler’s dictionary of modern English usage  (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.

Garner, B. A. (2016).  Garner’s modern English usage (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.

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Shane finished his master's degree in English literature in 2013 and has been working as a writing tutor and editor since 2009. He began proofreading and editing essays with Scribbr in early summer, 2014.

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Q. According to the APA Style (7th ed.) rules, which verb tense should I use in the different sections of my major research paper?

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Answered By: Theresa Bell (she/her/hers) Last Updated: Nov 04, 2021     Views: 4338

The 7th edition style manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) provides suggestions on which verb tense is appropriate for various sections of a thesis, major project or journal article:

• Past or present perfect tense: "Literature review (or whenever discussing other researchers' work)" (APA, 2020, p. 118), "method" (APA, 2020, 118), and "description of procedure" (APA, 2020, 118)
• Past tense: "Reporting of results" (APA, 2020, p. 118)
• Present tense: "Discussion of implications of results" (APA, 2020, p. 118) and "presentation of conclusions, limitations, future directions, and so forth" (APA, 2020, p. 118).

As much as possible, try to be consistent with your chosen verb tense within a section "to ensure smooth expression" (APA, 2020, p. 118). If the verb tenses suggested above don't make sense for the purposes of your document, please check with your instructor or academic supervisor to get their recommendation on the best approach for your document.

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association  (7th ed.).  https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

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Should I use present or past tense when referring to a (scientific) paper? [duplicate]

Possible Duplicate: What (grammatical) tense to use when doing reference in a paper?

In the two examples below, which tense is preferred?

"Smith (2001) noted that ..." or "Smith (2001) notes that ..."

"The paper established ..." or "The paper establishes ..."

If both forms are equally valid, is it customary to use both forms within a text, or should I stick to one form?

• I think if the information presented in the paper has become common knowledge within the target audience, use the past tense. If not, use present tense (i.e. - if it's likely any significant proportion of your audience are unaware of the information, use present tense because they are only now coming to know it through your reference ). –  FumbleFingers Commented Jan 27, 2012 at 18:26

2 Answers 2

MLA style and others recommend using present tense when citing published sources. Their explanation is that "Smith notes that" is a signal phrase , and that signal phrases should have present tense verbs.

The lone exception seems to be APA style , which "dictates that writers use the past or present past tense when citing previous research," i.e. "Smith (2001) noted" or "Smith (2001) has noted."

If you're governed by APA style, follow their guidelines and use past or present past tense. Otherwise, use present tense.

• Maybe (if present tense is not required by a style) you could use past tense in cases like "Already Socrates (399 BC) noted: '"I know that I know nothing'". –  Stephen Commented Jan 27, 2012 at 19:11
• Signal phrase link leads to a deceptive site according to Firefox –  HRSE Commented Sep 20, 2023 at 8:31
• 1 @HRSE Thanks, changed the link to a known good reference. –  Gnawme Commented Sep 20, 2023 at 22:55

" APA style requires authors to use the past tense or present perfect tense when using signal phrases to describe earlier research, for example, Jones (1998) found or Jones (1998) has found ."

Not the answer you're looking for? Browse other questions tagged phrases tenses or ask your own question .

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A Guide for Writing in the Scientific Forum

Sandra v. kotsis.

1 Section of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Michigan Health System

Kevin C. Chung

2 Section of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Michigan Health System

When considering the importance of scientific writing in disseminating new discoveries and ideas, it is quite remarkable that few physicians have received any formal instruction in this essential process.

This paper focuses on the fundamental principles of scientific writing that also include a “style and grace” component.

The art of good scientific writing is to convey scientific materials in a clear and interesting way, while avoiding incomprehensible sentences that only serve to disguise marginal contents within the article.

Conclusions

The goal of this paper is to encourage authors and readers to critically examine the art of scientific writing to overcome the barrier to effective communication.

Scientific writing is often considered a “necessary evil” in order to ascend the academic ladder. After all, the phrase “publish or perish” is still commonly used. Academic promotion, improving knowledge of a subject, establishing professional contacts, disseminating knowledge, 1 and obtaining grant funding are a few reasons why physicians choose to publish.

Physicians may feel the pressure to publish, but scientific writing is a learned process and one in which few academic physicians have received any formal instruction. 2 - 6 Although scientific writing often has a reputation for being dense or unreadable, 7 - 11 we hope to assist physicians to develop a manuscript that is enjoyable to write and read.

Getting Started

We will assume that you have already completed a well-conducted scientific study and are ready to write up your findings for a peer-reviewed scientific journal. If you are new to scientific writing, it is helpful to have a mentor, particularly an experienced writer in your field who can guide you. If you are writing about a research project, you should have formed a hypothesis to your research question before analyzing any of the data. You will want to do a thorough literature search of your topic so that you are familiar with all published work. Writing an outline may seem elementary, but it can be an important tool to organize your thoughts. 12 Think about what journals you may want to publish in and follow their publication guidelines as far as word count and paper structure. Choosing your journal early on will help you to write for the readers of a specific journal. You do not want to “write down to” your readers or include details that have been published previously, such as an established surgical technique. You also want to think about the conclusions of your paper before you begin to write—the “so what?” question. Why is this project novel? What makes it different from other published studies on this topic? Why is it clinically relevant? Table 1 gives a list of “dos” and “don'ts” for scientific manuscript writing.

Dos and Don'ts for Scientific Manuscript Writing

Writing the Abstract

Although the abstract is the first writing component of a scientific manuscript, it should actually be written last. You should check the format of the journal that you are submitting to, but a structured abstract generally has four sections: Background/Purpose, Methods, Results, and Conclusions. After the rest of the paper has been completed, you can select a sentence or two from the appropriate areas (Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion) to include in the aforementioned abstract sections. However, the abstract is not the introduction and should not be cut and pasted from the introduction. An abstract that is identical to the introduction in any paper or grant will be summarily rejected because of the perceived lack of effort to construct a thoughtful synthesis of the materials in the paper. You should be concise and state the purpose usually in one sentence. The emphasis should be placed on the methods and results, which should each be written in three to four sentences. The conclusion can typically be written in two sentences—the first summarizes your findings and the second makes a conclusion. 12 Only data contained in the paper should be included in the abstract—it should not contain any new data. Care should be taken in writing the abstract. Many physicians will not read past the abstract if it is not well-written. Similarly, many readers only need to scan through an abstract to determine whether a manuscript is pertinent to their topic of interest.

Writing the Introduction

Before any writing begins, it is important to perform a thorough literature search. You should be familiar with all the recent advances in your field of study as well as important historical references. “Incomplete, inaccurate, or outdated review of the literature” is one of the common reasons for manuscript rejection. 13 - 15 The Introduction should be written in the present tense. 16 You can begin in the first paragraph by mentioning the most important references and stating the research problem. The second paragraph can elaborate on the magnitude of the problem and unresolved issues. The final paragraph describes the rationale for your study and should end with the purpose: a hypothesis of what you are expecting to find. 12 Examples of elements to include in a well-written manuscript are shown in Table 2 . Of course, before you begin writing or even analyzing your data, you should have developed a hypothesis. Your observed results may not match your expected results when you analyze your data, but we will discuss that in the Discussion section.

Examples of Elements to Include in a Well-Written Scientific Manuscript 41

Writing the Materials and Methods

The traditional sequence of a manuscript is Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion, which has been referred to by the acronym IMRAD. Pollock et al. have suggested drafting the manuscript in the sequence MRDAI. 17 The Methods section should be written in enough detail that another researcher would be able to duplicate your study. 12 In fact, the Methods section is most often responsible for outright rejection of a manuscript 18 because the lack of detail is a common problem. 19 This is the section where you want to state everything you did (controlling for biases, validating research tools) to increase the reliability of your results.

The Methods section should be written in the past tense. 16 To avoid any confusion by the readers, you may want to start by describing the type of study you performed: randomized, prospective, retrospective, case-control, etc. If it is a study involving human subjects, you should state that you obtained Institutional Review Board approval and include the subject inclusion and exclusion criteria. Include how and from where subjects were recruited as well as randomization and blinding procedures. Including patient characteristics such as disease stage or severity and comorbid conditions can help the readers to determine whether the findings of the paper are applicable to their patients of interest. 16 It may be helpful to include a diagram of the number of subjects recruited, how many were excluded, losses to follow-up, or withdrew, and your final sample size. Figure 1 shows an example of a similar diagram from a meta-analysis. Details of the sample are included in the Results, but most journals will require that the previously stated information is included in the Methods. Likewise, preliminary experiments or pilot studies can be included in the Methods section if they helped you to arrive at the methods used in your study. 2 If equipment was used, the equipment manufacturer, model, and calibration methods should be included. It may also be helpful to include a timeline that shows how and when different aspects of the study protocol took place. 12 The final paragraph of the Methods section should describe the statistical analysis. You may need assistance writing this paragraph from your statistician, if you did not perform the analysis yourself. You should include the tests used, the p-value that determined statistical significance, and whether an a priori power analysis was conducted to decide your necessary sample size. The power and sample size calculation is often a neglected area of scientific presentation and should always be performed prior to conducting a study.

A study attrition diagram from a meta-analysis showing the number of references retrieved and excluded from review. 42

(Adapted from Margaliot Z, Haase SC, Kotsis SV, et al. A meta-analysis of outcomes of external fixation versus plate osteosynthesis for unstable distal radius fractures. J Hand Surg. 2005;30A:1185-1201 with permission from Elsevier)

Writing the Results

In writing the Results section, it is important to “only state the facts!” The Results section is not a place to include citations or your interpretation of the data. “Make your point with data, not arguments.” 20 The Results section should be written in the past tense. 12 You should begin by describing the study sample demographic data, which can be done in a simple table. The data reported in a table should not be repeated in the text. Furthermore, tables and figures should stand on their own. You should include a title, legend, and labels for the axes. The readers should be able to determine what the table is about by only looking at it and not having to read any text. Any percentages should include raw numbers so that the readers are not misled by a large percentage (such as 25%) that only came from 1/4 subjects.

It should be noted that the word “significance” only be used to describe statistical significance. You should avoid using significant as a synonym for importance. General phrases such as “showed a trend toward” when results are not statistically significant often tend to signal a poor study design and should be avoided. 2 Also, the word “data” is plural. Thus, it is correct to state, “Our data are…” rather than “Our data is…”

Writing the Discussion

You should begin writing the Discussion by discussing the major findings and relating them to your hypothesis. Did you reject your null hypothesis with your findings or were you unable to reject it? Although being unable to reject your null hypothesis (for example, seeing no significant change between your treatment groups) may seem like a “crash and burn” situation, you can still publish your paper. It has been stated that “Manuscripts describing studies with negative findings are especially tough to get accepted by medical journals, with publication rates generally less than one-third that of manuscripts describing studies with positive findings.” 21 You should describe whether you conducted an a priori power analysis to determine your necessary sample size in order to avoid a beta error (concluding that there is no difference between treatment groups when there is in fact a difference). Chung et al. found that 82% of negative studies in a major hand surgery journal had inadequate statistical power (probability to detect a true difference, if a difference is present) to support their conclusions. 22

Previous studies have shown that physicians, particularly those with no formal education in epidemiology and biostatistics have a limited ability to interpret study results. 23 - 25 However, more than 58% of medical residents use statistical information in the published literature in forming opinions or when making medical decisions. 26 Thus, it is important in the Discussion to spell out the meaning of your statistical findings without appearing condescending to your readers. When describing your study, past tense should be used, but present tense should be used for established knowledge from other investigators. 16

In addition to the meaning of your data, you want to discuss the importance. You should compare and contrast your results to those found in the literature. Care should be taken not to criticize other published work. Similar findings will strengthen your results, but you should still point out how your study differs from previous similar studies. When explaining the study results, it is important to consider all possible explanations rather than just those that fit your preconceived biases. However, you should avoid coming to conclusions that are not supported by your data. Some of the most common criticisms of the Discussion section by editors' and reviewers' involve “coming to erroneous or unsupported conclusions, drawing conclusions disproportionate to the results, uncritically accepting statistical results, and interpreting the findings in a manner not concordant with data reported.” 18 Unless you are absolutely sure that it is true, you should avoid statements such as, “This is the first study to demonstrate…” After all, there are few studies that change the course of scientific progress, but some authors are overly enthusiastic in advertising their study as a seminal contribution. 19 It is also important to discuss the clinical relevance of your findings and how patients or physicians may benefit from them. 27

In the Discussion section, it is essential to address the limitations and strengths of your study. We have stated them in this order rather than as strengths and limitations because it is nice to leave the readers on a good note when he/she finishes reading your paper. Thus, acknowledge your study's limitations first. One limitation may include a lack of generalizability, which often happens when trying to obtain a homogeneous sample. You may use your study's limitations to make suggestions for future research. If not, you should still include suggestions for further research, usually in your concluding section. This last paragraph or last few sentences can also be used to propose ideas for changes to medical practice. 27

Remembering Style and Grace

Throughout the writing and editing process, it is important to remember the style and grace that is needed in writing any good manuscript. First of all, do not make the readers and reviewers work unnecessarily! When reading through your paper, try to keep the reviewers in mind. When a question is left unanswered or is not answered until the Discussion, the readers can get frustrated and give up on your paper entirely. Make it easy on them by explaining early on (usually in the Methods) why you did what you did—whether it was by choice or not. On a similar note, consistently use the same word to describe the same thing in order to provide continuity and avoid confusion. 28 Of course, it is also helpful to have someone else read your manuscript—a colleague and maybe even a layperson. A different set of eyes and a different perspective can point out areas that need clarity.

A few grammatical considerations will assist your readers. Use transitions for flow. “Transitions let the reader know how each sentence relates to the story and how parts of sentences are related.” 28 You should also limit the use of passive language. Although scientists tend to use it because they think that it is objective and do not want to indicate who is conducting a certain action, 28 it becomes quite boring to continually read, “The sutures were removed…” and “The data were analyzed…”

Other grammatical points include writing with precision. Instead of saying that you observed a change, say that you measured an increase or a decrease. 28 Along this point, you should avoid wordiness and using long or unfamiliar words when a commonly used shorter one will convey the same message. 28 Words such as marked, revealed, and demonstrated are overused and have lost their intended meaning. 29 Although it is common for writers, especially inexperienced ones, to try to use “flowery” language, it is best to remember that “less is more.” You can delete unnecessary adjectives and adverbs such as fundamentally, very, and great. You should also examine your writing for wordy phrases such as, “It is often the case that…” 28 or “In our opinion…” If it is not your opinion, it should have a citation attached to it. The words while and since have primary temporal definitions, but while is often used as a synonym for although or whereas and since is commonly used instead of because. 28 Be mindful of these subtleties that can slow down your readers and cause them to misinterpret what you are trying to say.

Well-written paragraphs usually start with making a point in the first sentence and then developing that point throughout the paragraph. Focusing on a single major point in each paragraph allows the readers to follow the author's train of thought. 28

Grantsmanship

Although the focus of this paper has been how to write a scientific manuscript, we have decided to include a section on grant writing. After you have successfully written and published a few papers, you may hope to get funding to conduct your own research and compete in a different arena. An in-depth article on grant writing was written by Chung and Shauver, 30 but we will touch on the basics. In manuscript writing, you have already conducted the research whereas in grant writing, you have probably conducted preliminary research but want to obtain funding to study questions by expanding on that preliminary research. Of course, style and grace are also important in grant writing. The general formats of manuscripts and grants are similar. In manuscripts you have an Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Likewise, in a National Institutes of Health (NIH)-formatted grant, you have Specific Aims and Research Strategy (incorporating the Significance, Innovation, Approach, and Preliminary Studies/Progress Report). 31 The Introduction corresponds to the Specific Aims where the goals and hypotheses are presented. The research question is the most important section of the grant. 32 , 33 The impact (one of the new NIH review criteria) of your proposed research on the research field should be spelled out for the reviewers in the Specific Aims. The Methods section corresponds to the Approach section. New NIH page limitations have reduced the overall size of the grant, encouraging researchers to be less detail-oriented in describing their methods. The Results section corresponds to the Preliminary Studies/Progress Report. Although a grant does not have a Discussion section per se, your “so what?” question is extremely important to answer the significance of your proposal. The Innovation section should describe whether your proposal introduces novel concepts, approaches, or methodologies. 34

New NIH review criteria consist of an overall impact score that reflects reviewers' “…assessment of the likelihood for the project to exert a sustained, powerful influence on the research field(s) involved…” 34 The five core review criteria remain the same as before, but have been prioritized as Significance, Investigators, Innovation, Approach, and Environment. 34 Guidelines published by the NIH regarding how to prepare for grant writing are similar to manuscript writing, including finding a mentor, preparing an outline, and soliciting feedback from colleagues. 35 As described previously for manuscripts, it is best to make the grant reviewers' lives easy. One way this can be done is by separating each of the review criteria into identifiable sections. You can also get a feel for the questions reviewers might ask, depending on their research interests, by identifying the review committee that your proposal will be directed to and seeing who on that committee will most likely review your proposal. Although you should search the literature to obtain background and see if similar studies have been conducted, you should also search the NIH Research Portfolio Online Reporting Tool (RePORT) to see if similar studies have been funded. 36

General Reminders

There are a few other general reminders to keep in mind. Follow the journal guidelines as far as formatting, line numbering, word limits, figures, and citations. This will save you the time and hassle of having the editor send the paper back to you before it can be sent out for review. Aesthetics is another item to keep in mind. Before submitting (especially when submitting online), preview your paper to be sure that you do not have a heading at the end of a page without text underneath it. If you have large blocks of text, it might be a good idea to add one or more subheadings. Make sure that your font is the same throughout and that you have not overused italics. Some reviewers do not like to see italics because the overuse of italics may signal to the reviewers that the authors consider the materials presented to be too complex for the reviewers to understand. Spell out abbreviations the first time you use them but do not try to avoid word count limitations by bombarding the readers with multiple abbreviations. Non-universal abbreviations force the readers to remember their meanings and substitute the full phrase each time they appear. 29 An abbreviation should be used often enough in the paper, preferably more than 10 times, so that the readers do not forget the meaning. 37

Of course, proofread, proofread, proofread, and use spell check! As previously mentioned, allow someone else to proofread, too. You should also look through your final manuscript and notice your citations. Are you continually citing the same author? If so, this can show bias. Make sure that you are citing a wide range of authors and not reiterating someone else's ideas.

If you have conducted a randomized, controlled clinical trial, you should follow the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) statement. 38 The CONSORT statement requires authors of a randomized, controlled clinical trial to fill out a checklist of the key information that should be included. 16 Figure 2 has a general manuscript checklist of items to include.

Manuscript checklist. 16 (Reprinted with permission from The Annals of Pharmacotherapy, copyright 2001, Harvey Whitney Books Company.)

Although you should be optimistic, you should also remember that there is a chance that your manuscript will be rejected by the journal you initially submit to. The acceptance rate of clinical research-based manuscripts submitted to major biomedical journals is 30-40%. 39 The acceptance rates for journals such as New England Journal of Medicine and JAMA is less than 10%. 16 Even if your manuscript is not accepted, the comments by the reviewers will most likely help you to identify your weaknesses and improve your paper. If your manuscript is accepted with revisions (major or minor) then congratulations! However, you may still have plenty of work to do. In revising, draft a response letter with each reviewer's comments typed out and how you have addressed them. Also state where in the paper the revision can be found (i.e. Methods section, paragraph 2, line 2). Remember to be polite; if you are choosing not to make a suggested revision, you should give a reason for doing so. Although it is not necessary to do every suggested edit, your manuscript will not be looked upon kindly if you choose to make a rebuttal for all or the majority of suggestions.

Although scientific writing can be a long and tedious process, your writing ability will continuously improve. Remember that, “Only the researcher who is competent in the art of written communication can play an active and effective role in contributing to science.” 40

Acknowledgments

Supported in part by a Midcareer Investigator Award in Patient-Oriented Research (K24 AR053120) from the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (to Dr. Kevin C. Chung).

Financial Disclosure: None of the authors has a financial interest in any of the products, devices, or drugs mentioned in this manuscript.

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