early american history essay

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The years following the American Revolution were challenging for the new nation, which struggled with the Articles of Confederation, Shay's Rebellion, Federalism, the Alien and Sedition Acts and more.

Shays’ Rebellion

What Caused Shays’ Rebellion? The farmers who fought in the Revolutionary War had received little compensation, and by the 1780s many were struggling to make ends meet. Businesses in Boston and elsewhere demanded immediate payment for goods that farmers had previously bought on credit and often paid off through barter. There was no paper money […]

Federalist Papers

Articles of Confederation As the first written constitution of the newly independent United States, the Articles of Confederation nominally granted Congress the power to conduct foreign policy, maintain armed forces and coin money. But in practice, this centralized government body had little authority over the individual states, including no power to levy taxes or regulate […]

Whiskey Rebellion

What Caused the Whiskey Rebellion?  During the American Revolution, individual states incurred significant amounts of debt. In 1790, Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton pushed for the federal government to take over that debt. He also suggested an excise tax on whiskey to prevent further financial difficulty. President George Washington was opposed to Hamilton’s suggestion of a […]

Alien and Sedition Acts

Dueling Political Parties  The Federalist Party, which supported a strong central government, had largely dominated politics in the new nation before 1796 when John Adams won election as the second U.S. president. In opposition to the Federalists stood the Democratic‑Republican Party, also known as Jeffersonians for their ideological leader, Thomas Jefferson. The Democratic‑Republican Party (forerunner […]

The Pledge of Allegiance

Take a look back at the origins of and history behind the customary salute to the American flag.

Heroism of the Pioneers

David McCullough discusses the challenges faced by America’s earliest pioneers as they braved harsh conditions to settle westward.

The Rise and Fall of Freemasons in the US

The secret society known as the Freemasons had more of an influence over the inception of the United States than many realize.

Articles of Confederation

Before the U.S. Constitution was the law of the land, there were the Articles of Confederation. Find out why they didn’t last long.

When the Founding Fathers Settled States’ vs. Federal Rights—And Saved the Nation

The word ‘federalism’ doesn’t appear in the Constitution, but the concept is baked into the document as a novel approach to establishing state and national powers.

How Shays’ Rebellion Changed America

Get the story behind the uprising that propelled the Constitutional Convention to form a stronger national government.

When Whiskey Was the Backbone of the US Economy

A surplus of U.S. corn crops led to a boom in whiskey sales—and consumption—following the Revolutionary War.

10 Surprising Facts About General Custer

The controversial general was killed at the Battle of the Little Bighorn.

This Day in History

U.S. launches the Quasi‑War with France, the first conflict since the Revolution

Continental congress sets the dollar as the official  u.s. currency, benjamin franklin reveals his design for bifocal glasses, native americans deliver crushing defeat at the battle of the wabash.

Benjamin Banneker writes to Thomas Jefferson, urging justice for African Americans

This Day in History Video: What Happened on July 11

Early American History Research Paper Topics

Exploring a variety of early American history research paper topics is a fantastic way to deepen your understanding of the foundations of the United States. This page presents a comprehensive guide for students studying history, providing a vast range of topics, practical advice on how to select and approach them, and an in-depth article examining the richness of early American history as a field of study. In addition, iResearchNet’s custom writing services are introduced, offering professional support to students who wish to dive into this compelling subject area. Through this combination of resources, students are empowered to create a captivating and academically rigorous research paper on early American history.

100 Early American History Research Paper Topics

In this section, we will explore a comprehensive list of early American history research paper topics. These topics are divided into 10 categories, each offering a diverse range of subjects for exploration. Whether you are interested in politics, social dynamics, cultural developments, or economic aspects, there is a topic that will captivate your interest. Delve into the rich tapestry of early American history and uncover fascinating research paper topics that will broaden your understanding of this critical period.

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Politics and Government:

• The influence of colonial charters on the development of early American governance
• The evolution of colonial assemblies and the rise of self-government
• Examining the impact of the Albany Plan of Union on colonial unity
• The role of colonial legislatures in shaping early American political culture
• The significance of the Stamp Act Congress in the lead-up to the American Revolution
• Analyzing the creation and ratification of the Articles of Confederation
• Exploring the debates surrounding the Constitutional Convention and the drafting of the U.S. Constitution
• The impact of the Federalist and Anti-Federalist papers on American political thought
• Investigating the origins and consequences of the Alien and Sedition Acts
• Examining the influence of early political parties on the formation of American democracy

Social and Cultural Transformations:

• The interactions between Native American tribes and European settlers in the early colonial period
• The role of religion in shaping early American society and culture
• Exploring the impact of the Great Awakening on religious practices and social values
• Analyzing the institution of slavery and its effects on early American society
• The emergence of religious toleration and religious freedom in the colonies
• Investigating the social dynamics and gender roles in early American communities
• The influence of Enlightenment ideas on the intellectual and cultural development of early America
• Examining the role of education and the establishment of early American universities
• The cultural assimilation of different immigrant groups and their contributions to early America
• Exploring the development of early American literature, art, and architecture

Economic and Trade:

• Analyzing the impact of the Columbian Exchange on the economies of early America
• The role of mercantilism and the Navigation Acts in shaping colonial trade policies
• Investigating the development of the triangular trade and the Atlantic slave trade
• The rise of colonial industries and the growth of regional economies
• The impact of the American Revolution on trade and commerce
• The significance of the Embargo Act of 1807 in early American economic history
• Exploring the role of early American banks and financial institutions
• Analyzing the economic consequences of westward expansion and the Louisiana Purchase
• Investigating the emergence of early American capitalism and the growth of the market economy
• Examining the effects of the War of 1812 on early American trade and industry

Native American History:

• The interactions between Native American tribes and European colonizers
• Exploring the impact of disease on Native American populations
• Investigating the role of Native American alliances in shaping the outcome of colonial conflicts
• The effects of land dispossession and forced removal on Native American communities
• The cultural, social, and political resilience of Native American tribes in the face of colonization
• Examining the cultural exchange and adaptation between Native Americans and European settlers
• The role of Native American leaders and warriors in early American conflicts
• Exploring the impact of the Indian Removal Act on Native American sovereignty
• The effects of reservation policies and assimilation efforts on Native American communities
• Investigating contemporary Native American activism and the ongoing struggle for rights and recognition

Revolutionary War and Independence:

• The causes and catalysts of the American Revolution
• Analyzing the role of key individuals, such as George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, in the Revolutionary War
• The impact of foreign assistance, particularly from France, on the outcome of the Revolution
• The experiences of soldiers and civilians during the Revolutionary War
• Investigating the ideological foundations of American independence and the Declaration of Independence
• Examining the impact of Revolutionary War battles, such as Saratoga and Yorktown
• The effects of the Treaty of Paris (1783) and the establishment of the United States
• Exploring the challenges of nation-building and creating a system of government after the Revolution
• The significance of the Federalist Papers in the ratification of the U.S. Constitution
• Investigating the debates over individual rights and the inclusion of a Bill of Rights in the Constitution

Slavery and Abolition:

• The origins and development of slavery in the early American colonies
• Exploring the experiences of enslaved individuals and the resistance against slavery
• Investigating the impact of the American Revolution on the institution of slavery
• The role of early abolitionist movements and individuals in the fight against slavery
• Analyzing the economic, social, and political implications of the cotton gin and the expansion of slavery
• The Underground Railroad and the network of abolitionist activities
• Examining the impact of the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850 on the slavery debate
• The significance of the Dred Scott case and its role in deepening sectional tensions
• Investigating the role of African Americans in the Civil War and the fight for emancipation
• The effects of the Emancipation Proclamation and the Thirteenth Amendment on the abolition of slavery

Early American Women:

• Exploring the experiences of women in colonial America
• The role of women in early American politics and social movements
• Analyzing the impact of the American Revolution on women’s rights and gender roles
• Investigating the contributions of early American women writers, artists, and intellectuals
• The emergence of women’s suffrage movements in the 19th century
• Examining the role of women in education and the establishment of female seminaries
• The experiences of enslaved women and their resistance against oppression
• Exploring the impact of the Seneca Falls Convention and the Declaration of Sentiments
• Investigating the intersectionality of race and gender in early American women’s history
• The effects of the Civil War and Reconstruction on women’s rights and social status

Immigration and Ethnicity:

• Analyzing the patterns of immigration to early America and the motivations of different immigrant groups
• The experiences of Irish immigrants and their role in early American society
• Investigating the contributions of German immigrants to early American culture and industry
• Exploring the experiences of Italian, Polish, and Eastern European immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
• The impact of Chinese and Asian immigration on early American history
• Examining the challenges faced by immigrant communities and the establishment of ethnic enclaves
• Analyzing the nativist movements and the rise of anti-immigrant sentiment in the early 19th century
• The effects of immigration policies, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act and the Immigration Act of 1924
• Investigating the experiences of African American migrants during the Great Migration
• Exploring the cultural contributions of different immigrant groups to early American society

Early American Military History:

• Analyzing the conflicts between European powers for control of North America
• The role of Native American tribes in early American military engagements
• Investigating the French and Indian War and its impact on the balance of power in North America
• Examining the strategies and tactics of American Revolutionary War commanders
• The significance of key battles, such as Lexington and Concord, Bunker Hill, and Trenton
• The experiences of soldiers and civilians during the War of 1812
• Analyzing the Mexican-American War and its consequences for American expansion
• The role of military leaders, such as Andrew Jackson and Winfield Scott, in early American conflicts
• Investigating the impact of the Civil War on military tactics and technology
• Examining the effects of the Spanish-American War and the emergence of the United States as a global power

Religion and Early American Society:

• Exploring the religious diversity of early American colonies
• Analyzing the role of Puritanism in shaping the social and cultural landscape of New England
• Investigating the religious revival movements of the Great Awakening and their impact on early American society
• The religious tensions and conflicts in the Salem Witch Trials
• Examining the establishment of religious freedom and the separation of church and state
• The role of religious denominations, such as Quakers, Baptists, and Methodists, in early American society
• Analyzing the impact of religious missionaries on Native American communities
• Exploring the religious dimensions of the abolitionist and women’s rights movements
• Investigating the religious aspects of the Second Great Awakening and its influence on American culture
• The role of religion in shaping early American moral and ethical values

This comprehensive list of early American history research paper topics provides a wide range of subjects for students to explore and delve into the fascinating world of colonial America. From politics and social dynamics to economics, culture, and religion, there is a topic to pique the interest of every history enthusiast. By choosing a research paper topic from these categories, students can engage with the rich historical context and develop a deeper understanding of the complexities and dynamics that shaped early America. So, embark on this intellectual journey and uncover the untold stories and hidden gems of early American history through your research paper.

Early American History: Exploring the Range of Research Paper Topics

Early American history is a captivating and pivotal period that laid the foundation for the United States as we know it today. From the arrival of European explorers to the establishment of the thirteen colonies, this era is filled with significant events, influential figures, and cultural transformations that shaped the course of the nation’s history. For students studying history and embarking on research papers, early American history offers a vast and diverse range of fascinating topics to explore. In this article, we will delve into the rich tapestry of early American history and highlight the variety of research paper topics available, providing students with a glimpse into the complexities and significance of this era.

Cultural Encounters and Interactions

One intriguing aspect of early American history is the encounters and interactions between different cultural groups. The arrival of European explorers in the Americas brought together diverse societies, including indigenous peoples, European settlers, and African slaves. Researching the cultural exchange during this period can shed light on the complexities of early American history. Topics to consider include the impact of European exploration on indigenous populations, the cultural resilience of Native American tribes, the influence of African cultures on colonial societies, and the development of a distinct American identity shaped by these encounters.

Exploring the various forms of cultural exchange can provide insights into the dynamics of power, cultural adaptation, and resistance that defined early American history. Students can delve into specific case studies, such as the interactions between the Pilgrims and the Wampanoag tribe, the fur trade and its impact on Native American communities, or the cultural assimilation of enslaved Africans in the colonies. By examining these encounters, students can analyze the complexities of cross-cultural interactions and their long-lasting consequences.

Social and Economic Dynamics

Understanding the social and economic dynamics of early American society is essential for comprehending the development of the colonies. The colonial period was characterized by diverse economic systems, such as the plantation economy in the South and the mercantile economy in the North. Exploring the economic, social, and political aspects of this period can provide insights into the factors that influenced the growth and transformation of colonial society.

Students can explore the economic systems of early America by examining topics such as the role of indentured servitude, the establishment of cash crops like tobacco and rice, the development of trade networks, and the emergence of cities as economic centers. They can also investigate the social hierarchies that shaped colonial society, including the distinctions between social classes, the role of gender and family dynamics, and the impact of religious beliefs on daily life.

Political Movements and Revolutionary Ideals

The quest for political autonomy and the seeds of revolution began to take root in the colonies during this period. Investigating the political landscape and revolutionary ideals can provide valuable insights into the motivations and aspirations of early American colonists. Students can explore the ideas and ideologies that shaped the revolutionary spirit, the events that fueled the desire for independence, and the key figures who played significant roles in the American Revolution.

Research paper topics could include the influence of Enlightenment thinkers, such as John Locke and Thomas Paine, on revolutionary ideology, the causes and consequences of key events like the Boston Tea Party and the Stamp Act, and the significance of founding documents like the Declaration of Independence in shaping the nation’s identity. Additionally, students can examine the challenges faced by the colonists, the strategies employed in the fight for independence, and the formation of early American governments.

Struggles for Equality and Identity

The colonial period also witnessed struggles for equality and the formation of cultural and social identities. Researching the experiences of marginalized groups, such as women, African Americans, and Native Americans, provides a deeper understanding of social dynamics and the complexities of early American society. By exploring their perspectives and contributions, students can gain insights into the challenges and triumphs of these groups in shaping the nation.

Topics in this area could include the role of women in colonial society and their involvement in political movements, the institution of slavery and its impact on African American communities, the experiences and resistance of Native American tribes to colonial expansion, and the development of distinct regional and national identities. Students can analyze primary sources, such as diaries, letters, and newspapers, to uncover the voices of those who have often been marginalized in traditional historical narratives.

Early American history is a captivating period filled with rich narratives, significant events, and diverse cultural interactions. Exploring the range of research paper topics in early American history allows students to delve into the complexities and significance of this era. By examining cultural encounters, socioeconomic dynamics, political movements, struggles for equality, and the formation of identity, students gain a deeper understanding of the events, people, and ideas that laid the foundation for the United States. As they embark on their research journeys, they will uncover the untold stories, legacies, and lessons from early American history, gaining a broader perspective on the nation’s past and its enduring impact on the present. By delving into these research paper topics, students have the opportunity to contribute to the ongoing exploration and understanding of early American history.

Choosing Early American History Research Paper Topics

Selecting the right research paper topic is crucial to the success of your project. It sets the foundation for your investigation and determines the depth and breadth of your research. In the field of early American history, there are numerous fascinating topics to explore, each offering its own unique insights and opportunities for discovery. In this section, we will provide expert advice on choosing early American history research paper topics, helping you navigate the vast array of options and select a topic that aligns with your interests and academic goals.

• Narrow down your focus : Early American history spans a vast period and covers a wide range of events, people, and themes. To choose an effective research paper topic, it is essential to narrow down your focus. Consider specific time periods, such as the colonial era, the American Revolution, or the early republic. Alternatively, you can concentrate on specific regions, such as New England, the Southern colonies, or the frontier. By narrowing your focus, you can delve deeper into the subject matter and provide a more comprehensive analysis.
• Follow your passion : Passion is a key ingredient for a successful research paper. Select a topic that genuinely interests you and ignites your curiosity. Whether it’s exploring the lives of influential figures like Benjamin Franklin or Thomas Jefferson, investigating the impact of religious movements, or delving into the experiences of marginalized groups, choose a topic that resonates with your intellectual and personal interests. Your enthusiasm will fuel your research and enable you to produce a more engaging and insightful paper.
• Identify knowledge gaps : Research is driven by the desire to expand knowledge and uncover new perspectives. As you consider potential research paper topics, identify knowledge gaps or underexplored areas in early American history. Look for topics that have received less scholarly attention but offer significant potential for exploration and discovery. This could involve examining lesser-known events, shedding light on marginalized voices, or challenging existing interpretations. By addressing these gaps, your research can make a unique and valuable contribution to the field.
• Utilize primary and secondary sources : To develop a strong research paper, it is essential to utilize both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources provide firsthand accounts, documents, and artifacts from the period under study, while secondary sources offer analysis and interpretations by historians. When selecting a research topic, consider the availability of primary and secondary sources related to your chosen subject. Access to reliable and diverse sources will ensure a well-rounded and comprehensive investigation.
• Consider interdisciplinary approaches : Early American history intersects with various disciplines, including literature, sociology, anthropology, political science, and more. Consider adopting an interdisciplinary approach when selecting your research topic. This allows you to explore connections and influences between different aspects of early American history and other fields of study. For example, you might analyze the representation of early American history in literature or examine the social and cultural impact of political ideologies. By integrating multiple perspectives, you can offer a more nuanced analysis of your chosen topic.
• Engage with historiographical debates : The field of early American history is rich with historiographical debates—ongoing discussions and disagreements among historians. These debates provide an excellent opportunity for research and analysis. Consider choosing a topic that aligns with a particular historiographical debate. By examining the different interpretations and arguments put forth by historians, you can contribute to the ongoing dialogue and present your own analysis and conclusions.
• Consult with your instructor or advisor : Don’t hesitate to seek guidance from your instructor or advisor when selecting your research paper topic. They can provide valuable insights, recommend relevant sources, and help you narrow down your focus. Discuss your interests and ideas with them to receive feedback and suggestions for refining your topic. Their expertise and experience will ensure that your research is focused, relevant, and academically rigorous.

Choosing the right research paper topic is a critical step in the process of studying early American history. By narrowing down your focus, following your passion, identifying knowledge gaps, utilizing primary and secondary sources, considering interdisciplinary approaches, engaging with historiographical debates, and seeking guidance from your instructor or advisor, you can select a compelling and meaningful topic for your research paper. Remember, the topic you choose should not only align with your academic goals but also ignite your curiosity and passion. Embrace the opportunity to delve into the rich tapestry of early American history and contribute to the ongoing exploration and understanding of this pivotal era.

How to Write an Early American History Research Paper

Writing a research paper in the field of early American history requires careful planning, thorough research, and effective organization. By following a systematic approach, you can navigate the complexities of the subject matter and produce a well-structured and insightful paper. In this section, we will provide you with a step-by-step guide on how to write an early American history research paper, from formulating a thesis statement to presenting your findings and conclusions.

• Formulate a compelling thesis statement : A strong thesis statement serves as the foundation of your research paper. It succinctly states the main argument or purpose of your study. When formulating your thesis statement, ensure that it is specific, focused, and debatable. It should reflect the central theme or question that your paper aims to explore. For example, your thesis statement could address the impact of the American Revolution on the development of early American society or analyze the influence of religious beliefs on colonial governance. Make sure to refine and revise your thesis statement as you progress in your research.
• Conduct extensive research : Thorough research is essential for producing a comprehensive and well-supported research paper. Utilize a combination of primary and secondary sources to gather relevant information and evidence. Primary sources may include historical documents, letters, diaries, newspapers, and firsthand accounts from the period. Secondary sources, such as scholarly articles and books, provide analysis and interpretations by historians. Consult reputable databases, archives, and libraries to access a wide range of sources. Take detailed notes, organize your findings, and keep track of your sources for proper citation.
• Organize your paper : Effective organization is key to presenting your research in a logical and coherent manner. Begin by creating an outline that outlines the main sections and subtopics of your paper. Typically, an early American history research paper includes an introduction, literature review, methodology (if applicable), main body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Ensure that each section flows smoothly and supports your thesis statement. Use clear headings and subheadings to guide your reader through the paper. Consider the chronology of events or thematic categories to structure your arguments.
• Analyze and interpret primary sources : Primary sources provide valuable insights into the historical context and perspectives of early American history. Analyze and interpret these sources to support your arguments and shed light on the topic you are investigating. Pay attention to the biases, limitations, and possible interpretations of the sources. Engage critically with the primary materials and draw connections between different sources to develop a nuanced understanding of the subject matter. Quote or paraphrase relevant passages, providing proper citations to give credit to the original authors.
• Engage with secondary sources and historiography : Secondary sources offer scholarly analysis and interpretations of early American history. Engage with these sources to situate your research within the existing historiography. Identify key debates, arguments, and perspectives within the field and critically assess their relevance to your research topic. Use secondary sources to support or challenge your arguments, demonstrating a thorough understanding of the existing scholarship. Provide in-text citations and include a comprehensive bibliography to acknowledge the contributions of other historians.
• Present your findings and analysis : In the main body paragraphs of your research paper, present your findings and analysis in a clear and organized manner. Develop coherent arguments supported by evidence from your research. Use topic sentences to introduce each paragraph and ensure smooth transitions between paragraphs. Provide detailed explanations and interpretations of your sources, demonstrating your ability to critically analyze the historical material. Incorporate relevant examples, data, or statistics to strengthen your arguments.
• Craft a compelling conclusion : The conclusion of your research paper should summarize your main findings, restate your thesis statement, and provide a sense of closure to your paper. Reflect on the significance of your research in the context of early American history. Discuss any implications or broader insights that your study may have uncovered. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion and instead focus on synthesizing your research and leaving a lasting impression on the reader.
• Revise, edit, and proofread : Revision is a vital step in the writing process. Review your research paper for clarity, coherence, and logical flow. Ensure that your arguments are well-supported, and your ideas are effectively communicated. Edit for grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors. Pay attention to formatting guidelines and ensure proper citation of all sources. Consider seeking feedback from peers, instructors, or academic writing centers to gain valuable insights and suggestions for improvement.

Writing an early American history research paper requires a systematic and disciplined approach. By formulating a compelling thesis statement, conducting extensive research, organizing your paper effectively, analyzing primary and secondary sources, engaging with historiography, presenting your findings and analysis, and crafting a compelling conclusion, you can produce a well-structured and insightful research paper. Remember to revise, edit, and proofread your work to ensure its clarity and academic rigor. Embrace the opportunity to contribute to the field of early American history and advance our understanding of this important era.

iResearchNet’s Writing Services

At iResearchNet, we understand the challenges that students face when tasked with writing a research paper on early American history. The extensive research, critical analysis, and writing skills required can be daunting, especially when juggling multiple assignments and commitments. That’s why we are here to help. With our professional writing services, you can unleash your potential and achieve academic success in your early American history research papers. Let’s explore how iResearchNet can be your trusted partner in this journey.

• Expert Degree-Holding Writers : Our writing team consists of expert degree-holding writers with extensive knowledge and experience in early American history. They are well-versed in the key events, figures, and themes of this era, allowing them to provide accurate and insightful analysis in your research papers. Our writers possess advanced degrees in history or related disciplines, ensuring that your papers are crafted by subject matter experts who understand the nuances of early American history.
• Custom Written Works : At iResearchNet, we value originality and authenticity. All our research papers are custom-written from scratch based on your specific requirements and instructions. We understand the importance of producing unique and plagiarism-free papers, and we guarantee that every document we deliver is original and tailored to your needs. You can be confident that your research paper on early American history will be one-of-a-kind and of the highest quality.
• In-Depth Research : Research is at the core of any successful history paper. Our writers are skilled researchers who know how to access a wide range of credible sources to gather the necessary information for your early American history research paper. They have access to reputable databases, archives, and libraries, allowing them to conduct in-depth research and include the most relevant and up-to-date sources in your paper. You can trust that your research will be thorough and comprehensive.
• Custom Formatting : Proper formatting is essential in academic writing. Whether your university requires APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, or Harvard style, our writers are well-versed in these formatting guidelines. They will ensure that your research paper adheres to the specific requirements of your institution and the chosen citation style. From in-text citations to the bibliography, your paper will be formatted correctly and consistently.
• Top Quality : At iResearchNet, we are committed to delivering top-quality research papers. Our writers follow rigorous quality control processes to ensure that every paper meets the highest academic standards. They meticulously proofread and edit each document to eliminate errors and improve clarity. Our focus on quality extends to the content, structure, and overall coherence of the research paper. Rest assured that your early American history research paper will demonstrate excellence in every aspect.
• Customized Solutions : We understand that each research paper is unique, and we offer customized solutions to meet your specific needs. Whether you need assistance with topic selection, thesis formulation, research guidance, or complete paper writing, we can tailor our services to your requirements. Our flexible approach allows you to choose the level of support that suits your needs, ensuring that you receive the necessary guidance and assistance throughout the research paper writing process.
• Flexible Pricing : We strive to make our services affordable and accessible to students. Our pricing structure is flexible, allowing you to choose the services that fit within your budget. We offer transparent pricing, and there are no hidden fees or additional charges. You will receive a quote based on the specific requirements of your early American history research paper, enabling you to make an informed decision about our services.
• Short Deadlines : We understand that students often face tight deadlines. At iResearchNet, we offer short turnaround times to accommodate urgent research paper requests. Whether you need your early American history research paper in a few days or even within three hours, we have writers who can work efficiently and deliver your paper on time. Our fast and reliable service ensures that you can meet your deadlines without compromising on quality.
• Timely Delivery : Punctuality is crucial in academic assignments. We prioritize timely delivery to ensure that you receive your completed early American history research paper within the agreed-upon timeframe. Our writers are committed to meeting deadlines, allowing you to submit your paper on time and avoid any academic penalties. We value your time and understand the importance of prompt delivery.
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• Absolute Privacy : At iResearchNet, we prioritize your privacy and confidentiality. We have robust security measures in place to protect your personal information and ensure that your interactions with our platform remain confidential. We adhere to strict privacy policies and will never disclose your personal details or the nature of the services you have requested. You can trust us to handle your information with the utmost care and professionalism.
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• Money Back Guarantee : We are confident in the quality of our services and the expertise of our writers. In the unlikely event that you are not satisfied with the final research paper, we offer a money-back guarantee. Your satisfaction is our priority, and we will work with you to address any concerns and ensure that you are fully content with the outcome.

When it comes to writing a research paper on early American history, iResearchNet is your reliable partner. With our team of expert writers, customized solutions, commitment to top quality, flexible pricing, fast turnaround times, 24/7 support, absolute privacy, easy order tracking, and money-back guarantee, we are dedicated to helping you unleash your potential and achieve academic success. Place your trust in iResearchNet’s writing services and embark on a rewarding journey of producing outstanding early American history research papers.

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Now is the time to unleash your potential in early American history. With iResearchNet’s writing services, you can overcome the challenges of writing a research paper and achieve outstanding results. Our tailored solutions, expert writers, thorough research, customized approach, commitment to academic excellence, timely delivery, confidentiality, and 24/7 customer support make us the ideal partner for your early American history research papers. Place your trust in iResearchNet and embark on a rewarding journey of academic success. Let’s unlock the secrets of early American history together.

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153 US History Topics [2024 US History Essay Ideas]

American history is not as long as the European one. However, it’s one of the richest histories in the world. It’s full of controversies, different opinions, and interesting facts. Those who study American history will find how many voices, perspectives, and points of view can coexist.

When writing an essay about America, you should try to stay as objective as possible. Think creatively and consider historical events from a new perspective.

This abundance of information and events can intimidate anyone. That’s why it can be very challenging to select one single US history topic to write about. There are so many!

To decide on it, students should answer several questions:

• What time period interests me the most?
• What specific event sounds the most appealing to me?
• What historical figure impresses me?

It is indeed a daunting task to attempt to put the remarkable story of the US into an essay list. Fortunately, we’re not trying to do so.

Tired of researching historical encyclopedias? This is the perfect article for you – read through this collection of 153 US history essay topics prepared by our team .

🌎Top 10 American History Topics to Write about

• 🏗️ Topics before 1877
• 🌻 Topics: 1878-1899
• 🏙️ US Topics: 1900s

🧊 Cool American History Topics

• 🧐 US Regents Topics
• ✊ Black History Topics

🎉 Fun US History Essay Topics

👌 easy american history essay topics, ❓ us history essay questions, 📋 how to cite an american history essay.

• The 20th Century.
• America’s Role in Normandy Landings.
• Conquest of California.
• The Great Depression.
• USA: Colonial History.
• The Oregon Trail.
• African American Slave Trade.
• Who was Harriet Tubman?
• America in the Modern World.
• Klondike Gold Rush.

☝️ Good US History Topics by Period

This is the IvyPanda list of American history topics that can help students get inspired!

We divided the history into epochs and organized the US history essay topics accordingly. Besides, this US history topics list structured thematically. It, hopefully, will make it easier to navigate and get started.

One of the best ways to look at history is to examine it from a chronological perspective. The topics in this section are structured based on the time period.

Every period is filled with key events and figures. American society is the product of those events—it’s vital to have a closer look at it.

🏗️ History Topics before 1877

• America before Columbus . In this topic, you can talk about the first people in the Americas and what historians know about them. There are a lot of archeological findings and artifacts that survived thousands of years. Write about Christopher Columbus and how “the discovery” was not a discovery. The Americas have been inhabited and had developed civilizations long before Europeans put their foot there.
• The first landing of Christopher Columbus and the New World

• Christopher Columbus: Biography, Discoveries, Contributions . You can talk about Christopher Columbus and his biography. Track how his image has been changing throughout history. Modern historians see him as a person who contributed to the genocide of Native Americans. What is your opinion about him?
• The British Rule in the Americas and the first British Settlements. Explore the first permanent colony in North America and what English wanted the colonies to be. There were a lot of obstacles, which first settlers had faced before Jamestown became a prosperous city. They suffered from a shortage of food, severe climate conditions, and disease. Plus, there were problems with the Indians. Research what “the middle ground” was and why this concept is relevant to this topic.
• What is Puritanism?
• Puritans in Great Britain
• The Puritan Ethic in the United States . Who the Puritans were? Why were they sent to the New World? What were their religious beliefs? Explore the influence puritans had in the past. Is puritanism still relevant in the US today?
• The Effects of the Spanish Rule and The Conquistadors in the Americas. Spanish Colonization of the Americas laid foundations for the Latin American identity. It is also considered the very first mass genocide in the world. It is indeed a matter of perspective. You can talk about how the contact between the Native Americans and the Spaniards affected both parties.
• The Protestant Reformation and its influence on the US History. Religion was one of the main reasons why the first settlers decided to travel to the New World. Write about the connection between the freedom of religion in the US. What influence did it have on the nation as a whole in the future? Why is it crucial? How did it affect the lifestyle of people in the US?
• Native Americans and “the Middle Ground” . Not everyone knows that the famous Disney cartoon Pocahontas is based on the true story. If this story was told by a Native American, it would be different. In this essay, you can comment on the role that Native Americans played in the European Colonization. Elaborate on the disappearance of “the Middle Ground.”
• The beginning of slavery in British America and the Middle Passage. You can analyze the way this institution was established. Write about the factors that influenced it in the 17th century, try to include first-person accounts of slavery. Use the American Slave Narrative , for instance, Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa . This inclusion will demonstrate how inhumane slavery was and will open a good discussion.
• Christianity, slavery, and colonialism in the US
• The witchcraft trials . Elaborate on religious views of the New England public. How such views made it possible for more than 200 people to be accused of witchcraft. Discuss a Puritan code, the structure of the society, and what type of women were prosecuted.

• The Boston Tea Party as the key event of the American Revolution. The Boston Tea Party is a highly celebrated event in the history of the US. Discuss why is that? Why is it so important for the Americans? Talk about the birth of patriotism, resistance and the revolt against colonialism. What did the rebels mean by “taxation without representation?”
• The American Revolutionary War and the Declaration of Independence. This topic is one of the most popular in the history of the United States. First, you could write about a military battle with Great Britain and the reasons for it. Second, talk about political battles within the US at that period. Examine the establishment of the new nation.
• How the Revolutionary war changes American Society
• Why was the Declaration of Independence written?
• Was the American Revolution really revolutionary?
• The meaning of the Constitution. This is one of the most fruitful and fascinating debates in US history. Some people argue that it is written in a very vague way to allow American society to evolve. Others say that its text allows minorities to be deprived of the very things it promises to establish. Elaborate if you find the Constitution to be a liberal, radical, or a conservative document.
• Why the Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution. Talk about the first 10 amendments to the Constitution and explore why these amendments are so important. What did the amendments guarantee? Why was The Bill of Rights added to the Constitution in the first place?

• The Founding Fathers’ influence on the US. The Constitution, the Bill of Rights, and the Declaration of Independence are sacred documents. The Founding Fathers are major figures for the Americans as well. Writing about the influence of the Founding Fathers, select one or two members to focus on. Consider the diversity among the members. How did it help the Founding Fathers in leading the war and framing a sustainable government?
• What is the role of the Founding Fathers in American society and religion?
• European Colonization influence on the Native American population
• Removal of Indian tribes. American History is unjust at times. Explore how unconstitutional the treatment of Indian Americans was and why they find it this way. Look at the way the Founding Fathers addressed this issue. Examining the Indian Removal Act of 1830 will allow you to fully develop this topic. Analyze why the policy was accepted in the first place. Why is it called “ethnic cleansing” by the majority of historians nowadays?
• Native Americans lost their freedom
• The impact of railroads in America. The rapid expansion of America would be impossible without the railroad construction. The railroads triggered the development of the Midwest and the West. Despite that, the construction of the railroads was highly monopolistic and undemocratic. Comment on the richest men in the US – John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, and Cornelius Vanderbilt.
• The role of cotton in the American economy. The American Economy in the 19th century heavily depended on cotton production. There was even a saying “Cotton is King” that was very popular at that time. Besides cotton, it heavily depended on the slaves. This period in American History is called the Antebellum Era. Look at the role of cotton from several perspectives. How profitable was it? How did slaves contribute to the American economy? How financially unviable was the abolition of slavery?

• History of American Transcendentalism.
• Why was Transcendentalism important for American Culture? The essay can start with a broad explanation of what transcendentalism is. Explain where it started and how it evolved. Explore what views the group had on women’s rights, slavery, education, government, and religion. You could write about the most prominent transcendentalists – Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry Thoreau.
• Religions in the 19th Century America. Known as the Second Great Awakening or Christian Revivalism, religion in the 19th century America was altered. Look back at the beginning of the American Revolution. Anglicans, Methodists, and Quackers were the fastest-growing religious groups then. Discuss all of them.
• The abolition of slavery and the Civil War . A lot of historians believe that slavery in itself did not cause the conflict. In this essay, you could elaborate on this idea and consider the other point of view. For a long essay, write about Abraham Lincoln’s thoughts on slavery. His ideas about slavery and racial inequality were one of the most discussed aspects of his entire life. Look at his letters and write about the complexity of his views.
• The causes of the Civil War and the aftermath of war. This essay is one of the easiest American history essays to write. Talk about the causes and effects of the Civil War (1861-1865) in the US. Why did it happen? What was achieved?
• The struggle over the goal and the meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment . You can elaborate on the goal of the amendment. Was it able to protect the rights of black citizens? Why was it still possible for the states to deny them their right to vote?
• How did Reconstruction change the United States after the Civil war?
• The Reconstruction governments. What type of reforms did the reconstruction government implement? What positive reforms happened during the Reconstruction Era? You could discuss radical reconstruction and white supremacy that spawned during the Reconstruction period. Elaborate on the idea of manifest destiny. Why was it so popular in the 19th century in the US?
• The Compromise of 1850 . Why was reaching the compromise necessary? You can describe the terms of the compromise. Explain what results were achieved: political, economic, and cultural.

🌻 American History 1878-1899

The United States was going through many changes during this period: from various social changes and changes in foreign and domestic policies to rapid economic and cultural changes. This time saw the country changing for the best in some aspects and for the worst in others.

• Industrialization after the Civil war. Industrialization of the United States was going on for almost half a century. However, the most impressive growth happened in 1880-1900. The expansion of the steel, iron and oil industries drove the American economy. Comment on all the inventions, technological advancements that happened in the US at that time.
• Immigrants and their ideas of the American Dream
• Social reforms during the Progressive Era
• American Foreign Policy in the 1890s

• The importance of the Progressive Era reforms
• Race relations during the Progressive Era reforms
• Japanese Americans Immigration in the 19th century

🏙️ 20th Century US History Topics

The 20th century for the United States and the world, in general, was highly eventful. Economic crises, two World Wars, the Cold War, and the fight over civil rights. Plus, a huge economic and technological upheaval, the space program.

This list of American History topics after 1900 can be great for those looking for inspiration for a paper.

Here you go:

• The door to America— Ellis Island. What are America’s best features? Economic opportunities, political and religious freedom? An abundance of jobs and opportunities? Land and natural resources? All of these made the United States experience the migration flux from all over the world. Elaborate on how Ellis island is a symbol of American immigration and the American dream.

• The rise of capitalism
• Work environments during the Progressive Era
• Women’s suffrage movement in America
• The causes and effects of women’s suffrage movement in the US
• Changes in American Government after WWI
• Is prohibition to blame for the organized crime in The United States?
• The economic impact of the Great Depression. The Great Depression is one of the longest economic downturns in the history of the United States. You can talk about several main causes of the crisis. Another good approach would be to analyze the way American presidents handled this crisis.
• Japanese American discrimination during the Great Depression
• How did Roosevelt plan to end the Great Depression?
• The Great Depression and what is the new deal?
• The Role of the United States during World War 2
• Why did the United States fight and lose the Vietnam War?
• The war in Vietnam and the Civil Rights Movement
• A Comparison of the traditional and the revisionist arguments regarding the Origins of The Cold War
• The Cold War and US diplomacy
• The Cold War and how it influenced American society

History is tough, but some significant historical events take our breath away even centuries later. Here is our list of cool American history topics. Even if you don’t find any topic that works for you, it can inspire you to look for moments in history that appeal to you personally.

• The true Story of Pocahontas: An untold story of a Native American girl. The true story of Pocahontas is covered with myths. Critically examine the story of her life and death. Try to understand it from a standpoint of a 12 years old Native American girl kidnapped by a white colonizer.
• Native American tribes in the US History
• What was discussed at the Constitutional Convention?
• The history of the Statue of Liberty
• Henry Ford and how his inventions changed America
• Moon landing conspiracy
• The war on drugs in US History
• Illegal immigrants in the US
• The American sense of humor
• American pop culture in the 1920s . This time period is called “the roaring twenties.” It was filled with drastic political and cultural changes in the United States. Jazz, flapper culture, prohibition, and economic abundance are important elements of the 1920s.

• The history of gangs in the US
• What did hippies believe in?
• History of Hippie’s Culture
• Presidential assassinations in the United States History. Abraham Lincoln, James Garfield, William McKinley, and JFK were the only US Presidents murdered while in office. You don’t have to retell the stories of their deaths! Instead, explore how these assassinations triggered some vital political reforms.
• The history of the Fifth Amendment

🙌 Most Interesting American History Topics

Use the following list of most interesting US History topics for your next essay. Choose what US history interesting event or a historic figure captures your attention the most.

🧐 US History Regent Topics

• The Relationships Between Federal and State Governments
• Was there a need to bomb Hiroshima and Nagasaki?
• The Cold War: Origins, Causes, Phases, and the Results
• Why and How the Cold War Was Fought
• The US Army in the Iraq War
• The Iraq War: Background and Issues
• Why did the Iraq War go against the plan?
• Executive Orders and Presidential Power in the United States
• History of the American Constitution
• The Turning points of the American Revolution

✊ Black History Essay Topics

Studying the history of the United States without studying slavery is impossible, mainly because the issue of race is ingrained into the DNA of America.

Black African American history allows students to get a different perspective on the same events. It lets them hear the voices that are so often erased from the history books. These African American history essays can help anyone looking for a good topic to write about.

• Slave Resistance in the Eighteen Century. Continuously throughout history, African American slaves were portrayed as voiceless and victimized. Others presented them as almost indifferent and passive to their own destiny. You can examine a different perspective, an Afrocentric one. The history of slavery was not the history of passivity, it was a history of black resistance.
• African American Music as a Form of Resistance
• African American Religion and Spirituality in the United States
• The 13th Amendment and the End of Slavery
• The Jim Crow Laws in the United States History . Jim Crow Laws were the laws that enforced racial segregation in the country. Dedicate an introduction to discuss where the name “Jim Crow” comes from. Give a historical background to how the laws were used. This topic can make a strong essay because no one can stay indifferent.
• Gender and Jim Crow
• The Role of Martin Luther King, Jr in The Civil Right Movement
• Martin Luther King’s speech “I have a dream”
• Brown vs The Board of Education . The ruling in Brown vs. The Board of Education was one of the most fundamental changes in the US educational system. How did the general public receive the news about the desegregation of public schools? How did the American educational system change after this case?
• The Significance of the Harlem Renaissance
• Barack Obama: The First African American President
• Barack Obama’s healthcare reforms
• Has Obama’s Presidency changed America?

• The Cowboy Culture in the US
• How Did Yellow Journalism Start?
• Why is Superman the most American of all the heroes?
• The History of American Flag
• History of Sports in the United States
• History of Thanksgiving Turkey in the United States
• How Did Highways Change the United States of America?
• American History through Hollywood Film

Sometimes you simply do not have enough time to write a profound essay. These American history topics are relatively easy, and you don’t have to research them a lot. Even if you do, there is a ton of information available.

• British Colonization of the Americas
• Slavery and racism in the United States
• The Puritans Influence on the American Society
• The pilgrims and the puritans
• The Causes of the Vietnam War
• Why Was Martin Luter King Assassinated?
• American Moon Landing
• What Are Major Events in the US History?
• What Started the US History?
• What Is the Most Important Piece of the US History?
• What Is the US History Summary?
• What City Was the First Capital in the US History?
• What Was the First American State in the US History?
• What Are Some Controversies in the US History?
• How Far Was the New Deal a Turning Point in the US History up to 1941?
• How the Airplane Industry Changed US History?
• What Was President Reagan Known For in the US History?
• How Reagan’s Ideology Shaped the US History?
• Why Is the Reagan Revolution in the US History?
• How Richard Nixon Influenced the US History?
• What Vietnam War Showed About US History?
• Did the Concept of Imperialism Exist in the US History?
• Why Did the Wars in the Middle East Go Down in the US History as Unnecessary?
• What Is the Most Popular Ideology in the US History?
• How Does the US History Describe George W. Bush?
• How Did the Use of Nuclear Weapons in Japan Affect the US History?
• What Are Some Horrible and Forgotten Events in the US History?
• Is Donald Trump the Second Worst President in the US History?
• What Was the Biggest Political Miscalculation in the US History?
• Who Is the Most Overrated First Lady in the US History?
• How Well Do US History Teachers Really Know About the US History?
• Who Was the Wimpiest President in the US History?
• Who Are Some of the Great Asian Americans in the US History?
• What Was the Most Corrupt Time in the US History?
• What Was the Bloodiest Single Day Battle in the US History?
• Who Is the Greatest Hero in the US History?
• How Did King Philip’s War Change the US History?

Your citation will depend on the type of requirements your instructor will provide you with. You can ask your teacher which style of citation is preferable before the essay writing. The school itself may have specific guidelines for every typeof academic writing.

For history essays, there are two key methods of referencing both primary and secondary sources:

• In-text citation. In this method, you mention the author and the year in the body of the essay. The list of references is placed at the end of the essay.
• Footnote Referencing. In this method, you put a number in the body. It corresponds with the reference at the bottom of each page. At the end of the essay, a list of works read rather than cited should be included.

All the citation entries should be listed in alphabetical order. If you mention the same author multiple times with different works, use chronological order.

Keeping track of all the sources, both read and cited, is time-consuming. For that, students can try to use different online software systems. These systems can help arrange the list alphabetically and correctly organize all the citations.

These digital tools are worth checking out:

Thank you for reading so far! Now you’re ready to start an amazing paper on US history. Share this article with those who may find it helpful, and leave a comment below.

🔗 References

• U.S. History and Historical Documents: USAGov, the Official Guide to Government Information and Services.
• All Topics: National Museum of American History.
• TIMELINE, United States History: World Digital Library.
• How Do I Cite Sources: Plagiarism.org.
• Citing Primary Sources, Chicago: Teacher Resources, Library of Congress.
• Black History, Topical: National Archives.
• Black History Month: National Geographic Society.
• College Writing: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
• Writing Historical Essays, A Guide for Undergraduates: Department of History, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey.
• Writing an Essay Introduction: Research & Learning Online.
• Research and Citation Resources: Purdue Writing Lab, College of Liberal Art.
• Citing Your Sources, Citing Basics: Research Guides at Williams College Libraries.
• Citing Electronic Sources: Academic Integrity at MIT, a Handbok for Students.
• Generate Topic Ideas Quickly and Easily: Online Research Library Questia.
• Colonization Essay Ideas
• Political Parties Research Ideas
• Culture Topics
• Demography Paper Topics
• Financial Crisis Paper Topics
• Ethnographic Paper Topics
• Obamacare Questions
• Urbanization Ideas
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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• Early American History
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Essay Checklist

Gallery rubric, mini essay instructions, mini essay rubric, project prep worksheet, requirements for alternative formats, rubric - final hist exploration, rubric - hist exploration, rubric -ppworksheet, early united states history.

From indigenous people through reconstruction this course is based on The American Yawp Textbook chapters 1-15.  ( The American Yawp :  A Massively Collaborative Open U.S. History Textbook by Stanford University Press is licensed under  CC BY-SA 4.0 ) This course incorporates additional readings and videos and includes essays for assessment of student knowledge.

There is a Perusall companion course available for the readings in this course. See the Instructor Notes in the "About this Course" Section.

About This Course

Instructor, 

This course was designed to have the readings delivered using Perusall. This course included links to a standalone version, but your school's LMS may also integrate with Perusall. Either way, you can get a quick start on setting up a course by following the information below.

If you are not ready to use Perusall, the course can be used without it as the links to textbook chapters and the supplementary materials are all included here in the course.

About Perusall

Perusall is like a social network platform for your course materials. The reading (and videos) for this course are already loaded into a Perusall shell making it easy for you to copy the readings and assignment values listed in this course. Once you have copied the course, you can adjust your copy to meet your needs. You can choose the due dates or even change how the interactions are scored. We have loved how Perusall helps students engage with the course materials and with each other. 

Course Copying Tips

• In the Perusall course creation process, indicate that you will upload your own course materials. In the Choose Course Materials step, choose to add materials from another course.
• Next select "Another instructor's course, using a copy code."
• In the Copy code box, enter:  29XX62KV3X
• In the Content to copy and the Assignments to copy boxes, select all.
• You can use the adjust all deadline option to move the assignment dates closer to the time you are teaching the course (once the course is set up you can fine-tune them).
• If you want to use the same point values and settings that mirror the information in OER commons, check the box to "Copy course settings."

What is this course about?

In this course, you will learn to think critically about this nation's past and use history to identify and analyze both national and global societal challenges.

How is this course set up?

This course is set up in Modules and Lessons. Each Lesson has a different topic. The intent is for you to view the content from top to bottom, completing readings, activities, and assignments along the way.

A typical Module will include 4-5 lessons. There is a total of 14 lessons. For each lesson, you will complete interactive reading assignments- one covering the textbook and one covering supplementary sources- and submit a mini-essay about the ideas and information from the readings. Also within each module, you complete a Project Prep Worksheet, that will help you analyze documents and prepare you for your History Exploration Project, in which you will answer a historical question by presenting an argument based on evidence in the format of your choosing. 

How can I be successful?

You should plan to spend 12-15 hours per week engaging with course content, studying/reviewing and completing assignments. Reading your course materials and watching all of the videos posted in eLearn will help ensure that you have encountered the concepts that will be covered in the assignments. I also encourage you to participate fully in the interactive readings. By discussing concepts and linking your ideas to other students' ideas, your learning will grow and deepen.

Early United States History Syllabus

Course concepts.

• Native Americans were extra-ordinarily diverse in terms of culture, religion, record-keeping, and ways of living, some having large, advanced, and complex civilizations and systems of government, while others lived a simple, nomadic existence, and all in-between.    
• European conquest was not a result of superior intellect or physical capabilities, but of geographical chance, which gave Europeans advantages of access to technology (only some of which was created in Europe) and exposure- therefore greater immunity- to diseases carried by Eurasian animals. The culture, social conditions, and religious practices of European nations encouraged conquest and settlement.
• Indigenous, African, and European cultures shaped a new American identity. The British North American colonies were eventually successful because of relative independence from British governance, history and policies that encouraged immigration and migration/competition for land, the diverse capabilities of people from three continents, and luck.  
• The role of religion in the British North American colonies and early US changed dramatically over time. Some colonies-like Massachusetts and Pennsylvania- were founded for religious purposes, but most others were motivated by profit. Religious tolerance was almost unheard of in the colonies, but became universal after the Revolution, which also promoted a dispassionate and rational approach to faith.
• The demand for labor played a significant role in the development of the British North American colonies. In the first century of settlement much of the labor pool was a multi-racial and fluid system of unfree labor involving people of many “races,” but it transitioned to a legally sanctioned, hereditary, racialized institution that relied primarily on Africans and was supported by all levels of government, society, and custom by the mid-1700s. This new form of slavery existed in all the British North American colonies and was very different from previous systems of slavery (among indigenous Americans and Africans), in which the concept of race and the permanence of slavery did not exist. Economics, a desire for social stability founded on white supremacy, and the maintenance of the social hierarchy drove this change. The enslaved continually found ways to undermine their enslavers and adapted to their circumstances in creative ways.
• The American Revolution was remarkable for bringing about a large, western style government based on written laws with no hereditary ruling class designed to be a body of the people, for the benefit of the people, where religion was independent of government. The American Revolution was unremarkable for failing to challenge most of the inequalities in rights and privileges based on class, gender, and race, and for supporting and empowering an institution of human bondage and trafficking that contradicted all the values the new nation proclaimed to embody. 
• The US Constitution was the second government of the US, it created a Republic, and is different from the Declaration of Independence. It came into being as a series of compromises between many conflicting interests, including competing economic systems, representation and taxation rules, slavery, the scope and power of the federal government and state governments, and many other issues. There was no unified, universal vision for what the United States was or would become.
• Women in America (colonial and US) were treated differently based on their class, race, and ethnicity, but were similarly unequal to men in Euro-American civil society, custom, and law. Rarely did women of any class or race benefit from equal protection under the law, but women of color- particularly enslaved- had no legal bodily autonomy and suffered two-fold from their status. While women in the British North American colonies had greater freedom and autonomy than their British counterparts, that does not mean they had equal rights. Women and girls were the earliest industrial laborers and began the labor rights movement in the US, were seen as “republican mothers” responsible for the next generation, and were leaders in social and political movements like the abolitionists, but American women were unfree and often unprotected.
• The Market Revolution in the US was spurred by innovation and invention, was foundational for the development of capitalism in the US, led to significant advances in transportation and a higher quality of life for many, and caused massive disruptions to traditional lifestyles and economies. There were many positive changes, but they were unevenly shared, and it created greater inequality, deepened the severity and horrors of slavery, and obliterated indigenous communities east of the Mississippi.
• The Second Great Awakening of the first half of the 1800s was a reaction to the dramatic social and economic changes of the Market Revolution and was the origin of significant splintering and development of many new faiths. This period saw a dramatic growth in social reform movements, including abolition and women’s rights. Religion-Christianity specifically- was used both to justify slavery and as a basis to argue for its abolition.
• Andrew Jackson’s presidency was a sea-change in the US. He was the kind of president the “founders” hoped to prevent in their design of the Constitution, he empowered and enfranchised more voters than his predecessors and benefitted from their enfranchisement and was more hostile to elites and to restrictions on his power than most presidents in the first hundred years of US existence.
• There were economic foundations for the cause of the Civil War, mostly surrounding slavery, the trade in humans, cotton production, and slavery’s expansion into the West. White northern families moving West did not want to compete with slave labor and knew that their own opportunities for success would be diminished or eliminated if slavery expanded. The system of slavery concentrated wealth into the hands of the few, exemplified by the dramatic disparity of wealth between slavers and non-slave-holding white southerners. Some northerners did not want the same pattern of depressed economic mobility in the West, but other northerners profited from the slave trade and cotton production (as did southerners). Free southerners, however, knew that slavery was profitable for those able to take advantage, and wanted that option for themselves, even if they presently were not slavers. Sectionalism emphasized regional interests over national ones, threatening unity. Finally, the global demand for cotton helped ensure the continuation of slavery in the US. (NOTE: the continuation of cotton production after the end of slavery also proved that chattel slavery was not required for the continuation of the market). 
• There were political foundations for the cause of the Civil War, slavery’s protected status in the Constitution, the danger it presented to a lasting Republic, and the legitimacy of secession. The Three-Fifths Compromise, written into the Constitution in order to satisfy the slave-holding members of the Convention, granted disproportionate power to white southerners in Congress despite a comparatively low population of free people. This, combined with northerners sympathetic to slavery, led to many political compromises, including the Fugitive Slave Act. Southern whites knew they would lose power in Congress if slavery was prohibited in the West. Some northerners, especially the Republican Party, feared that the spread of slavery West would eventually eliminate free society nation-wide. The election of a Republican President (Lincoln, 1860) seemed to southern whites an existential threat to slavery, leading to secession.  
• There were social foundations for the cause of the Civil War, mostly surrounding slavery, and the conflicting beliefs of white supremacy and equality. Though abolitionists came in many varieties, the most vocal (and problematic for southern racists) were those that condemned slavery as a moral evil and/or could speak from experience (ex-slaves), who encouraged and assisted run-aways, rebellions, and attacks on slavery and slavers. Abolitionists destabilized the southern social order, while white supremacy upheld it. Most southern whites did not own slaves- in fact, slavery diminished their own opportunities- but most supported it nevertheless because slavery ensured that they would never be at the bottom of the social order. Similarly, many northerners did not want slavery in the West because they did not want to live or work in proximity to blacks or slaves. Southern whites also claimed that the enslaved were happy and carefree, compared to northern factory workers.  
• Though Reconstruction made remarkably impactful changes to the Constitution (13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments), Lincoln’s promise of “a new era of freedom” was not truly realized. The federal government withdrew support of African Americans, allowed southern states to pass restrictive legislation that significantly curbed the rights of all people, upheld segregation and white supremacy, and failed to hold accountable groups and individuals who attacked or killed (even en masse) African Americans and other minorities.  

If your class is using Perusall, participate in the interactive syllabus assignment:  Perusall Login Page

If your class is not using Perusall: 

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES

Upon completion of this course, you should have an understanding of the present that is informed by an awareness of past heritages, including the complex and interdependent relationships between cultures and societies.

Course Objectives

Upon completion of this course:

• Students will explain the difference between primary and secondary sources.
• Students will analyze the causes and consequences of major historical events in early US history.
• Students will demonstrate an understanding of the various social, economic, and political events and changes of the early US period.
• Students will relate historical events and past contributions to the present day.
• Students will construct an argument based on primary and secondary sources.

COURSE TOPICS

The following general topics will be covered in this course:

Indigenous America

Colliding Cultures

British North America

Colonial Society

The American Revolution

A New Nation

The Early Republic

The Market Revolution

Democracy in America

Religion and Reform

The Cotton Revolution

Manifest Destiny

The Sectional Crisis

The Civil War

Reconstruction

Required Materials

The American Yawp :  A Massively Collaborative Open U.S. History Textbook 

The American Yawp  by Stanford University Press is licensed under  CC BY-SA 4.0

Your textbook readings for this course will be included in the interactive reading software, Perusall. No need to purchase any texts for this course.

Assignments and Grading

Grading scale.

900 - 1000 points = A: ≥ 90%   800– 899 points = B: ≥ 80% - < 90%   700– 799 points = C: ≥ 70% - < 80%   600– 699 points = D: ≥ 60% - < 70%   Less than 600 points = F: < 60% 

ASSIGNMENTS

Interactive Readings

Your first Interactive reading will cover the  syllabus.  This will be a great way to get you used to using the interactive reading software - called Perusall- and get you familiar with the assignments and expectations of the course. 

For each lesson (there are 14), you will participate in 2 interactive readings, one covering the textbook chapter and another covering primary and secondary sources, called supplementary sources. Try to make connections between the materials, ask questions, respond to others, and think critically about the ideas and information. The interactive reading assignments will remain open for one week (14-week term) past the due date for continued discussion. See the Interactive Reading Assignment Page for more information. 

*NOTE: During fall and spring full terms (14 weeks), students will complete one lesson per week. In more condensed sections (10 weeks, 7 weeks, summer sections) a lesson will be covered over the course of several days (from 3-7), depending on the number of assignments for that lesson.  

Mini-Essays

In each lesson, you will submit a mini-essay answering questions based on your readings for that lesson. Choose the mini-essay topic that most interests you (usually 2-3 options) and answer it, following the instructions provided. Your answer should be 2-3 paragraphs and use ideas and information from the lesson readings. You must use the textbook and supplementary readings for that lesson as evidence in your answer, and your work must be cited.  Each mini-essay is worth 20 points, the lowest 2 will be dropped. 

Project Prep Worksheets

The purpose of this assignment is to practice critical evaluation of historical sources and to prepare you for your History Exploration Projects. Choose a topic question. Read and analyze course materials related to your topic, perform research, and analyze the sources you find. You will also provide a working thesis and identify the format of your project.  3 @ 30 points each, 1 per module. Look at the Project Prep Worksheet to get an idea of what to expect. 

History Exploration Projects

In each module, you will complete a History Exploration Project.  Use the feedback you receive from your instructor on the Project Prep Worksheet to improve your final product. These projects are meant to make students curious about history, but also to sharpen skills of research, document analysis, and communication. For these projects, you will develop and answer your topic question in the format of your choice. You will need to use at least 5 sources that meet the requirements. Your answer should be clear and consistent and rely heavily on historical evidence. Look at the History Exploration Project Assignment Page to learn more.

Gallery 

After you have completed the first two History Exploration Projects, you will choose your favorite and post it to the Gallery Discussion Board. Then, you may look through all the projects in class and respond to what you learned and appreciate about others’ work. Posting is worth 25 points, and you should complete at least 2 responses, also worth 25 points. Look at the Gallery Discussion Board to learn more. 

GENERAL GUIDELINES

When communicating online, you should always:

• Treat others with respect.
• Use clear and concise language.
• Remember that all college-level communication should have correct spelling and grammar.
• Avoid slang terms such as “wassup?” and texting abbreviations such as “u” instead of “you”.
• Avoid using the caps lock feature AS IT CAN BE INTERPRETED AS YELLING.
• Be cautious when using humor or sarcasm, as your tone is sometimes lost in text and the message might be misunderstood.
• Be careful with personal information (both yours and other’s).

INTERACTIVE ENGAGEMENT GUIDELINES

When posting on the Perusall interactive readings  in your online class, you should:

• Make posts that are on topic and within the scope of the course material.
• Try to make connections between what you are currently learning and and other materials, ideas, facts, and information, from this class or others, or life in general.
• Always give proper credit when referencing or quoting another source.
• You will learn more and score higher if you: provide multiple, thoughtful remarks, ask and answer questions, read thoroughly and all the way to end, comment throughout, revisit multiple times over a period of days, and engage meaningfully with others.
• Be sure to read all messages in a thread before replying.
• Don’t repeat someone else’s post without adding something of your own to it.
• Always be respectful of others’ opinions even when they differ from your own.
• When you disagree with someone, you should express your differing opinion in a respectful, non-critical way.
• Do not make personal or insulting remarks.
• Be open-minded.

What You Need to Know for Lesson 1

Native Americans were extra-ordinarily diverse in terms of culture, religion, record-keeping, and ways of living, some having large, advanced, and complex civilizations and systems of government, while others lived a simple, nomadic existence, and all in-between.   

Studying Native Americans in this period means learning about people in all parts of the Americas very broadly. We will look at the great civilizations - like the Inca in South America, the Mexica (Aztec) and Mayan Empires of central Mexico, and the Mississippians of Eastern North America. We will also discover the many smaller and more decentralized groups, some of their religious practices and social customs, methods of governing and surviving. But very importantly, native Americans should not be described in sweeping terms, as if they were all similar. They are far more different from each other than they are the same. 

Additionally, you will learn about the earliest  recorded  contact between peoples of the Old and New Worlds, and the consequences of those encounters. Though the Americas had been home to many millions for millennia, the Spanish "claimed" much of the land, resources, and it's human inhabitants for its own use. The impacts of disease - one of the elements of the "Columbian Exchange"- on indigenous Americans was catastrophic, and the European sense of cultural and religious superiority often led to extreme cruelty. Despite this, there are instances of cooperation as well as conflict, and native Americans were central to crafting the story of colliding cultures in America. 

Lesson Objectives

By the end of this lesson you will be able to:

• Identify and provide examples for the diversity of cultures, social structures, and religious practices of native North Americans (that includes modern day Mexico)
• Describe the relevance and impact of the Columbian Exchange, providing specific examples
• Describe the practice of slavery among native Americans and Africans, and the primary differences between those practices and the racial slavery practiced by Euro-Americans in later centuries
• Describe the behavior of the Spanish toward indigenous populations in the Americas, both during early contact and how it changed over time

Assignments

• Complete the interactive "syllabus activity" in Perusall
• Review the requirements of the History Exploration Project that will be due at the end of this module
• Participate in the Textbook Chapter 1 Interactive Reading
• Participate in the Lesson 1 Supplementary Reading
• Submit your Lesson 1 Mini Essay

History Exploration Project Overview

For every Module (there are three in this class) you will complete a History Exploration Project. This project starts with a Project Prep Worksheet, which prepares you to complete the larger project.

On the Project Prep Worksheet, you will:

• Choose a question  from the History Exploration Project- Topic Questions provided each module. Answering the question using evidence is the goal of the history exploration project. 
• Evaluate and analyze one supplementary source  related to your topic question. These sources are part of your interactive reading assignments and course materials and are identified with the topic questions. 
• Research, evaluate, and analyze one secondary source  from your school's History Databases that helps you answer the question.
• You will also need to provide a  working thesis  on the worksheet and identify the  format  in which you plan to present your project. Take a look at the  Project Prep Worksheet  to get an idea of what to expect.  NOTE :  The sources, thesis, and format are all subject to change- even after completing the worksheet- based on the choice of the student or recommendations from instructors. The goal of the worksheet is to help you create a better project, and sometimes that means making changes. You will not be obliged to submit another worksheet to reflect changes. 
• You will ultimately use the textbook, the sources you evaluate, and other sources (as required) as evidence in answering the question in a format of your choosing. The idea here is that you analyze and understand some of these sources, so a significant part of your work for the project is done with this worksheet. 

Academic Requirements

Uses  at least  5 sources  of evidence as required by your topic question in order to answer the question, providing  in text citations  in all written work.

Provide a  Works Cited  page in MLA format, listing all sources used in project.

Provide a  thesis  at the beginning of your project and answer the question clearly and consistently throughout.

Starts with the necessary  background , context is considered in analysis.

Presents argument and materials in a  clear and organized fashion  with identifiable sub-topics.

Maintains  proper grammar, a scholarly tone, and standards of professionalism  in the presentation of all material.

Presentation Options

Format and presentation are flexible; however, make sure that you can complete and submit your work so that your instructor can view/hear/open it. Your instructor is a content expert, but not a technology expert. You are encouraged to challenge yourself in a new format, but an essay is a fine fail-safe option. All projects should meet rigorous academic and analytical standards. Work with your instructor to ensure a strong end product, in both content and presentation.

NOTE:  In Module three, everyone in the class must post one of their projects (you will have completed 2 at that point) with the rest of the class for comment and critique. Non-essay projects usually get more comments, and you may be able to earn extra credit for the comments you receive. Therefore, it is worth considering an "alternative format" for presenting your project. Talk to your instructor for more information. 

Essay - Use the document  Essay Checklist  to ensure the essay meets requirements

Analytical history essay-  1000 word minimum.

Alternative Formats- Review the Requirements for Alternative Formats :

History podcast - 11-minute maximum.

PowerPoint Presentation - see requirements.

Video presentation  -11 minute maximum.

Annotated visual art  - original painting or drawing with significant analytical annotation.

Annotated poem - original poem with significant analytical annotation.

Annotated Song set to music/musical performance  - 7-minute max, original song with significant analytical annotation.

About Perusall - Interactive Reading Assignments

Read the text to gain understanding.

Your goals in annotating each reading assignment are  to stimulate discussion by posting good questions or comments  and  to help others by answering their questions . Research shows that by annotating thoughtfully, you’ll learn more and get better grades. 

Criteria for Success

Your score in Perusall is based on these items:

• Contributing thoughtful questions and comments to the class discussion, spread throughout the entire reading ( see some examples ) *
• Starting the reading early
• Breaking the reading into chunks (instead of trying to do it all at once)
• Reading all the way to the end of the assigned reading  **
• Posing thoughtful questions and comments that elicit responses from classmates
• Answering questions from others
• Upvoting thoughtful questions and helpful answers

*  Here’s what "contributing thoughtful questions and comments" means: Effective annotations  deeply engage points in the readings, stimulate discussion, offer informative questions or comments, and help others by addressing their questions or areas of confusion . To help you connect with classmates, you can “mention” a classmate in a comment or question.

** Notice: Many assignments have multiple parts. You need to engage with all the parts of the assignment.  

HERE ARE SOME PROMPTS TO GET YOU THINKING:

• Comment on how the ideas and information presented in these sources compare to what you read/learned in other sources, or in other classes.
• What do you find most interesting, and what surprised you?
• Is there new/different information here?
• Are there contradictions?
• How might these documents address the exploration project questions?
• What information might you use from these documents in answering your question?
• What sources have you found outside of course materials- during research- that echo this information?
• Are there points of confusion?
• Does it remind you of more recent events? If so, what are the similarities and differences?
• How much has changed in the US since this time? What has not changed?

HOW MANY ANNOTATIONS DO I NEED TO ENTER?

When we look at your annotations we want them to reflect the effort you put into your study of the text. It is unlikely that that effort will be reflected by just a few thoughtful annotations per assignment. On the other extreme, 20 per assignment is probably too many, unless a number of them are superficial or short comments or questions (which is fine, because it is OK to engage in chat with your peers). Somewhere in between these two extremes is about right and, thoughtful questions or comments that stimulate discussion or thoughtful and helpful answers to other students’ questions will earn you a higher score for the assignment. 

NOTE: Shorter assignments of only 1-2 documents or fewer than 5 pages will require fewer annotations.

WHAT DOES “ON TIME” MEAN?

The value of annotating the text with your classmates is highest when everyone is reading and commenting on the same material in the same timeframe. To be successful in this class, you need to keep pace with the readings and assignments., So, it is necessary to complete the reading and post your annotations before the deadline to receive credit. If you have extenuating circumstances and need an extended deadline, contact your instructor.

To encourage continued discourse, I will provide a 1-week reply window after each deadline during which you can continue to reply to questions posted by others. However, the number of additional points you can earn after the deadline is capped at the credit you receive for annotations made on that assignment before the deadline.

Check out these links: 

• Video: Student Guide to Navigating Perusall
• Perusall Student Support Articles

Textbook Chapter 1: Indigenous America

If your class is using Perusall:  Perusall Login Page

If your class is not using Perusall:  Chapter 1 Indigenous America

The American Yawp :  A Massively Collaborative Open U.S. History Textbook by Stanford University Press is licensed under  CC BY-SA 4.0

Lesson 1 Supplementary Readings

Native american creation stories.

These two Native American creation stories are among thousands of accounts for the origins of the world. The Salinan and Cherokee, from what we now call California and the American southeast respectively, both exhibit the common Native American tendency to locate spiritual power in the natural world. For both Native Americans and Europeans, the collision of two continents challenged old ideas and created new ones as well.

Salinan Indian Creation Story

When the world was finished, there were as yet no people, but the Bald Eagle was the chief of the animals. He saw the world was incomplete and decided to make some human beings. So he took some clay and modeled the figure of a man and laid him on the ground. At first he was very small but grew rapidly until he reached normal size. But as yet he had no life; he was still asleep. Then the Bald Eagle stood and admired his work. “It is impossible,” said he, “that he should be left alone; he must have a mate.” So he pulled out a feather and laid it beside the sleeping man. Then he left them and went off a short distance, for he knew that a woman was being formed from the feather. But the man was still asleep and did not know what was happening. When the Bald Eagle decided that the woman was about completed, he returned, awoke the man by flapping his wings over him and flew away.

The man opened his eyes and stared at the woman. “What does this mean?” he asked. “I thought I was alone!” Then the Bald Eagle returned and said with a smile, “I see you have a mate! Have you had intercourse with her?” “No,” replied the man, for he and the woman knew nothing about each other. Then the Bald Eagle called to Coyote who happened to be going by and said to him, “Do you see that woman?” Try her first!” Coyote was quite willing and complied, but immediately afterwards lay down and died. The Bald Eagle went away and left Coyote dead, but presently returned and revived him. “How did it work?” said the Bald Eagle. “Pretty well, but it nearly kills a man!” replied Coyote. “Will you try it again?” said the Bald Eagle. Coyote agreed, and tried again, and this time survived. Then the Bald Eagle turned to the man and said, “She is all right now; you and she are to live together.”

Source: John Alden Mason,  The Ethnology of the Salinan Indians  (Berkeley: 1912), 191-192.  Available through the Internet Archive

Cherokee Indian Creation Story

The earth is a great island floating in a sea of water, and suspended at each of the four cardinal points by a cord hanging down from the sky vault, which is of solid rock. When the world grows old and worn out, the people will die and the cords will break and let the earth sink down into the ocean, and all will be water again. The Indians are afraid of this.

When all was water, the animals were above in Gälûñ’lätï, beyond the arch; but it was very much crowded, and they were wanting more room. They wondered what was below the water, and at last Dâyuni’sï, “Beaver’s Grandchild,” the little Water-beetle, offered to go and see if it could learn. It darted in every direction over the surface of the water, but could find no firm place to rest. Then it dived to the bottom and came up with some soft mud, which began to grow and spread on every side until it became the island which we call the earth. It was afterward fastened to the sky with four cords, but no one remembers who did this.

At first the earth was flat and very soft and wet. The animals were anxious to get down, and sent out different birds to see if it was yet dry, but they found no place to alight and came back again to Gälûñ’lätï. At last it seemed to be time, and they sent out the Buzzard and told him to go and make ready for them. This was the Great Buzzard, the father of all the buzzards we see now. He flew all over the earth, low down near the ground, and it was still soft. When he reached the Cherokee country, he was very tired, and his wings began to flap and strike the ground, and wherever they struck the earth there was a valley, and where they turned up again there was a mountain. When the animals above saw this, they were afraid that the whole world would be mountains, so they called him back, but the Cherokee country remains full of mountains to this day.

When the earth was dry and the animals came down, it was still dark, so they got the sun and set it in a track to go every day across the island from east to west, just overhead. It was too hot this way, and Tsiska’gïlï’, the Red Crawfish, had his shell scorched a bright red, so that his meat was spoiled; and the Cherokee do not eat it. The conjurers put the sun another hand-breadth higher in the air, but it was still too hot. They raised it another time, and another, until it was seven handbreadths high and just under the sky arch. Then it was right, and they left it so. This is why the conjurers call the highest place Gûlkwâ’gine Di’gälûñ’lätiyûñ’, “the seventh height,” because it is seven hand-breadths above the earth. Every day the sun goes along under this arch, and returns at night on the upper side to the starting place.

There is another world under this, and it is like ours in everything–animals, plants, and people–save that the seasons are different. The streams that come down from the mountains are the trails by which we reach this underworld, and the springs at their heads are the doorways by which we enter, it, but to do this one must fast and, go to water and have one of the underground people for a guide. We know that the seasons in the underworld are different from ours, because the water in the springs is always warmer in winter and cooler in summer than the outer air.

When the animals and plants were first made–we do not know by whom–they were told to watch and keep awake for seven nights, just as young men now fast and keep awake when they pray to their medicine. They tried to do this, and nearly all were awake through the first night, but the next night several dropped off to sleep, and the third night others were asleep, and then others, until, on the seventh night, of all the animals only the owl, the panther, and one or two more were still awake. To these were given the power to see and to go about in the dark, and to make prey of the birds and animals which must sleep at night. Of the trees only the cedar, the pine, the spruce, the holly, and the laurel were awake to the end, and to them it was given to be always green and to be greatest for medicine, but to the others it was said: “Because you have not endured to the end you shall lose your, hair every winter.”

Men came after the animals and plants. At first there were only a brother and sister until he struck her with a fish and told her to multiply, and so it was. In seven days a child was born to her, and thereafter every seven days another, and they increased very fast until there was danger that the world could not keep them. Then it was made that a woman should have only one child in a year, and it has been so ever since.

Source: W. Powell,  Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1897-1898, Part I  (Washington: 1900), 239-240.

THE REQUIREMENT OF 1510 

  The Requirement  was written in 1510 by the Council of Castile to be read aloud as an ultimatum to conquered Indians in the Americas. It asserted the religious authority of the Roman Catholic pope over the entire earth, and the political authority of Spain over the Americas (except Brazil) from the 1494 papal bull that divided the western hemisphere between Spain and Portugal, It demanded that the conquered peoples accept Spanish rule and Christian preaching or risk subjugation, enslavement, and death. Often the Requirmiento was read in Latin to the Indians with no interpreters present, or even delivered from shipboard to an empty beach, revealing its prime purpose as self-justification for the Spanish invaders.   

"On behalf of the King, Don Fernando, and of Doña Juana I, his daughter, Queen of Castille and León, subduers of the barbarous nations, we their servants notify and make known to you, as best we can, that the Lord our God, Living and Eternal, created the Heaven and the Earth, and one man and one woman, of whom you and we, all the men of the world at the time, were and are descendants, and all those who came after and before us. But, on account of the multitude which has sprung from this man and woman in the five thousand years since the world was created, it was necessary that some men should go one way and some another, and that they should be divided into many kingdoms and provinces, for in one alone they could not be sustained. 

Of all these nations God our Lord gave charge to one man, called St. Peter, that he should be Lord and Superior of all the men in the world, that all should obey him, and that he should be the head of the whole Human Race, wherever men should live, and under whatever law, sect, or belief they should be; and he gave him the world for his kingdom and jurisdiction. 

And he commanded him to place his seat in Rome, as the spot most fitting to rule the world from; but also he permitted him to have his seat in any other part of the world, and to judge and govern all Christians, Moors, Jews, Gentiles, and all other Sects. This man was called Pope, as if to say, Admirable Great Father and Governor of men. The men who lived in that time obeyed that St. Peter, and took him for Lord, King, and Superior of the universe; so also they have regarded the others who after him have been elected to the pontificate, and so has it been continued even till now, and will continue till the end of the world. 

One of these Pontiffs, who succeeded that St. Peter as Lord of the world, in the dignity and seat which I have before mentioned, made donation of these isles and Tierra-firme to the aforesaid King and Queen and to their successors, our lords, with all that there are in these territories, as is contained in certain writings which passed upon the subject as aforesaid, which you can see if you wish. 

So their Highnesses are kings and lords of these islands and land of Tierra-firme by virtue of this donation: and some islands, and indeed almost all those to whom this has been notified, have received and served their Highnesses, as lords and kings, in the way that subjects ought to do, with good will, without any resistance, immediately, without delay, when they were informed of the aforesaid facts. And also they received and obeyed the priests whom their Highnesses sent to preach to them and to teach them our Holy Faith; and all these, of their own free will, without any reward or condition, have become Christians, and are so, and their Highnesses have joyfully and benignantly received them, and also have commanded them to be treated as their subjects and vassals; and you too are held and obliged to do the same. Wherefore, as best we can, we ask and require you that you consider what we have said to you, and that you take the time that shall be necessary to understand and deliberate upon it, and that you acknowledge the Church as the Ruler and Superior of the whole world, and the high priest called Pope, and in his name the King and Queen Doña Juana our lords, in his place, as superiors and lords and kings of these islands and this Tierra-firme by virtue of the said donation, and that you consent and give place that these religious fathers should declare and preach to you the aforesaid. 

If you do so, you will do well, and that which you are obliged to do to their Highnesses, and we in their name shall receive you in all love and charity, and shall leave you, your wives, and your children, and your lands, free without servitude, that you may do with them and with yourselves freely that which you like and think best, and they shall not compel you to turn Christians, unless you yourselves, when informed of the truth, should wish to be converted to our Holy Catholic Faith, as almost all the inhabitants of the rest of the islands have done. And, besides this, their Highnesses award you many privileges and exemptions and will grant you many benefits. 

But, if you do not do this, and maliciously make delay in it, I certify to you that, with the help of God, we shall powerfully enter into your country, and shall make war against you in all ways and manners that we can, and shall subject you to the yoke and obedience of the Church and of their Highnesses; we shall take you and your wives and your children, and shall make slaves of them, and as such shall sell and dispose of them as their Highnesses may command; and we shall take away your goods, and shall do you all the mischief and damage that we can, as to vassals who do not obey, and refuse to receive their lord, and resist and contradict him; and we protest that the deaths and losses which shall accrue from this are your fault, and not that of their Highnesses, or ours, nor of these cavaliers who come with us. And that we have said this to you and made this Requisition, we request the notary here present to give us his testimony in writing, and we ask the rest who are present that they should be witnesses of this Requisition." 

Document source:  National Humanities Center  

AZTEC ACCOUNT OF THE FIRST SMALLPOX EPIDEMIC 

  When Berdardino de Sahagún, a Franciscan friar who came to Mexico in 1529 as one of the first Spanish missionaries, learned the Aztec language, his superiors directed him to compile a record in Nahuatl of Aztec history and customs. The Spaniards hoped to use the information in his record to convert the Indians to Catholicism. Sahagún transcribed the Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva Españia ("General History of the Things of New Spain," also known as the Florentine Codex) as it was told to him by Aztec elders who had witnessed the events that led to the fall of Tenochtitlán. Sahagún is regarded as a sensitive recorder and translator of the Aztec stories, but it is important to keep in mind that the words you read below have been transferred to paper through the pen of a Spanish interpreter. The document was produced by the victors and must be used with caution, although Sahagún's account is the closest we come to reading about the events of 1519 to 1521 as the Aztecs understood and responded to them.  

The Aztec account of the conquest of Mexico is found in Book XII of the Florentine Codex. Much of the book is a tale of the arrival of the Spaniards in Tenochtitlán, the encounter with Moctezuma, the roust of the small band of conquistadors, and the siege and fall of the Aztec capital city. Even in this one chapter describing the appearance of smallpox in the fall of 1520, the war against the invading Spaniards remained the central theme.  

Twenty-ninth Chapter, in which it is told how there came a plague, of which the natives died. Its name was smallpox. It was at the time that the Spaniards set forth from Mexico. 

But before the Spaniards had risen against us, first there came to be prevalent a great sickness, a plague. It was in Tepeilhuitl that it originated, that there spread over the people a great destruction of men. Some it indeed covered [with pustules]; they were spread everywhere, on one's face, on one's head, on one's breast, etc. There was indeed perishing; many indeed died of it. No longer could they walk; they only lay in their abodes, in their beds. No longer could they move, no longer could they bestir themselves, no longer could they raise themselves, no longer could they stretch themselves out face down, no longer could they stretch themselves out on their backs. And when they bestirred themselves, much did they cry out. There was much perishing. Like a covering, covering-like, were the pustules. Indeed many people died of them, and many just died of hunger. There was death from hunger; there was no one to take care of another; there was no one to attend to another. 

And on some, each pustule was placed on them only far apart; they did not cause much suffering, neither did many die of them. And many people were harmed by them on their faces; their faces were roughened. Of some, the eyes were injured; they were blinded. 

At this time this plague prevailed indeed sixty days — sixty day-signs — when it ended, when it diminished; when it was realized, when there was reviving, the plague was already going toward Chalco. And many were crippled by it; however, they were not entirely crippled. It came to be prevalent in Teotleco, and it went diminishing in Panquetzaliztli. At that time the Mexicans, the brave warriors were able to recover from the pestilence. 

And when this had happened, then the Spaniards came. They moved there from Texcoco; they went to set forth by way of Quauhtitlan; they came to settle themselves at Tlacopan. There the responsibilities were then divided; there, there was a division. Pedro de Alvarado's [a lieutenant of Cortés] responsibility became the road coming to Tlatilulco. And the Marquis [Cortés] went to settle himself in Coyoacan, and it became the Marquis's responsibility, as well as the road coming from Acachinanco to Tenochtitlan. The Marquis knew that the man of Tenochtitlan was a great warrior. 

And in Nextlatilco, or Ilyacac, there indeed war first began. There [the Spaniards] quickly came to reach Nonoalco. The brave warriors came following after them. None of the Mexicans died. Then the Spaniards turned their backs. The brave warriors waged war in boats; the shield-boatmen shot arrows at them. Their arrows rained upon the Spaniards. They entered [Nonoalco]. And the Marquis thereupon threw [the Spaniards] toward those of Tenochtitlan; he followed along the Acachinanco road. Many times he fought, and the Mexicans contended against him. 

Source: Digital History Reader,  https://www.dhr.history.vt.edu/modules/us/mod01_pop/evidence_detail_08.html  

For each lesson, you will need to submit a Mini Essay. The topics are listed in each lesson's Mini Essay assignment.

The essays need to consist of 2-3 well-written paragraphs that answer the question(s) and also provide historical context.

Your first paragraph should provide the historical context. This is where you explain the time period in a general way. For example, if the topic for the essay is about the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s, your first paragraph should explain generally what was going on the 1950s in order to set the scene for the Civil Rights Movement. Provide historical facts a plenty, but be sure to explain the relevance of the details to the topic. 

Your second and third paragraphs should focus specifically on answering the question(s) asked for that essay. Oftentimes, you will be asked for your opinion. Any opinion that is sufficiently supported by historical facts is valid.  What's important is that you provide numerous facts to support your argument . There are 2 source requirements that you must follow in order to get credit for this assignment:

• Submit your Mini Essay as a Word or PDF document.  Include the prompt you selected at the top of the page .
• In your essay, incorporate and cite BOTH the American Yawp textbook and at least one relevant supplementary source. 
• Make sure you read the info at the bottom of this page about plagiarism.

Although points won't be deducted for minor grammatical errors, you need to do your best to write in a grammatically correct and clear manner. Excessive or major grammatical errors will result in a reduction in your grade. Please familiarize yourself with the Mini Essay Rubric.

How to Avoid Plagiarism

These guidelines apply to the mini essays, Perusall annotations, and module projects.

• If you use quotes/phrases from any source, you must put those words in quotations and cite the source.
• If you paraphrase from the textbook or supplementary resources, no need to cite the source.
• Don't use additional outside sources. Answer the prompt from the materials provided.

Failure to do so is plagiarism and will result in a zero for the assignment . Purdue OWL’s MLA Guide

Assignment - Lesson 1 Mini Essay

After reading the Mini Essay Instructions, use the American Yawp and one or more of the supplementary reading materials to support your mini essay, answering one of the prompts below. Cite supplementary readings by the author's name and the name/title of the reading. Cite the textbook as American Yawp.

Option 1: What impact did disease have on the indigenous population of the Americas, and how did that impact change history?

Option 2: Compare and contrast at least two indigenous American societies, exploring social dynamics, religion, and/or ways of living and adaptation to the environment. 

Option 3 : Explore the changing relationship between the Spanish and native communities and cultures, starting with violent oppression and evolving into dynamic cultural fusion.

What You Need to Know for Lesson 2

Chapter 2 of American Yawp covers the patterns of settlement among European nations in the Americas, their motivations, the social/political conditions in Europe that drove settlement and conquest, and the relationships that developed with natives. By viewing the video "Guns, Germs, and Steel" you should learn that European conquest was not a result of superior intellect or physical capabilities, but of geographical chance, which gave Europeans advantages of access to technology (only some of which was created in Europe) and exposure- therefore greater immunity- to diseases carried by Eurasian animals. The culture, social conditions, and religious practices of European nations encouraged conquest and settlement. The textbook also covers- somewhat sporadically- the development of the trans-Atlantic slave trade. For the chapter, these are the ideas that are important to note:

• Both native Americans and Africans practiced slavery, usually as a consequence of the losing side in a battle, and even sometimes as a way to replenish the numbers of one's own tribe.
• This was not a kind system, but it was a far cry from the system of racial slavery that developed in the Americas and the US later. People who were slaves were never considered property, it was generally not permanent, nor hereditary. Lesson 3 will cover the changes in slavery, the slave trade, and other forms of labor in more depth.

Hopefully, reading Howard Zinn's "Columbus, the Indians, and Human Progress" will highlight the importance of how history is told, and why who tells the history matters. Zinn strongly criticizes historians or teachers who might suggest that we should only learn the sanitized version of history. His argument is that making "human progress" should never excuse atrocious acts or systems (like slavery, genocide, and misogyny), otherwise we will only continue to disregard humanity for the sake of convenience, profit, or "progress."

It is a very common phenomenon among students (especially when you are struggling to conclude a project) to say "all these things happened, but if it had not happened this way, then we would not be where we are." NEVER say that. Here's why:

• Is the world so blessed perfect now that we could not stand for things to have been done differently in the past?
• That logic is literally true of every event, no matter how small, so it does not make a compelling argument, and
• (most important) By that logic, you can justify every horrendous act ever to occur. Do you really want to say that all terrible events/things are okay, just because we are here now?
• Explain how much of the history of the world- specifically the period of Old and New World contact- was determined by the luck of geography.
• Analyze the results of the Columbian Exchange, providing specific examples.
• Describe how Africans, Native Americans, and Europeans all helped to shape new and distinct cultures and societies in the Americas, and how those cultural intersections shaped history, providing specific examples.
• Analyze and critique the way histories have been told, and why it matters who tells them and how.
• Choose your History Exploration Project topic from the Module 1 list of options and look over the Prep Worksheet to understand expectations and start research- The Prep Worksheet will be due at the end of the next lesson
• Participate in the Textbook Chapter 2 Interactive Reading
• Participate in the Lesson 2 Supplementary Reading
• Submit your Lesson 2 Mini Essay

Get Started! Choose a Module 1 History Exploration Topic

History exploration project topic questions.

Your Project Prep Worksheet is due in the next lesson, so go ahead and get rolling! Choose a question and start reading the relevant sources. You have to read most of these sources anyway (they are part of your lesson assignments) so it does no harm to jump ahead. 

NOTE: Need to find something in the textbook? Use the search feature at the bottom of the  American Yawp  homepage!

Module One:

• Look in the fridge or pantry and find a food product from the New World.   What is its regional origin? Being as specific as possible, discuss who used it first, when, and how. What does its origin tell you about the original people who cultivated it, and why was it important to them? How and when did it become part of the Columbian Exchange, and what role did the Columbian Exchange play in making the item more widespread?  Take some pictures of your food and include with your submission. Use the textbook and at least three high-quality and trustworthy sources as evidence.  required sources:  American Yawp , at least three high-quality sources you find on your own, at least one of them from your school's library databases. Recommendations: Maize/Corn, beans, squash (or all three together), cocoa/chocolate, avocados, tomatoes, potatoes, cranberries, wild rice, sunflowers, casava, chokeberries  
•  Make a recipe from  Sean Sherman's 10 Essential Native American Recipes . Share your experience and answer the questions: Research and discuss the pre-contact native Americans groups from the spotlighted region. How is the dish similar, and different, from the dishes that the regions' indigenous Americans would have made before contact with Europeans?  Explore one or two of the specific indigenous ingredients in the dish. In what other ways were these ingredients used by indigenous Americans, and why was it culturally important? How and when did these items become part of the Columbian Exchange, and how did the exchange impact the creation of Sean Sherman's dish?    Take pictures of your experience cooking and enjoying the dish to include with your submission. required sources:  American Yawp  (your textbook), at least two high-quality sources you find on your own (at least one should be from your school's library databases), and  Sean Sherman's 10 Essential Native American Recipes.  as a source. Consider reading  John Lawson Encounters Native Americans, 1709   from American Yawp (ch 2).  
• What factors enabled European conquest? (NOTE: this question is about the circumstances, tools, and tactics that made conquest possible. What  motivated  Europeans is  not  the question)  required sources:  American Yawp  (your textbook), Video: Guns, Germs, and Steel (L2), Aztec Account of the First Smallpox Epidemic (L2), and at least two high-quality, unique sources.  
• Visit or research Fort Nashborough in Downtown Nashville. (NOTE: The fort replica- and the Riverfront Park area- is commonly utilized by Nashville's unhoused population.  Please be aware of the potential risks if you visit the site. Visit with a friend during the daytime when foot traffic is more abundant). Use to answer the following questions:  Who built Fort Nashborough and why? Discuss the history of its purpose, who built it and under what physical and legal conditions. Discuss the original inhabitants of the land (natives) and their reaction to Fort Nashborough specifically, but white settlement in the region in general. What does the fort represent in the larger context of American history?  If you visit , i nclude pictures of your visit with your submission.  required sources: American Yawp,  The Tennessee Encyclopedia , at least one high-quality, unique source from your school's library databases, and at least two other sources.   
• How did class-based labor become race-based slavery in colonial North America? Explain how and why race-based slavery developed starting in the late 1600's and early 1700's.  required source: American Yawp, Howard Zinn- Drawing the Color Line (L3/4), Virginia Slave Codes and Fornication Laws (L3/4), and at least one high-quality, unique source from your school's library databases and one at least other source.

How Revolutionary was the American Revolution?  (For the purposes of this question think of "revolutionary" as a significant change for the better).  required sources:   American Yawp,  Abigail and John Adams on Women’s Rights, 1776  (L5),  James Madison, Memorial and Remonstrance Against Religious Assessments,  1785 (L5), and at least one high-quality, unique source from your school's library databases and one other source. Recommended: Boston King Recalls Fighting for the British, 1798 (L5).

Ready to get started?

Download the Project Prep Worksheet and get started!

Textbook Chapter 2: Colliding Cultures

If your class is not using Perusall:  Chapter 2 Colliding Cultures

Lesson 2 Supplementary Readings

Guns, germs, and steel .

Guns, Germs, and Steel was a best-selling non-fiction book by Jared Diamond, originally published in 1997. In it, Diamond seeks to uncover why history has unfolded the way it has, particularly the different advances and development of societies across the globe. Diamond concludes that the source of disparities in technology and innovation- and therefore power- has to do with geography. The video is a small excerpt from the miniseries that was created based on the book.  

Source: "Guns, Germs and Steel Part 10 of 18." YouTube, uploaded by SloBot 3000, Nov 6, 2007,  https://youtu.be/Bzos4IddtIk

CHAPTER 1, “COLUMBUS, THE INDIANS, AND HUMAN PROGRESS” FROM A PEOPLE’S HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES (SELECTIONS) 

by Howard Zinn  HarperCollins Publishers, Inc. 2003 New York 

Arawak men and women, naked, tawny, and full of wonder, emerged from their villages onto the island's beaches and swam out to get a closer look at the strange big boat. When Columbus and his sailors came ashore, carrying swords, speaking oddly, the Arawaks ran to greet them, brought them food, water, gifts. He later wrote of this in his log: 

They ... brought us parrots and balls of cotton and spears and many other things, which they exchanged for the glass beads and hawks' bells. They willingly traded everything they owned... . They were well-built, with good bodies and handsome features.... They do not bear arms, and do not know them, for I showed them a sword, they took it by the edge and cut themselves out of ignorance. They have no iron. Their spears are made of cane... . They would make fine servants.... With fifty men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want. 

These Arawaks of the Bahama Islands were much like Indians on the mainland, who were remarkable (European observers were to say again and again) for their hospitality, their belief in sharing. These traits did not stand out in the Europe of the Renaissance, dominated as it was by the religion of popes, the government of kings, the frenzy for money that marked Western civilization and its first messenger to the Americas, Christopher Columbus. 

Columbus wrote: 

As soon as I arrived in the Indies, on the first Island which I found, I took some of the natives by force in order that they might learn and might give me information of whatever there is in these parts. 

The information that Columbus wanted most was: Where is the gold? He had persuaded the king and queen of Spain to finance an expedition to the lands, the wealth, he expected would be on the other side of the Atlantic-the Indies and Asia, gold and spices. For, like other informed people of his time, he knew the world was round and he could sail west in order to get to the Far East.

… 

These were signs of land. Then, on October 12, a sailor called Rodrigo saw the early morning moon shining on white sands, and cried out. It was an island in the Bahamas, the Caribbean sea. The first man to sight land was supposed to get a yearly pension of 10,000 maravedis for life, but Rodrigo never got it. Columbus claimed he had seen a light the evening before. He got the reward. 

So, approaching land, they were met by the Arawak Indians, who swam out to greet them. The Arawaks lived in village communes, had a developed agriculture of corn, yams, cassava. They could spin and weave, but they had no horses or work animals. They had no iron, but they wore tiny gold ornaments in their ears. 

This was to have enormous consequences: it led Columbus to take some of them aboard ship as prisoners because he insisted that they guide him to the source of the gold. He then sailed to what is now Cuba, then to Hispaniola (the island which today consists of Haiti and the Dominican Republic). There, bits of visible gold in the rivers, and a gold mask presented to Columbus by a local Indian chief, led to wild visions of gold fields.

Now, from his base on Haiti, Columbus sent expedition after expedition into the interior. They found no gold fields, but had to fill up the ships returning to Spain with some kind of dividend. In the year 1495, they went on a great slave raid, rounded up fifteen hundred Arawak men, women, and children, put them in pens guarded by Spaniards and dogs, then picked the five hundred best specimens to load onto ships. Of those five hundred, two hundred died en route. The rest arrived alive in Spain and were put up for sale by the archdeacon of the town, who reported that, although the slaves were "naked as the day they were born," they showed "no more embarrassment than animals." Columbus later wrote: "Let us in the name of the Holy Trinity go on sending all the slaves that can be sold." 

Total control led to total cruelty. The Spaniards "thought nothing of knifing Indians by tens and twenties and of cutting slices off them to test the sharpness of their blades." Las Casas tells how "two of these so-called Christians met two Indian boys one day, each carrying a parrot; they took the parrots and for fun beheaded the boys." 

The Indians' attempts to defend themselves failed. And when they ran off into the hills they were found and killed. So, Las Casas reports, "they suffered and died in the mines and other labors in desperate silence, knowing not a soul in the world to whom they could turn for help."  

Thus began the history, five hundred years ago, of the European invasion of the Indian settlements in the Americas. That beginning, when you read Las Casas-even if his figures are exaggerations (were there 3 million Indians to begin with, as he says, or less than a million, as some historians have calculated, or 8 million as others now believe?)-is conquest, slavery, death. When we read the history books given to children in the United States, it all starts with heroic adventure-there is no bloodshed-and Columbus Day is a celebration. 

Past the elementary and high schools, there are only occasional hints of something else. Samuel Eliot Morison, the Harvard historian, was the most distinguished writer on Columbus, the author of a multivolume biography, and was himself a sailor who retraced Columbus's route across the Atlantic. In his popular book Christopher Columbus, Mariner, written in 1954, he tells about the enslavement and the killing: "The cruel policy initiated by Columbus and pursued by his successors resulted in complete genocide." 

That is on one page, buried halfway into the telling of a grand romance. In the book's last paragraph, Morison sums up his view of Columbus: 

He had his faults and his defects, but they were largely the defects of the qualities that made him great-his indomitable will, his superb faith in God and in his own mission as the Christ-bearer to lands beyond the seas, his stubborn persistence despite neglect, poverty and discouragement. But there was no flaw, no dark side to the most outstanding and essential of all his qualities-his seamanship. 

One can lie outright about the past. Or one can omit facts which might lead to unacceptable conclusions. Morison does neither. He refuses to lie about Columbus. He does not omit the story of mass murder; indeed he describes it with the harshest word one can use: genocide. 

But he does something else-he mentions the truth quickly and goes on to other things more important to him. Outright lying or quiet omission takes the risk of discovery which, when made, might arouse the reader to rebel against the writer. To state the facts, however, and then to bury them in a mass of other information is to say to the reader with a certain infectious calm: yes, mass murder took place, but it's not that important-it should weigh very little in our final judgments; it should affect very little what we do in the world. 

It is not that the historian can avoid emphasis of some facts and not of others. This is as natural to him as to the mapmaker, who, in order to produce a usable drawing for practical purposes, must first flatten and distort the shape of the earth, then choose out of the bewildering mass of geographic information those things needed for the purpose of this or that particular map.

To emphasize the heroism of Columbus and his successors as navigators and discoverers, and to de-emphasize their genocide, is not a technical necessity but an ideological choice. It serves- unwittingly-to justify what was done. My point is not that we must, in telling history, accuse, judge, condemn Columbus in absentia. It is too late for that; it would be a useless scholarly exercise in morality. But the easy acceptance of atrocities as a deplorable but necessary price to pay for progress (Hiroshima and Vietnam, to save Western civilization; Kronstadt and Hungary, to save socialism; nuclear proliferation, to save us all)-that is still with us. One reason these atrocities are still with us is that we have learned to bury them in a mass of other facts, as radioactive wastes are buried in containers in the earth. We have learned to give them exactly the same proportion of attention that teachers and writers often give them in the most respectable of classrooms and textbooks. This learned sense of moral proportion, coming from the apparent objectivity of the scholar, is accepted more easily than when it comes from politicians at press conferences. It is therefore more deadly. 

The treatment of heroes (Columbus) and their victims (the Arawaks)-the quiet acceptance of conquest and murder in the name of progress-is only one aspect of a certain approach to history, in which the past is told from the point of view of governments, conquerors, diplomats, leaders. It is as if they, like Columbus, deserve universal acceptance, as if they-the Founding Fathers, Jackson, Lincoln, Wilson, Roosevelt, Kennedy, the leading members of Congress, the famous Justices of the Supreme Court-represent the nation as a whole. The pretense is that there really is such a thing as "the United States," subject to occasional conflicts and quarrels, but fundamentally a community of people with common interests. It is as if there really is a "national interest" represented in the Constitution, in territorial expansion, in the laws passed by Congress, the decisions of the courts, the development of capitalism, the culture of education and the mass media.

Thus, in that inevitable taking of sides which comes from selection and emphasis in history, I prefer to try to tell the story of the discovery of America from the viewpoint of the Arawaks, of the Constitution from the standpoint of the slaves, of Andrew Jackson as seen by the Cherokees, of the Civil War as seen by the New York Irish, of the Mexican war as seen by the deserting soldiers of Scott's army, of the rise of industrialism as seen by the young women in the Lowell textile mills, of the Spanish-American war as seen by the Cubans, the conquest of the Philippines as seen by black soldiers on Luzon, the Gilded Age as seen by southern farmers, the First World War as seen by socialists, the Second World War as seen by pacifists, the New Deal as seen by blacks in Harlem, the postwar American empire as seen by peons in Latin America. And so on, to the limited extent that any one person, however he or she strains, can "see" history from the standpoint of others. 

My point is not to grieve for the victims and denounce the executioners. Those tears, that anger, cast into the past, deplete our moral energy for the present. And the lines are not always clear. In the long run, the oppressor is also a victim. In the short run (and so far, human history has consisted only of short runs), the victims, themselves desperate and tainted with the culture that oppresses them, turn on other victims.

But I do remember (in rough paraphrase) a statement I once read: "The cry of the poor is not always just, but if you don't listen to it, you will never know what justice is." 

I don't want to invent victories for people's movements. But to think that history-writing must aim simply to recapitulate the failures that dominate the past is to make historians collaborators in an endless cycle of defeat. If history is to be creative, to anticipate a possible future without denying the past, it should, I believe, emphasize new possibilities by disclosing those hidden episodes of the past when, even if in brief flashes, people showed their ability to resist, to join together, occasionally to win. I am supposing, or perhaps only hoping, that our future may be found in the past's fugitive moments of compassion rather than in its solid centuries of warfare. 

Source:  Columbus, the Indians and Human Progress by Howard Zinn

Assignment - Lesson 2 Mini Essay

After reading the Mini Essay Instructions,  use the American Yawp and one or more of the supplementary reading materials to support your mini essay, answering the prompt below. Cite supplementary readings by the author's name and the name/title of the reading. Cite the textbook as American Yawp.

Option 1: What factors enabled European conquest? (NOTE: this question is about the circumstances, tools, techniques, and/or advantages of Europeans that allowed for conquest, NOT the motivations for conquest)

Option 2:   Why does it matter who tells history and how it is told? How has what you have learned in this class so far been different from what you understood about these events before? What is your reaction the the discrepancy?

What You Need to Know for Lesson 3/4

First of all, this lesson is unique. You will need to read two chapters from American Yawp - chapters 3 and 4- but don't worry, this is the only time in the course you have to read two chapters. Also, for the purposes of the interactive readings and the quiz, treat these two chapters as one really long chapter. In other words, for the interactive reading, complete half the comments that you would normally complete in chapter 3 and the other half in chapter 4 (but you still need to read all the way through both). The supplementary reading is the same length as a normal lesson. Also, the quiz is the same as a normal lesson- there is only one quiz that will cover the content for both chapters (plus the supplementary readings). 

Now, in terms of material: The textbook does a nice job of explaining the Middle Passage and how race developed, as well as discussing the fact that native Americans were commonly enslaved by the English in North America, a group that is frequently forgotten in this system. Also,  what you should pay careful attention to is that in the  early years  in the English North American colonies a person was not necessarily a slave for life, and there was no reason that their children would be. What it meant to be enslaved was not clearly defined, and a slave might very well live to see their condition end, they were not considered property, and their status would not be inherited by their children. "Race" as we now think of it, did not exist as a concept in the mid-17th century and earlier, therefore slavery was not racialized.

One essential element that gets little attention in the textbook is indentured servants, and how they compare to slaves. The defining characteristic of indentured servants is that they were under a labor contract, meaning they would work for a set number of years (usually between 4-7) in exchange for their passage to America. They were more likely to be (though not exclusively) European, their social status was low and their condition  might  be forced (criminals, vagrants, and marginalized Irish commonly made up this population). During this early period when definitions were unclear, indentured servants and slaves were more alike than different. They experienced similar mistreatment and formed meaningful, sometimes life-long relationships. The short section that you will read from Howard Zinn's chapter "Drawing the Color Line," helps to explain these relationships, why the upper class feared these relationships, and how class-based labor transformed into race-based slavery. The other document provided in the supplementary sources is the Virginia Slave Codes and Fornication Laws passed starting in the 1660's, which were copied throughout the colonies and legally defined slavery as a racial system, aimed to separate people according to race, and cemented racism-differential treatment based on physical appearance- into the law and into society. Importantly, these laws also made slavery a condition passed from mother to child (which encouraged masters to rape or otherwise force procreation on their female slaves) and effectively legalized murder of slaves by their slavers. 

The kind of social and class conflicts exemplified by the stories in "Drawing the Color Line" and the subsequent passage of the Slave Codes help to explain many of the wars and rebellions discussed in chapters 3 and 4, especially Bacon's Rebellion. But it's also very important to understand that the need for labor- forced or otherwise- was economic. Settlement in the Americas was largely a commercial enterprise, motivated by profit, growth, opportunity, and success. The wars and conflicts- especially the Seven Years War (the part of this conflict in North America is called the French and Indian War) -were in large part motivated by a desire for land, resources, and control of waterways for commercial purposes. This becomes even more apparent while looking at the consequences of the Seven Years War in North America, the subsequent conflict with natives called Pontiac's War, and how those consequences led to a more united sense of "Americanism" but also strong anti-Indian feelings and discontent with British policy. 

• Define the Middle Passage and describe the conditions and experiences of those involved
• Describe the difference between indentured servants and slaves in the early years of English North American settlement, and how and why slavery became racialized 
• Explain the causes of the Seven Years War, the parties involved, and the outcomes of the war
• Participate in the Textbook Chapters  3 & 4 Interactive Reading - this is the only time you will have 2 chapters in one lesson
• Participate in the Lesson 3 and 4 Supplementary Reading
• Turn in your  Project Prep Worksheet , part one of your History Exploration Project. The presentation of your project will be due at the end of the Module
• Submit your Lesson 3/4 Mini Essay

Textbook Chapters 3 & 4: British North America and Colonial Society

If your class is not using Perusall:  Chapter 3 British North America  and  Chapter 4 Colonial Society

Lesson 3/4 Supplementary Readings

Chapter 2, “drawing the color line” from a people’s history of the united states (selections) .

In spite of such preconceptions about blackness, in spite of special subordination of blacks in the Americas in the seventeenth century, there is evidence that where whites and blacks found themselves with common problems, common work, common enemy in their master, they behaved toward one another as equals. As one scholar of slavery, Kenneth Stampp, has put it, Negro and white servants of the seventeenth century were "remarkably unconcerned about the visible physical differences." 

Black and white worked together, fraternized together. The very fact that laws had to be passed after a while to forbid such relations indicates the strength of that tendency. In 1661 a law was passed in Virginia that "in case any English servant shall run away in company of any Negroes" he would have to give special service for extra years to the master of the runaway Negro. In 1691, Virginia provided for the banishment of any "white man or woman being free who shall intermarry with a negro, mulatoo, or Indian man or woman bond or free." 

There is an enormous difference between a feeling of racial strangeness, perhaps fear, and the mass enslavement of millions of black people that took place in the Americas. The transition from one to the other cannot be explained easily by "natural" tendencies. It is not hard to understand as the outcome of historical conditions. 

Slavery grew as the plantation system grew. The reason is easily traceable to something other than natural racial repugnance: the number of arriving whites, whether free or indentured servants (under four to seven years contract), was not enough to meet the need of the plantations. By 1700, in Virginia, there were 6,000 slaves, one-twelfth of the population. By 1763, there were 170,000 slaves, about half the population. 

Blacks were easier to enslave than whites or Indians. But they were still not easy to enslave. From the beginning, the imported black men and women resisted their enslavement. Ultimately their resistance was controlled, and slavery was established for 3 million blacks in the South. Still, under the most difficult conditions, under pain of mutilation and death, throughout their two hundred years of enslavement in North America, these Afro-Americans continued to rebel. Only occasionally was there an organized insurrection. More often they showed their refusal to submit by running away. Even more often, they engaged in sabotage, slowdowns, and subtle forms of resistance which asserted, if only to themselves and their brothers and sisters, their dignity as human beings. 

The refusal began in Africa. One slave trader reported that Negroes were "so wilful and loth to leave their own country, that they have often leap'd out of the canoes, boat and ship into the sea, and kept under water til they were drowned."

A wise master did not take seriously the belief that Negroes were natural-born slaves. He knew better. He knew that Negroes freshly imported from Africa had to be broken into bondage; that each succeeding generation had to be carefully trained. This was no easy task, for the bondsman rarely submitted willingly. Moreover, he rarely submitted completely. In most cases there was no end to the need for control—at least not until old age reduced the slave to a condition of helplessness.  [Kenneth Stampp]

The system was psychological and physical at the same time. The slaves were taught discipline, were impressed again and again with the idea of their own inferiority to "know their place," to see blackness as a sign of subordination, to be awed by the power of the master, to merge their interest with the master's, destroying their own individual needs. To accomplish this there was the discipline of hard labor, the breakup of the slave family, the lulling effects of religion (which sometimes led to "great mischief," as one slaveholder reported), the creation of disunity among slaves by separating them into field slaves and more privileged house slaves, and finally the power of law and the immediate power of the overseer to invoke whipping, burning, mutilation, and death. Dismemberment was provided for in the Virginia Code of 1705. Maryland passed a law in 1723 providing for cutting off the ears of blacks who struck whites, and that for certain serious crimes, slaves should be hanged and the body quartered and exposed. 

From time to time, whites were involved in the slave resistance. As early as 1663, indentured white servants and black slaves in Gloucester County, Virginia, formed a conspiracy to rebel and gain their freedom. The plot was betrayed, and ended with executions. Mullin reports that the newspaper notices of runaways in Virginia often warned "ill-disposed" whites about harboring fugitives. Sometimes slaves and free men ran off together, or cooperated in crimes together. Sometimes, black male slaves ran off and joined white women. From time to time, white ship captains and watermen dealt with runaways, perhaps making the slave a part of the crew. 

In New York in 1741, there were ten thousand whites in the city and two thousand black slaves. It had been a hard winter and the poor—slave and free—had suffered greatly. When mysterious fires broke out, blacks and whites were accused of conspiring together. Mass hysteria developed against the accused. After a trial full of lurid accusations by informers, and forced confessions, two white men and two white women were executed, eighteen slaves were hanged, and thirteen slaves were burned alive. 

Only one fear was greater than the fear of black rebellion in the new American colonies. That was the fear that discontented whites would join black slaves to overthrow the existing order. In the early years of slavery, especially, before racism as a way of thinking was firmly ingrained, while white indentured servants were often treated as badly as black slaves, there was a possibility of cooperation. As Edmund Morgan sees it: 

There are hints that the two despised groups initially saw each other as sharing the same predicament. It was common, for example, for servants and slaves to run away together, steal hogs together, get drunk together. It was not uncommon for them to make love together. In Bacon's Rebellion, one of the last groups to surrender was a mixed band of eighty negroes and twenty English servants. 

As Morgan says, masters, "initially at least, perceived slaves in much the same way they had always perceived servants... shiftless, irresponsible, unfaithful, ungrateful, dishonest..." And "if freemen with disappointed hopes should make common cause with slaves of desperate hope, the results might be worse than anything Bacon had done." 

And so, measures were taken. About the same time that slave codes, involving discipline and punishment, were passed by the Virginia Assembly, 

Virginia's ruling class, having proclaimed that all white men were superior to black, went on to offer their social (but white) inferiors a number of benefits previously denied them. In 1705 a law was passed requiring masters to provide white servants whose indenture time was up with ten bushels of corn, thirty shillings, and a gun, while women servants were to get 15 bushels of corn and forty shillings. Also, the newly freed servants were to get 50 acres of land. 

Morgan concludes: "Once the small planter felt less exploited by taxation and began to prosper a little, he became less turbulent, less dangerous, more respectable. He could begin to see his big neighbor not as an extortionist but as a powerful protector of their common interests." 

We see now a complex web of historical threads to ensnare blacks for slavery in America: the desperation of starving settlers, the special helplessness of the displaced African, the powerful incentive of profit for slave trader and planter, the temptation of superior status for poor whites, the elaborate controls against escape and rebellion, the legal and social punishment of black and white collaboration. 

The point is that the elements of this web are historical, not "natural." This does not mean that they are easily disentangled, dismantled. It means only that there is a possibility for something else, under historical conditions not yet realized. And one of these conditions would be the elimination of that class exploitation which has made poor whites desperate for small gifts of status, and has prevented that unity of black and white necessary for joint rebellion and reconstruction. 

Around 1700, the Virginia House of Burgesses declared: 

The Christian Servants in this country for the most part consists of the Worser Sort of the people of Europe. And since... such numbers of Irish and other Nations have been brought in of which a great many have been soldiers in the late warrs that according to our present Circumstances we can hardly governe them and if they were fitted with Armes and had the Opertunity of meeting together by Musters we have just reason to fears they may rise upon us. 

It was a kind of class consciousness, a class fear. There were things happening in early Virginia, and in the other colonies, to warrant it. 

Source:   Drawing the Color Line by Howard Zinn

SELECTIONS FROM VIRGINIA SLAVE CODES (1705) AND FORNICATION LAWS (1662 AND 1691) 

Virginia slave codes, 1705: .

IV. And also be it enacted, by the authority aforesiad, and it is hereby enacted, That all servants imported and brought into this country, by sea or land, who were not christians in their native country, (except Turks and Moors in amity with her majesty, and others that can make due proof of their being free in England, or any other christian country, before they were shipped, in order to transporation hither) shall be accounted and be slaves, and as such be here bought and sold notwithtanding a conversion to christianity afterwards.

XI. And for a further christian care and usage of all christian servants, Be it also enacted, by the authority aforesaid, and it is hereby enacted, That no negros, mulattos, or Indians, although Christians, or Jews, Moors, Mahometans, or other infidels, shall, at any time, purchase any christian servant, nor any other, except of their own complexion, or such as are declared slaves by this act: And if any negro, mulatto, or Indian, Jew, Moor, Mahometan, or other infidel, or such as are declared slaves by this act, shall, notwithstanding, purchase any christian white servant, the said servant shall, ipso facto, become free and acquit from any service then due, and shall be so held, deemed, and taken: And if any person, having such christian servant, shall intermarry with any such negro, mulatto, or Indian, Jew, Moor, Mahometan, or other infidel, every christian white servant of every such person so intermarrying, shall, ipso facto, become free and acquit from any service then due to such master or mistress so intermarrying, as aforesaid.

 XXXIV. And if any slave resist his master, or owner, or other person, by his or her order, correcting such slave, and shall happen to be killed in such correction, it shall not be accounted felony; but the master, owner, and every such other person so giving correction, shall be free and acquit of all punishment and accusation for the same, as if such accident had never happened: And also, if any negro, mulatto, or Indian, bond or free, shall at any time, lift his or her hand, in oppostion against any christian, not being negro, mulatto, or Indian, he or she so offending, shall, for every such offence, proved by the oath of the party, receive on his or her bare back, thirty lashes, well laid on; cognizable by a justice of the peace for that county wherein such offence shall be committed.

 XXXVI. And also it is hereby enacted and declared, That baptism of slaves doth not exempt them from bondage; and that all children shall be bond or free, according to the condition of their mothers, and the particular directions of this act. 

 FORNICATION LAWS: 

 [march 1662] .

For restraint of the filthy sin of fornication. Be it enacted that what man or woman soever shall commit fornication, he and she so offending, upon proof thereof by confession or evidence shall pay each of them five hundred pounds of tobacco fine, … and if the master shall refuse to pay the fine then the servant shall be whipped; and if it happen a bastard child to be gotten in such fornication then the woman if a servant in regard of the loss and trouble to her master does sustain by her having a bastard shall serve two years after her time by indenture is expired or pay two thousand pounds of tobacco to her master besides the fine and punishment for committing the offense and the reputed father to put in security to keep the child and save the parish harmless. 

[December 1662] 

Negro Women's Children . . . 

Whereas some doubts have arisen whether children got by any Englishman upon a negro women should be slave or free, Be it therefore enacted and declared by this present grand assembly, that all children born in this country shall be held bond or free only according to the condition of the mother, And that if any Christian shall commit fornication with a negro man or women, he or she so offending shall pay double the fines imposed by the former act. 

[April 1691] 

And for prevention of that abominable mixture and spurious issue which hereafter may encrease in this dominion, as well by negroes, mulattoes, and Indians intermarrying with English, or other white women, as by their unlawfull accompanying with one another, Be it enacted by the authoritie aforesaid, and it is hereby enacted, that for the time to come, whatsoever English or other white man or woman being free shall intermarry with a negroe, mulatto, or Indian man or woman bond or free shall within three months after such marriage be banished and removed from this dominion forever, and that the justices of each respective countie within this dominion make it their perticular care, that this act be put in effectuall execution. And be it further enacted by the authoritie aforesaid, and it is hereby enacted, That if any English woman being free shall have a bastard child by any negro or mulatto, she pay the sume of fifteen pounds sterling, within one moneth after such bastard child be born, to the Church wardens of the parish where she shall be delivered of such child, and in default of such payment she shall be taken into the possession of the said Church wardens and disposed of for five yeares . . . 

Source:  Slave Code, University of Maryland and the National Archives Slavery, Law & Power ;  Fornication Laws March 1662, Encyclopedia Virginia ;  Fornication Laws December 1662, Encyclopedia Virginia ;  Fornication Laws April 1691, Encyclopedia of Virginia

Assignment - Lesson 3/4 Mini Essay

After reading the Mini Essay Instructions, use the American Yawp and one or more of the supplementary reading materials to support your mini essay, answering the prompt below. Cite supplementary readings by the author's name and the name/title of the reading. Cite the textbook as American Yawp.

Option 1: What was the difference (and similarity) between slaves and indentured servants in the early colonial period (pre-Slave Codes)? What was the nature of their relationships with each other?

Option 2 :  Explore examples of collaborative alliance and conflict between native Americans and settlers. In what ways was there mutual assistance? What were the typical sources of tension? (NOTE: answering this question does NOT require using a supplementary source, but does require extensive use of the textbook. Also, you MUST copy this note into your Word doc.)

Option 3 : How and why did slavery develop into racial slavery? 

Assignment - Turn in Your Module 1 Project Prep Worksheet

Instructions and intentions, the goals of this assignment are: .

to sharpen your skills of critical analysis of sources, and  

to complete some preliminary work for successful completion of your history exploration project.  

On this worksheet you will: 

Identify your topic question . 

Identify and analyze a lesson source document from course content that is connected to your topic question. 

Share the research that you’ve conducted. On your own, find a high-quality, relevant, and unique source from one of your school's library databases that will help you answer your exploration project question (other sources may be acceptable on a case-by-case basis). The purpose of using researched sources is to expand your knowledge, therefore this source needs to add new ideas or information not found in the course content.

Identify the format of your project.  

Create a working thesis for your project.  

After submission, you will receive feedback from your instructor about your work here in order to help you create your best project. 

NOTE: The answers you provide and the sources you analyze here do not represent an absolute commitment. In other words, if you change your mind about a source or another answer you’ve provided (or your instructor recommends a change) that is fine. The goal is to help you do your best on the project, and sometimes that means making changes. You will not need to resubmit another worksheet to reflect changes.  

What You Need to Know for Lesson 5

One of the strongest elements of chapter 5 in American Yawp is the focus on causes and consequences of the American Revolutionary War. There are details of battles and their outcomes, but for the purposes of understanding American History- and the US in general- it is more important to learn the  why  than the  how  of the war. 

The American Revolution was about many things- economics, governance, rights, principles, taxes, land, and representation to name a few. One quote in particular helps to capture some of the essence of the Revolution, from Captain Levi Preston when interviewed at the age of 91 in 1842. When asked why he wanted to fight the British, he answered: "We always had governed ourselves, and we always meant to. They didn’t mean we should.” The practice of "salutary neglect" initiated by the British in the early years of colonies gave colonial legislatures- governing bodies made up of locally elected men  (generally property holding white men)-  significant power and independence to tax and spend revenue in a way that suited the needs of that colony. After the French and Indian War, the British Empire was teetering on bankruptcy and seeking to consolidate power, which manifested in the form of taxes and regulation imposed without colonial input. When colonists and legislatures resisted, British Parliament would sometimes try to address the complaints and other times just tighten the screws, only further alienating Americans, who were becoming more united in forms resistance like non-importation and non-consumption agreements frequently led by women. 

But the story is not that neat. John Adams once estimated that about one third of the colonial population were active "Patriots"- those in favor of independence. Another third were Loyalists- actively in favor of remaining part of Great Britain- and the other third were indifferent. Many Britons had little sympathy for Americans, since colonists paid lower taxes than British at home (even after the taxation ramped up), enjoyed a higher standard of living, and were more likely to own land and be able to vote (in their colonial legislatures) than Britons in Great Britain. And despite the heavy influence of Enlightenment thinking on the revolution (ideas like natural rights and the pursuit of freedom), the colonists were still very much motivated by selfish desires.

When Lord Dunmore offered freedom to enslaved people who fought for the British, previously indifferent southern whites decided that their best bet to secure their property in slaves was to fight for the cause of independence. You will read an account from Boston King, an enslaved man who escaped a cruel master and fought for the British, but had to flee after the war- like many others- or risk being re-enslaved by Americans. And although the ideals of the revolution did make many question how the a nation formed on the principles of independence and natural right of man could hold millions of people in permanent bondage and profit from their blood and toil, the system of slavery would get far worse for the enslaved after the war. The American Revolution was also a war against natives (most, thought not all, native Americans sided with the British believing that their earlier Proclamation Line of 1763 was proof that the British would guarantee native land rights against colonists) and Americans used the war to dispossess natives of their land. Free women, who were critical in orchestrating resistance to British authority, remained second-class citizens- legally dead upon marriage- after the war, and saw few improvements in their rights and status in the decades that followed. Despite Abigail Adams claim that women would "not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in which we have no voice," men knew better than to "repeal masculine systems."

There were significant changes, though, not the least of which was a clear movement to detach religion from government, as seen in James Madison's "Memorial and Remonstrance Against Religious Assessments." Many colonial era laws had religious requirements- such as taxes to pay for churches or certain religious affiliation in order to hold political office- but the new US moved away from those standards- a feature unknown in the western world at the time.

• Summarize the main causes of American Revolution- both the foundational issues that created divergent paths for the colonies and Britain, as well as the particular events that evolved into war
• Explain the role that free women played in the Patriot cause and how the Revolution impacted them, both during the course of the war and in the new United States that formed as a result of the war
• Explain the role that slaves and slavery played in the course of the war, as well as what happened to the institution (and those who were involved in it) after the war was over
• Construct an argument that explores how revolutionary (meaning a significant and positive change) the American Revolution was, using evidence
• Summarize the arguments in favor of separation of church and state that helped define American freedom and US law 
• Participate in the Textbook Chapter 5 Interactive Reading
• Participate in the Lesson 5 Supplementary Reading
• Submit your Lesson 5 Mini Essay
• Turn in your Module 1 History Exploration Project 

Textbook Chapter 5: The American Revolution

If your class is not using Perusall:  Chapter 5 The American Revolution

Lesson 5 Supplementary Readings

 abigail and john adams converse on women’s rights, 1776 .

 The American Revolution invited a reconsideration of all social inequalities. Abigail Adams, in this letter to her husband John Adams, asked her husband to “remember the ladies” in any new laws he may create. In his reply, John Adams treated this sentiment as a joke, demonstrating the limits of revolutionary liberty.   

Abigail Adams  letter to John Adams 

Braintree March 31 1776 

I wish you would ever write me a Letter half as long as I write you; and tell me if you may where your Fleet are gone? What sort of Defence Virginia can make against our common Enemy? Whether it is so situated as to make an able Defence? Are not the Gentery Lords and the common people vassals, are they not like the uncivilized Natives Brittain represents us to be? I hope their Riffel Men who have shewen themselves very savage and even Blood thirsty; are not a specimen of the Generality of the people. 

I am willing to allow the Colony great merrit for having produced a Washington but they have been shamefully duped by a Dunmore. 

I have sometimes been ready to think that the passion for Liberty cannot be Eaquelly Strong in the Breasts of those who have been accustomed to deprive their fellow Creatures of theirs. Of this I am certain that it is not founded upon that generous and christian principal of doing to others as we would that others should do unto us. . . . 

I long to hear that you have declared an independancy—and by the way in the new Code of Laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to make I desire you would Remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favourable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands. Remember all Men would be tyrants if they could. If perticuliar care and attention is not paid to the Laidies we are determined to foment a Rebelion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in which we have no voice, or Representation. 

That your Sex are Naturally Tyrannical is a Truth so thoroughly established as to admit of no dispute, but such of you as wish to be happy willingly give up the harsh title of Master for the more tender and endearing one of Friend. Why then, not put it out of the power of the vicious and the 

Lawless to use us with cruelty and indignity with impunity. Men of Sense in all Ages abhor those customs which treat us only as the vassals of your Sex. Regard us then as Beings placed by providence under your protection and in immitation of the Supreem Being make use of that power only for our happiness. 

John Adams  to Abigail Adams (in reply to her March 31 letter): 

Ap. 14, 1776 

As to your extraordinary Code of Laws, I cannot but laugh. We have been told that our Struggle has loosened the bands of Government every where. That Children and Apprentices were disobedient — that schools and Colledges were grown turbulent — that Indians slighted their Guardians and Negroes grew insolent to their Masters. But your Letter was the first Intimation that another Tribe more numerous and powerfull than all the rest were grown discontented. — This is rather too coarse a Compliment but you are so saucy, I wont blot it out. 

Depend upon it, We know better than to repeal our Masculine systems. Altho they are in full Force, you know they are little more than Theory. We dare not exert our Power in its full Latitude. We are obliged to go fair, and softly, and in Practice you know We are the subjects. We have only the Name of Masters, and rather than give up this, which would compleatly subject Us to the Despotism of the Peticoat, I hope General Washington, and all our brave Heroes would fight. I am sure every good Politician would plot, as long as he would against Despotism, Empire, Monarchy, Aristocracy, Oligarchy, or Ochlocracy. — A fine Story indeed. I begin to think the Ministry as deep as they are wicked. After stirring up Tories, Landjobbers, Trimmers, Bigots, Canadians, Indians, Negroes, Hanoverians, Hessians, Russians, Irish Roman Catholicks, Scotch Renegadoes, at last they have stimulated the to demand new Priviledges and threaten to rebell. 

Source: Available through  the Massachusetts Historical Society  

Abigail Adams to John Adams, 31 March – 5 April 1776  [electronic edition]. Adams Family Papers: An Electronic Archive. Massachusetts Historical Society. 

Letter from John Adams to Abigail Adams, 14 April 1776  [electronic edition]. Adams Family Papers: An Electronic Archive. Massachusetts Historical Society. 

FIGHTING FOR THE BRITISH AND SECURING FREEDOM, 1798 

Boston King was born into slavery in South Carolina in 1760. He escaped to the British Army during their invasion of South Carolina in 1780. He served as a Loyalist in the British Army, and participated in several important battles. Although captured, and once again enslaved by the Americans, King was able to escape to the British again, who secured his freedom by sending him and other Black Loyalists to Canada. Many Black colonists sought freedom by joining with the British, with estimates as high as 5,000. King later became a missionary and one of the first Black Canadian settlers of Sierra Leone in West Africa. 

by Boston King

To escape [a neighboring enslaver’s] cruelty, I determined to go Charles-Town, and throw myself into the hands of the English. They received me readily, and I began to feel the happiness of liberty, of which I knew nothing before, altho’ I was much grieved at first, to be obliged to leave my friends, and reside among strangers. In this situation I was seized with the small-pox, and suffered great hardships; for all the Blacks affected with that disease, were ordered to be carried a mile from the camp, lest the soldiers should be infected, and disabled from marching. This was a grievous circumstance to me and many others. We lay sometimes a whole day without any thing to eat or drink; but Providence sent a man, who belonged to the York volunteers whom I was acquainted with, to my relief. He brought me such things a I stood in need of; and by the blessing of the Lord I began to recover…

Three weeks after, our Light-horse went to the Island… our situation was very precarious; and we expected to be made prisoners every day; for the Americans had 1600 men, not far off; whereas our whole number amounted only to 250: But there were 1200 English about 30 miles off; only we knew not how to inform them of our danger… Our commander at length determined to send me with a letter, promising me great rewards, if I was successful in the business, I refused going on horse-back, and set off on foot about 3 o’clock in the afternoon… As soon as he knew that I had brought an express from Nelson’s-ferry, he received me with great kindness, and expressed his approbation of my courage and conduct in this dangerous business. Next morning, Colonel Small gave me three shillings, and many fine promises, which were all that I ever received for this service from him. However he sent 600 men to relieve the troops at Nelson’s-ferry.  

Soon after I went to Charles-Town, and entered on board a man of war. As we were going to Chesapeake Bay, we were at the taking of a rich prize. We stayed in the bay two days, and then sailed for New-York, where I went on shore. Here I endeavoured to follow my trade, but for want of tools was obliged to relinquish it, and enter into service. But the wages were so low that I was not able to keep myself in clothes, so that I was under the necessity of leaving my master and going to another. I stayed with him four months, but he never paid me, and I was obliged to leave him also, and work about the town until I was married. A year after I was taken very ill, but the Lord raised me up again in about five weeks. I then went out in a pilot boat… we were taken by an American whale-boat…. my mind was sorely distressed at the thought of being again reduced to slavery, and separated from my wife and family; and at the same time it was exceeding difficult to escape from my bondage…

… As I was at prayer on Sunday evening, I thought the Lord heard me, and would mercifully deliver me. Therefore putting my confidence in him, about one o’clock in the morning I went down to the river side, and found the guards were either asleep or in the tavern. I instantly entered into the river, but when I was a little distance from the opposite shore, I heard the sentinels disputing among themselves: One said “I am sure I saw a man cross the river.” Another replied, “There is no such thing.” It seems they were afraid to fire at me, or make an alarm, lest they should be punished for their negligence…. 

When I arrived at New-York, my friends rejoiced to see me once more restored to liberty… in 1783) the horrors and devastation of war happily terminated, and peace was restored between America and Great Britain, which diffused universal joy among all parties, except us, who had escaped from slavery and taken refuge in the English army; for a report prevailed at New-York, that all the slaves, in number 2000, were to be delivered up to their masters, altho’ some of them had been three or four years among the English. This dreadful rumour filled us all with inexpressible anguish and terror, especially when we saw our old masters coming from Virginia, North-Carolina, and other parts, and seizing upon their slaves in the streets of New-York, or even dragging them out of their beds. Many of the slaves had very cruel masters, so that the thoughts of returning home with them embittered life to us. For some days we lost our appetite for food, and sleep departed from our eyes. The English had compassion upon us in the day of distress, and issued out a Proclamation, importing, That all slaves should be free, who had taken refuge in the British lines, and claimed the sanction and privileges of the Proclamations respecting the security and protection of Negroes. In consequence of this, each of us received a certificate from the commanding officer at New-York, which dispelled all our fears, and filled us with joy and gratitude. Soon after, ships were fitted out, and furnished with every necessary for conveying us to Nova Scotia. We arrived at Burch Town in the month of August, where we all safely landed. Every family had a lot of land, and we exerted all our strength in order to build comfortable huts before the cold weather set in. 

Source : Boston King, “Memoirs of the Life of Boston King, a Black Preacher,” The Methodist Magazine (March 1798, April 1798).   Available through Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University  

JAMES MADISON, MEMORIAL AND REMONSTRANCE AGAINST RELIGIOUS ASSESSMENTS, 1785

Before the American Revolution, Virginia supported local Anglican churches through taxes. After the American Revolution, Virginia had to decide what to do with this policy. Some founding fathers, including Patrick Henry, wanted to equally distribute tax dollars to all churches. In this document, James Madison explains why he did not want any government money to support religious causes in Virginia.

by James Madison

To the Honorable the General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Virginia 

A Memorial and Remonstrance Against Religious Assessments 

We the subscribers , citizens of the said Commonwealth, having taken into serious consideration, a Bill printed by order of the last Session of General Assembly, entitled “A Bill establishing a provision for Teachers of the Christian Religion,” and conceiving that the same if finally armed with the sanctions of a law, will be a dangerous abuse of power, are bound as faithful members of a free State to remonstrate against it, and to declare the reasons by which we are determined. We remonstrate against the said Bill, 

Because we hold it for a fundamental and undeniable truth, “that religion or the duty which we owe to our Creator and the manner of discharging it, can be directed only by reason and conviction, not by force or violence…” 

Because Religion be exempt from the authority of the Society at large, still less can it be subject to that of the Legislative Body… 

Because it is proper to take alarm at the first experiment on our liberties. We hold this prudent jealousy to be the first duty of Citizens, and one of the noblest characteristics of the late Revolution… 

… Whilst we assert for ourselves a freedom to embrace, to profess and to observe the Religion which we believe to be of divine origin, we cannot deny an equal freedom to those whose minds have not yet yielded to the evidence which has convinced us. If this freedom be abused, it is an offence against God, not against man: To God, therefore, not to man, must an account of it be rendered…. 

Because the Bill implies either that the Civil Magistrate is a competent Judge of Religious Truth; or that he may employ Religion as an engine of Civil policy. The first is an arrogant pretension falsified by the contradictory opinions of Rulers in all ages, and throughout the world: the second an unhallowed perversion of the means of salvation… 

Because the establishment proposed by the Bill is not requisite for the support of the Christian Religion. To say that it is, is a contradiction to the Christian Religion itself, for every page of it disavows a dependence on the powers of this world… 

Because experience witnesseth that eccelsiastical establishments, instead of maintaining the purity and efficacy of Religion, have had a contrary operation… 

… What influence in fact have ecclesiastical establishments had on Civil Society? In some instances they have been seen to erect a spiritual tyranny on the ruins of the Civil authority; in many instances they have been seen upholding the thrones of political tyranny: in no instance have they been seen the guardians of the liberties of the people… 

Because the proposed establishment is a departure from the generous policy, which, offering an Asylum to the persecuted and oppressed of every Nation and Religion, promised a lustre to our country, and an accession to the number of its citizens. What a melancholy mark is the Bill of sudden degeneracy?.. 

Because it will have a like tendency to banish our Citizens… 

… Torrents of blood have been split in the old world, by vain attempts of the secular arm, to extinguish Religious disscord, by proscribing all difference in Religious opinion… 

Because the policy of the Bill is adverse to the diffusion of the light of Christianity. The first wish of those who enjoy this precious gift ought to be that it may be imparted to the whole race of mankind. Compare the number of those who have as yet received it with the number still remaining under the dominion of false Religions; and how small is the former! Does the policy of the Bill tend to lessen the disproportion? No; it at once discourages those who are strangers to the light of revelation from coming into the Region of it; and countenances by example the nations who continue in darkness, in shutting out those who might convey it to them. Instead of Levelling as far as possible, every obstacle to the victorious progress of Truth, the Bill with an ignoble and unchristian timidity would circumscribe it with a wall of defence against the encroachments of error. 

Because attempts to enforce by legal sanctions, acts obnoxious to go great a proportion of Citizens, tend to enervate the laws in general, and to slacken the bands of Society… 

Because a measure of such singular magnitude and delicacy ought not to be imposed, without the clearest evidence that it is called for by a majority of citizens, and no satisfactory method is yet proposed by which the voice of the majority in this case may be determined, or its influence secured… 

Because finally, “the equal right of every citizen to the free exercise of his Religion according to the dictates of conscience” is held by the same tenure with all our other rights… 

We the Subscribers say, that the General Assembly of this Commonwealth have no such authority: And that no effort may be omitted on our part against so dangerous an usurpation, we oppose to it, this remonstrance; earnestly praying, as we are in duty bound, that the Supreme Lawgiver of the Universe, by illuminating those to whom it is addressed, may on the one hand, turn their Councils from every act which would affront his holy prerogative, or violate the trust committed to them: and on the other, guide them into every measure which may be worthy of his blessing, may redound to their own praise, and may establish more firmly the liberties, the prosperity and the happiness of the Commonwealth. 

Source: “Memorial and Remonstrance against Religious Assessments, [ca. 20 June] 1785,”  Founders Online, National Archives   [last update: 2015-06-29]). Source: The Papers of James Madison, vol. 8, 10 March 1784-28 March 1786, ed. Robert A. Rutland and William M. E. Rachal (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1973), pp. 295–306. Available through Founders Online, National Archives and Records Administration 

Assignment - Lesson 5 Mini Essay

Option 1: Why were women pivotal to the resistance movement, the Revolutionary War, and its results?

Option 2:   What role did people of color (natives, free blacks, slaves) play in the Revolutionary War, on both sides?

Option 3: What significant changes came out of the Revolutionary War? In other words, how was the US system (social, political, religious, etc) different from how colonists existed under Great Britain? What were the limitations of change?

Assignment - Turn in Your Module 1 History Exploration Project

Having chosen a question (and hopefully completed the worksheet a few weeks ago)...

• Choose the format for presenting your project,  having already chosen topic. The format for presentation is flexible; however, you should choose a format with which you are comfortable. Your instructor is a content expert, but not a technology expert. If you choose a format other than a traditional essay, you need to ensure that your end product (video, audio, slideshow, song, etc.) is easy for your instructor to access. It is not their job to figure out how to see your submission. An essay is an excellent fail-safe.   
• Analytical history essay (1000 word minimum)
• History podcast (11-minute max)
• PowerPoint presentation (11-minute max, useful for topics that require site visit)
• Video presentation (11-minute max, useful for topics that require site visits) 
• Annotated visual art (like an original painting representing events and ideas with an annotated written document explaining all the features and images) 
• Extended poem (annotation required) 
• Song set to music/musical performance (7-minute max, annotation required)   
• Uses a minimum of 5 sources as evidence, as identified by your topic question.
• Provides a Works Cited page listing all sources used in MLA format
• Provides a clear answer to the question (thesis) early in the presentation, remains consistent 
• Starts with necessary background, context is considered in analysis 
• Material and argument must be presented in a clear and organized fashion with identifiable sub-topics 
• Proper grammar, a scholarly tone, and standards of professionalism should be maintained in the presentation of all material 

What You Need to Know for Lesson 6

The theme of this lesson is conflict. The beautiful ideals that Americans associate with the revolution can be misleading, creating the impression that the new nation was draped in a unifying cloak of freedom and democracy. But the first few decades following the Revolution were anything but peaceful. 

Chapter 6 in  Yawp   does a great job of detailing the many disagreements among the founders- and the American public- in the years following the Revolution, starting with the system of government. The first system of government in the US was the  Articles of Confederation.  Hastily assembled during the war, the  Articles  basically formalized the  de facto  operations of the Continental Congress- the representative body in charge of the nation at the time. It reflected the needs and ideals of the time, as it was a strict departure from the very powerful Parliament and King under which colonists had felt oppressed. But in the long run, it proved too weak to manage the nation, as evidenced by Shay's Rebellion. The subsequent Constitutional Convention- a body designated to create a new government to replace the  Articles - was contentious from beginning to end. How much power should the people (read as  property holding white men ) have? How (and even  should ) the people be protected from the federal government? What about the fate of slavery and the slave trade? How can a nation founded on the principles of justice and "the natural rights of man" continue to derive profit from misery and human trafficking? These are just a few of the debates that raged, and although the Constitution was eventually ratified, likely no one walked away with exactly what they wanted.

This does not even cover the conflicts that followed once the Constitution was in place. As the first president, George Washington hoped to get a variety of views. His cabinet held diverse perspectives, and two men- Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson- helped to define the different visions for the kind of nation the US would be and how it would operate. Hamilton and other Federalists favored a strong, conservative federal government that would support the monied elite, a view that gained strong criticism, not only from Jefferson and Democratic-Republicans at the time, but also from historian Howard Zinn, as you will read in "A Kind of Revolution." (Though Zinn does not mention it, the Federalist goals are highlighted in the important Supreme Court decision  Marbury v. Madison,  which you should read carefully in chapter 6). In the Jefferson and Democratic-Republicans, however, showed steadfast support for the French Revolution, which had devolved into bloodthirsty chaos that exposed the most extreme dangers of democracy, the "tyranny of the majority."

In reading Zinn's "A Kind of Revolution," try again to identify the authors perspective. Do you agree? After reading his critique of the Constitution and the goals of the men that created it, look at the selections of the  Federalist Papers-  writings designed to defend the Constitution and convince voters to ratify it- to see if you kind find other examples of the founders not wanting balance "except one that kept things as they were." What other goals and concerns of the founders do you see evidence of in the  Federalist Papers ? 

• Analyze the elements of the Constitution, as well as the compromises that ensued during its construction, and the goals it was designed to achieve
• Explain both the critiques and defenses of the Constitution and it's goals
• Explain the importance and outcomes of the  Marbury v. Madison  Supreme Court case
• Discuss the ways in which the Constitution both protected and empowered the system of slavery, and also tried to limit it
• Analyze the competing visions for the United States that developed in the first two decades following the Revolution, providing specific events, systems, and principles that divided Americans
• Participate in the Textbook Chapter 6 Interactive Reading
• Participate in the Lesson 6 Supplementary Reading
• Submit your Lesson 6 Mini Essay
• Be sure you've submitted your History Exploration Project from Module 1

Textbook Chapter 6 : A New Nation

If your class is not using Perusall:  Chapter 6 A New Nation

Lesson 6 Supplementary Readings

Chapter 5, “a kind of revolution” from a people’s history of the united states.

by Howard Zinn  HarperCollins Publishers, Inc. 2003 New York

 At the Constitutional Convention, Hamilton suggested a President and Senate chosen for life. 

The Convention did not take his suggestion. But neither did it provide for popular elections, except in the case of the House of Representatives, where the qualifications were set by the state legislatures (which required property-holding for voting in almost all the states), and excluded women, Indians, slaves. The Constitution provided for Senators to be elected by the state legislators, for the President to be elected by electors chosen by the state legislators, and for the Supreme Court to be appointed by the President. 

The problem of democracy in the post-Revolutionary society was not, however, the Constitutional limitations on voting. It lay deeper, beyond the Constitution, in the division of society into rich and poor. For if some people had great wealth and great influence; if they had the land, the money, the newspapers, the church, the educational system- how could voting, however broad, cut into such power? There was still another problem: wasn't it the nature of representative government, even when most broadly based, to be conservative, to prevent tumultuous change? 

It came time to ratify the Constitution, to submit to a vote in state conventions, with approval of nine of the thirteen required to ratify it. In New York, where debate over ratification was intense, a series of newspaper articles appeared, anonymously, and they tell us much about the nature of the Constitution. These articles, favoring adoption of the Constitution, were written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay, and came to be known as the Federalist Papers (opponents of the Constitution became known as anti-Federalists). 

As part of his argument for a large republic to keep the peace, James Madison tells quite clearly, in Federalist #10, whose peace he wants to keep: "A rage for paper money, for an abolition of debts, for an equal division of property, or for any other improper or wicked project, will be less apt to pervade the whole body of the Union than a particular member of it." 

When economic interest is seen behind the political clauses of the Constitution, then the document becomes not simply the work of wise men trying to establish a decent and orderly society, but the work of certain groups trying to maintain their privileges, while giving just enough rights and liberties to enough of the people to ensure popular support. 

In the new government, Madison would belong to one party (the Democrat-Republicans) along with Jefferson and Monroe. Hamilton would belong to the rival party (the Federalists) along with Washington and Adams. But both agreed-one a slaveholder from Virginia, the other a merchant from New York-on the aims of this new government they were establishing. They were anticipating the long-fundamental agreement of the two political parties in the American system. Hamilton wrote elsewhere in the Federalist Papers that the new Union would be able "to repress domestic faction and insurrection." He referred directly to Shays' Rebellion: "The tempestuous situation from which Massachusetts has scarcely emerged evinces that dangers of this kind are not merely speculative."  It was either Madison or Hamilton (the authorship of the individual papers is not always known) who in Federalist Paper #63 argued the necessity of a "well-constructed Senate" as "sometimes necessary as a defense to the people against their own temporary errors and delusions" because "there are particular moments in public affairs when the people, stimulated by some irregular passion, or some illicit advantage, or misted by the artful misrepresentations of interested men, may call for measures which they themselves will afterwards be the most ready to lament and condemn." And: "In these critical moments, how salutary will be the interference of some temperate and respectable body of citizens in order to check the misguided career, and to suspend the blow meditated by the people against themselves, until reason, justice, and truth can regain their authority over the public mind?" 

The Constitution was a compromise between slaveholding interests of the South and moneyed interests of the North. For the purpose of uniting the thirteen states into one great market for commerce, the northern delegates wanted laws regulating interstate commerce, and urged that such laws require only a majority of Congress to pass. The South agreed to this, in return for allowing the trade in slaves to continue for twenty years before being outlawed. 

The Constitution, then, illustrates the complexity of the American system: that it serves the interests of a wealthy elite, but also does enough for small property owners, for middle-income mechanics and farmers, to build a broad base of support. The slightly prosperous people who make up this base of support are buffers against the blacks, the Indians, the very poor whites. They enable the elite to keep control with a minimum of coercion, a maximum of law-all made palatable by the fanfare of patriotism and unity. 

The Constitution became even more acceptable to the public at large after the first Congress, responding to criticism, passed a series of amendments known as the Bill of Rights. These amendments seemed to make the new government a guardian of people's liberties: to speak, to publish, to worship, to petition, to assemble, to be tried fairly, to be secure at home against official intrusion. It was, therefore, perfectly designed to build popular backing for the new government. What was not made clear-it was a time when the language of freedom was new and its reality untested-was the shakiness of anyone's liberty when entrusted to a government of the rich and powerful. 

The First Amendment of the Bill of Rights shows that quality of interest hiding behind innocence. Passed in 1791 by Congress, it provided that "Congress shall make no law . . . abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press. . . ." Yet, seven years after the First Amendment became part of the Constitution, Congress passed a law very clearly abridging the freedom of speech. 

This was the Sedition Act of 1798, passed under John Adams's administration, at a time when Irishmen and Frenchmen in the United States were looked on as dangerous revolutionaries because of the recent French Revolution and the Irish rebellions. The Sedition Act made it a crime to say or write anything "false, scandalous and malicious" against the government, Congress, or the President, with intent to defame them, bring them into disrepute, or excite popular hatreds against them. 

This act seemed to directly violate the First Amendment. Yet, it was enforced. Ten Americans were put in prison for utterances against the government, and every member of the Supreme Court in 1798-1800, sitting as an appellate judge, held it constitutional. 

There was a legal basis for this, one known to legal experts, but not to the ordinary American, who would read the First Amendment and feel confident that he or she was protected in the exercise of free speech. That basis has been explained by historian Leonard Levy. Levy points out that it was generally understood (not in the population, but in higher circles) that, despite the First Amendment, the British common law of "seditious libel" still ruled in America. This meant that while the government could not exercise "prior restraint"-that is, prevent an utterance or publication in advance-it could legally punish the speaker or writer afterward. Thus, Congress has a convenient legal basis for the laws it has enacted since that time, making certain kinds of speech a crime. And, since punishment after the fact is an excellent deterrent to the exercise of free expression, the claim of "no prior restraint" itself is destroyed. This leaves the First Amendment much less than the stone wall of protection it seems at first glance. 

Are the economic provisions in the Constitution enforced just as weakly? We have an instructive example almost immediately in Washington's first administration, when Congress's power to tax and appropriate money was immediately put to use by the Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton. 

Hamilton, believing that government must ally itself with the richest elements of society to make itself strong, proposed to Congress a series of laws, which it enacted, expressing this philosophy. A Bank of the United States was set up as a partnership between the government and certain banking interests. A tariff was passed to help the manufacturers. It was agreed to pay bondholders-most of the war bonds were now concentrated in a small group of wealthy people-the full value of their bonds. Tax laws were passed to raise money for this bond redemption.  One of these tax laws was the Whiskey tax, which especially hurt small farmers who raised grain that they converted into whiskey and then sold. In 1794 the farmers of western Pennsylvania took up arms and rebelled against the collection of this tax. Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton led the troops to put them down. We see then, in the first years of the Constitution, that some of its provisions-even those paraded most flamboyantly (like the First Amendment)-might be treated lightly. Others (like the power to tax) would be powerfully enforced. 

Still, the mythology around the Founding Fathers persists. To say, as one historian (Bernard Bailyn) has done recently, that "the destruction of privilege and the creation of a political system that demanded of its leaders the responsible and humane use of power were their highest aspirations" is to ignore what really happened in the America of these Founding Fathers.  Bailyn says: 

Everyone knew the basic prescription for a wise and just government. It was so to balance the contending powers in society that no one power could overwhelm the others and, unchecked, destroy the liberties that belonged to all. The problem was how to arrange the institutions of government so that this balance could be achieved. 

Were the Founding Fathers wise and just men trying to achieve a good balance? In fact, they did not want a balance, except one which kept things as they were, a balance among the dominant forces at that time. They certainly did not want an equal balance between slaves and masters, propertyless and property holders, Indians and white. 

Source:  A Kind of Revolution by Howard Zinn

FEDERALIST NO. 51  - THE STRUCTURE OF THE GOVERNMENT MUST FURNISH THE PROPER CHECKS AND BALANCES BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT DEPARTMENTS

 by: Alexander Hamilton or James Madison  

 From the New York Packet. 

 Friday, February 8, 1788. 

To the People of the State of New York: 

In order to lay a due foundation for that separate and distinct exercise of the different powers of government, which to a certain extent is admitted on all hands to be essential to the preservation of liberty, it is evident that each department should have a will of its own; and consequently should be so constituted that the members of each should have as little agency as possible in the appointment of the members of the others. Were this principle rigorously adhered to, it would require that all the appointments for the supreme executive, legislative, and judiciary magistracies should be drawn from the same fountain of authority, the people, through channels having no communication whatever with one another. …It is equally evident, that the members of each department should be as little dependent as possible on those of the others, for the emoluments annexed to their offices.

Were the executive magistrate, or the judges, not independent of the legislature in this particular, their independence in every other would be merely nominal. But the great security against a gradual concentration of the several powers in the same department, consists in giving to those who administer each department the necessary constitutional means and personal motives to resist encroachments of the others. … Ambition must be made to counteract ambition. The interest of the man must be connected with the constitutional rights of the place. It may be a reflection on human nature, that such devices should be necessary to control the abuses of government. But what is government itself, but the greatest of all reflections on human nature? If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary.

In framing a government which is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place oblige it to control itself. A dependence on the people is, no doubt, the primary control on the government; but experience has taught mankind the necessity of auxiliary precautions. … But it is not possible to give to each department an equal power of self-defense. In republican government, the legislative authority necessarily predominates. The remedy for this inconveniency is to divide the legislature into different branches; and to render them, by different modes of election and different principles of action, as little connected with each other as the nature of their common functions and their common dependence on the society will admit. … Hence a double security arises to the rights of the people. The different governments will control each other, at the same time that each will be controlled by itself. Second. It is of great importance in a republic not only to guard the society against the oppression of its rulers, but to guard one part of the society against the injustice of the other part. … If a majority be united by a common interest, the rights of the minority will be insecure. …Whilst all authority in it will be derived from and dependent on the society, the society itself will be broken into so many parts, interests, and classes of citizens, that the rights of individuals, or of the minority, will be in little danger from interested combinations of the majority.

In a free government the security for civil rights must be the same as that for religious rights. It consists in the one case in the multiplicity of interests, and in the other in the multiplicity of sects. … In a society under the forms of which the stronger faction can readily unite and oppress the weaker, anarchy may as truly be said to reign as in a state of nature, where the weaker individual is not secured against the violence of the stronger; and as, in the latter state, even the stronger individuals are prompted, by the uncertainty of their condition, to submit to a government which may protect the weak as well as themselves; so, in the former state, will the more powerful factions or parties be gradnally induced, by a like motive, to wish for a government which will protect all parties, the weaker as well as the more powerful. … 

PUBLIUS. 

FEDERALIST NO. 68  THE MODE OF ELECTING THE PRESIDENT 

by Alexander Hamilton   

 From the New York Packet 

 Friday, March 14, 1788. 

THE mode of appointment of the Chief Magistrate of the United States is almost the only part of the system, of any consequence, which has escaped without severe censure, or which has received the slightest mark of approbation from its opponents. The most plausible of these, who has appeared in print, has even deigned to admit that the election of the President is pretty well guarded. [1] I venture somewhat further, and hesitate not to affirm, that if the manner of it be not perfect, it is at least excellent. It unites in an eminent degree all the advantages, the union of which was to be wished for. 

It was desirable that the sense of the people should operate in the choice of the person to whom so important a trust was to be confided. This end will be answered by committing the right of making it, not to any preestablished body, but to men chosen by the people for the special purpose, and at the particular conjuncture. 

It was equally desirable, that the immediate election should be made by men most capable of analyzing the qualities adapted to the station, and acting under circumstances favorable to deliberation, and to a judicious combination of all the reasons and inducements which were proper to govern their choice. A small number of persons, selected by their fellow-citizens from the general mass, will be most likely to possess the information and discernment requisite to such complicated investigations. 

It was also peculiarly desirable to afford as little opportunity as possible to tumult and disorder. This evil was not least to be dreaded in the election of a magistrate, who was to have so important an agency in the administration of the government as the President of the United States. … 

Nothing was more to be desired than that every practicable obstacle should be opposed to cabal, intrigue, and corruption. These most deadly adversaries of republican government might naturally have been expected to make their approaches from more than one quarter, but chiefly from the desire in foreign powers to gain an improper ascendant in our councils. How could they better gratify this, than by raising a creature of their own to the chief magistracy of the Union? But the convention have guarded against all danger of this sort, with the most provident and judicious attention. … And they have excluded from eligibility to this trust, all those who from situation might be suspected of too great devotion to the President in office. No senator, representative, or other person holding a place of trust or profit under the United States, can be of the numbers of the electors. Thus without corrupting the body of the people, the immediate agents in the election will at least enter upon the task free from any sinister bias. Their transient existence, and their detached situation, already taken notice of, afford a satisfactory prospect of their continuing so, to the conclusion of it…. 

The process of election affords a moral certainty, that the office of President will never fall to the lot of any man who is not in an eminent degree endowed with the requisite qualifications. Talents for low intrigue, and the little arts of popularity, may alone suffice to elevate a man to the first honors in a single State; but it will require other talents, and a different kind of merit, to establish him in the esteem and confidence of the whole Union, or of so considerable a portion of it as would be necessary to make him a successful candidate for the distinguished office of President of the United States. It will not be too strong to say, that there will be a constant probability of seeing the station filled by characters pre-eminent for ability and virtue. And this will be thought no inconsiderable recommendation of the Constitution, by those who are able to estimate the share which the executive in every government must necessarily have in its good or ill administration. … 

Source:  Library of Congress Full-Text of the Federalist Papers

Assignment- Lesson 6 Mini Essay

After reading the Mini Essay Instructions, use the American Yawp and one or more of the supplementary reading materials to support your mini essay, answering one of the prompts below. Cite supplementary readings by the author's name and the name/title of the reading. Cite the textbook as American Yawp.

Option 1 : What were some of the major issues over which founders and Americans disagreed during the first few decades following the Revolution, and why?

Option 2:   Explain at least two of the compromises during the formation of the Constitution and why these compromises were necessary

Option 3: Explain what you think were the greatest achievements of the Constitution, and the greatest weaknesses, and why

What You Need to Know for Chapter 7

As we have learned from earlier lessons in this course, ideas about slavery and race have changed and evolved. What it meant to be a "slave" was not clearly defined in the early colonial period (though slavery was reserved for non-whites), and thus enslaved people were not permanently bound to their status and they were not "chattel" (living property). Likewise, "race"- a preoccupation with physical differences, especially skin color, as defining group characteristics or social role- did not exist as a concept until about the 18th century.

Elements of the Enlightenment- the same intellectual movement that helped define the ideas of the American Revolution- also shaped pseudo-scientific ideas about the inferiority of the Black race and helped to justify enslavement and other subordination of people of color. Thomas Jefferson was a slaver his entire adult life,  fathered as many as six children with one of his slaves, Sally Hemmings, and promoted degrading notions of the intellectual incapacity of people of African descent, and even the notion that they had separate ancestry (which proves willful ignorance on his part- his own children with Sally Hemmings would have been impossible). You will read both Jefferson's ideas about race as well as a powerful retort from Benjamin Banneker, a Black scientist who provided an almanac- his  calculation of astronomical events of the future- as proof of the intelligence and capabilities of the Black "race." 

The Haitian Revolution further complicated white American conceptions of race. The prevailing wisdom among white Americans that helped justify the subordination and enslavement of non-whites included that Blacks could not lead or be led, nor could they organize governments or understand the complexities of a democratic republic. The Haitian Revolution proved otherwise, sending tremors of fear through white slavers worried that their own slaves might violently rebel, and tremors of excitement and inspiration through the free Black communities. Meanwhile, native Americans were inspired by leaders like Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa (aka The Prophet) to  combat land-hungry whites and shirk their usual skillful diplomacy that seemed to yield only broken promises from the US government. Instead, they united multiple tribes (who in some instances had been rivals) to violently resist incursion and promote a more spiritual reawakening that strengthened native American resolve and confidence in their cultures. 

These same groups were instrumental allies of the British in the War of 1812, but when the US defeated these foes, it spelled disaster for many native Americans. In the years that followed, tribes throughout the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley (like the Fox and Sauk) and the Southeast (like the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Cherokee, Creek, and Seminole), even groups that had been US allies- were dispossessed of their land and forced West. For white Americans, the end of the War of 1812 meant unity, patriotism, and economic expansion. 

• Explain the ways that the War of 1812 changed the United States and its legacy in US history
• Explain the impact of the Haitian Revolution to US history and the understanding of race and slavery in the early 1800's
• Analyze the competing ideas about race and slavery that developed in the early 19th century, providing specific examples of events and texts for support
• Describe the response and actions of native Americans in dealing with land encroachments and an undependable partner in the US federal government
• Participate in the Textbook Chapter 7 Interactive Reading
• Participate in the Lesson 7 Supplementary Reading
• Submit your Lesson 7 Mini Essay

Textbook Chapter 7: The Early Republic

If your class is not using Perusall:  Chapter 7 The Early Republic

Lesson 7 Supplementary Readings

Farewell address (1796).

George Washington used his final public address as president to warn against what he understood as the two greatest dangers to American prosperity: political parties and foreign wars. Washington urged the American people to avoid political partisanship and entanglements with European wars. 

by George Washington  

In looking forward to the moment which is intended to terminate the career of my public life, my feelings do not permit me to suspend the deep acknowledgment of that debt of gratitude which I owe to my beloved country for the many honors it has conferred upon me… 

Here, perhaps, I ought to stop. But a solicitude for your welfare, which cannot end but with my life, and the apprehension of danger, natural to that solicitude, urge me, on an occasion like the present, to offer to your solemn contemplation, and to recommend to your frequent review, some sentiments which are the result of much reflection … 

In contemplating the causes which may disturb our Union, it occurs as matter of serious concern that any ground should have been furnished for characterizing parties by geographical discriminations, Northern and Southern, Atlantic and Western; whence designing men may endeavor to excite a belief that there is a real difference of local interests and views…. 

I have already intimated to you the danger of parties in the State, with particular reference to the founding of them on geographical discriminations. Let me now take a more comprehensive view, and warn you in the most solemn manner against the baneful effects of the spirit of party generally. 

This spirit, unfortunately, is inseparable from our nature, having its root in the strongest passions of the human mind. It exists under different shapes in all governments, more or less stifled, controlled, or repressed; but, in those of the popular form, it is seen in its greatest rankness, and is truly their worst enemy. 

The alternate domination of one faction over another, sharpened by the spirit of revenge, natural to party dissension, which in different ages and countries has perpetrated the most horrid enormities, is itself a frightful despotism. But this leads at length to a more formal and permanent despotism. The disorders and miseries which result gradually incline the minds of men to seek security and repose in the absolute power of an individual; and sooner or later the chief of some prevailing faction, more able or more fortunate than his competitors, turns this disposition to the purposes of his own elevation, on the ruins of public liberty… 

Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity, religion and morality are indispensable supports. In vain would that man claim the tribute of patriotism, who should labor to subvert these great pillars of human happiness, these firmest props of the duties of men and citizens. The mere politician, equally with the pious man, ought to respect and to cherish them. A volume could not trace all their connections with private and public felicity. Let it simply be asked: Where is the security for property, for reputation, for life, if the sense of religious obligation desert the oaths which are the instruments of investigation in courts of justice ? And let us with caution indulge the supposition that morality can be maintained without religion. Whatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education on minds of peculiar structure, reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality can prevail in exclusion of religious principle. 

It is substantially true that virtue or morality is a necessary spring of popular government. The rule, indeed, extends with more or less force to every species of free government. Who that is a sincere friend to it can look with indifference upon attempts to shake the foundation of the fabric? 

Promote then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened…. 

Against the insidious wiles of foreign influence (I conjure you to believe me, fellow-citizens) the jealousy of a free people ought to be constantly awake, since history and experience prove that foreign influence is one of the most baneful foes of republican government. But that jealousy to be useful must be impartial; else it becomes the instrument of the very influence to be avoided, instead of a defense against it. Excessive partiality for one foreign nation and excessive dislike of another cause those whom they actuate to see danger only on one side, and serve to veil and even second the arts of influence on the other. Real patriots who may resist the intrigues of the favorite are liable to become suspected and odious, while its tools and dupes usurp the applause and confidence of the people, to surrender their interests. 

The great rule of conduct for us in regard to foreign nations is in extending our commercial relations, to have with them as little political connection as possible. So far as we have already formed engagements, let them be fulfilled with perfect good faith. Here let us stop. Our detached and distant situation invites and enables us to pursue a different course… 

Why forego the advantages of so peculiar a situation? Why quit our own to stand upon foreign ground? Why, by interweaving our destiny with that of any part of Europe, entangle our peace and prosperity in the toils of European ambition, rivalship, interest, humor or caprice? 

Source: Washington’s Farewell Address, delivered September 17th, 1796 (New York: 1861), George Washington, Farewell Address Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project  https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/200675

THOMAS JEFFERSON’S RACISM, 1788 

American racism spread during the first decades after the American Revolution. Racial prejudice existed for centuries, but the belief that African-descended peoples were inherently and permanently inferior to Anglo-descended peoples developed sometime around the late eighteenth century. Writings such as this piece from Thomas Jefferson fostered faulty scientific reasoning to justify laws that protected slavery and white supremacy . 

 by Thomas Jefferson

… I advance it therefore as a suspicion only, that the blacks, whether originally a distinct race, or made distinct by time and circumstances, are inferior to the whites in the endowments both of body and mind. It is not against experience to suppose, that different species of the same genus, or varieties of the same species, may possess different qualifications. Will not a lover of natural history then, one who views the gradations in all the races of animals with the eye of philosophy, excuse an effort to keep those in the department of man as distinct as nature has formed them? This unfortunate difference of color, and perhaps of faculty, is a powerful obstacle to the emancipation of these people. Many of their advocates, while they wish to vindicate the liberty of human nature, are anxious also to preserve its dignity and beauty. Some of these, embarrassed by the question `What further is to be done with them?’ Join themselves in opposition with those who are actuated by sordid avarice only. Among the Romans emancipation required but one effort. The slave, when made free, might mix with, without staining the blood of his master. But with us a second is necessary, unknown to history. When freed, he is to be removed beyond the reach of mixture. 

Source:  Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (Richmond: 1853), Page 155 .

BENJAMIN BANNEKER DEMONSTRATES BLACK INTELLIGENCE TO THOMAS JEFFERSON (1791)

  Benjamin Banneker, a free Black American and largely self-taught astronomer and mathematician, wrote Thomas Jefferson, then Secretary of State, on August 19, 1791. Banneker included this letter, as well as Jefferson’s short reply, in several of the first editions of his almanacs in part because he hoped it would dispel the widespread assumption that Jefferson perpetuated in his Notes on the State of Virginia that Black people were incapable of intellectual achievement. 

by Benjamin Banneker   Sir, 

I am fully sensible of the greatness of that freedom which I take with you on the present occasion; a liberty which Seemed to me scarcely allowable, when I reflected on that distinguished, and dignified station in which you Stand; and the almost general prejudice and prepossession which is so prevalent in the world against those of my complexion.

I suppose it is a truth too well attested to you, to need a proof here, that we are a race of Beings who have long laboured under the abuse and censure of the world, that we have long been looked upon with an eye of contempt, and that we have long been considered rather as brutish than human, and Scarcely capable of mental endowments.  

… I apprehend you will readily embrace every opportunity to eradicate that train of absurd and false ideas and opinions which so generally prevails with respect to us, and that your Sentiments are concurrent with mine, which are that one universal Father hath given being to us all, and that he hath not only made us all of one flesh, but that he hath also without partiality afforded us all the Same Sensations, and endued us all with the same faculties, and that however variable we may be in Society or religion, however diversified in Situation or colour, we are all of the Same Family, and Stand in the Same relation to him.

Sir, if these are Sentiments of which you are fully persuaded, I hope you cannot but acknowledge, that it is the indispensable duty of those who maintain for themselves the rights of human nature, and who profess the obligations of Christianity, to extend their power and influence to the relief of every part of the human race, from whatever burthen or oppression they may unjustly labour under, and this I apprehend a full conviction of the truth and obligation of these principles should lead all to.  

Sir, I have long been convinced, that if your love for your Selves, and for those inestimable laws which preserve to you the rights of human nature, was founded on Sincerity, you could not but be Solicitous, that every Individual of whatsoever rank or distinction, might with you equally enjoy the blessings thereof, neither could you rest Satisfied, short of the most active diffusion of your exertions, in order to their promotion from any State of degradation, to which the unjustifiable cruelty and barbarism of men may have reduced them.

Sir I freely and Cheerfully acknowledge, that I am of the African race, and in that colour which is natural to them of the deepest dye, and it is under a Sense of the most profound gratitude to the Supreme Ruler of the universe, that I now confess to you, that I am not under that State of tyrannical thraldom, and inhuman captivity, to which too many of my brethren are doomed; but that I have abundantly tasted of the fruition of those blessings which proceed from that free and unequalled liberty with which you are favoured and which I hope you will willingly allow you have received from the immediate hand of that Being, from whom proceedeth every good and perfect gift.

Sir, Suffer me to recall to your mind that time in which the Arms and tyranny of the British Crown were exerted with every powerful effort in order to reduce you to a State of Servitude, look back I entreat you on the variety of dangers to which you were exposed, reflect on that time in which every human aid appeared unavailable, and in which even hope and fortitude wore the aspect of inability to the Conflict, and you cannot but be led to a Serious and grateful Sense of your miraculous and providential preservation; you cannot but acknowledge that the present freedom and tranquility which you enjoy you have mercifully received, and that it is the peculiar blessing of Heaven.

This Sir, was a time in which you clearly saw into the injustice of a State of Slavery, and in which you had just apprehensions of the horrors of its condition, it was now Sir, that your abhorrence thereof was so excited, that you publickly held forth this true and invaluable doctrine, which is worthy to be recorded and remember’d in all Succeeding ages. “We hold these truths to be Self evident, that all men are created equal, and that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”

Here Sir, was a time in which your tender feelings for your selves had engaged you thus to declare, you were then impressed with proper ideas of the great valuation of liberty, and the free possession of those blessings to which you were entitled by nature; but Sir how pitiable is it to reflect, that although you were so fully convinced of the benevolence of the Father of mankind, and of his equal and impartial distribution of those rights and privileges which he had conferred upon them, that you should at the Same time counteract his mercies, in detaining by fraud and violence so numerous a part of my brethren under groaning captivity and cruel oppression, that you should at the Same time be found guilty of that most criminal act, which you professedly detested in others, with respect to yourselves.

Sir, I suppose that your knowledge of the situation of my brethren is too extensive to need a recital here; neither shall I presume to prescribe methods by which they may be relieved; otherwise than by recommending to you and all others, to wean yourselves from these narrow prejudices which you have imbibed with respect to them, and as Job proposed to his friends “Put your Souls in their Souls stead,” thus shall your hearts be enlarged with kindness and benevolence toward them, and thus shall you need neither the direction of myself or others in what manner to proceed herein.

And now, Sir, altho my Sympathy and affection for my brethren hath caused my enlargement thus far, I ardently hope that your candour and generosity will plead with you in my behalf, when I make known to you, that it was not originally my design; but that having taken up my pen in order to direct to you as a present, a copy of an Almanack which I have calculated for the Succeeding year, I was unexpectedly and unavoidably led thereto.

This calculation, Sir, is the production of my arduous Study in this my advanced Stage of life; for having long had unbounded desires to become acquainted with the Secrets of nature, I have had to gratify my curiosity herein thro my own assiduous application to Astronomical Study, in which I need not to recount to you the many difficulties and disadvantages which I have had to encounter.

And altho I had almost declined to make my calculation for the ensuing year… I industriously apply’d myself thereto, which I hope I have accomplished with correctness and accuracy, a copy of which I have taken the liberty to direct to you, and which I humbly request you will favourably receive, and altho you may have the opportunity of perusing it after its publication, yet I chose to send it to you in manuscript previous thereto, that thereby you might not only have an earlier inspection, but that you might also view it in my own hand writing.—And now Sir, I shall conclude and Subscribe my Self with the most profound respect your most Obedient humble Servant,

Benjamin Banneker 

Source: The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Vol. 22, ed. Charles T. Cullen. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986, pp. 49–54.  Available from the National Archives  

Assignment - Lesson 7 Mini Essay

After reading the Mini Essay Instructions, use The American Yawp and one or more of the supplementary reading materials to support your mini essay, answering the prompt below. Cite supplementary readings by the author's name and the name/title of the reading. Cite the textbook as American Yawp.

What events and ideas helped to form competing notions about blackness- the roles and capabilities of people of African descent- during the early 19th century?  

What You Need to Know for Lesson 8

The Market Revolution of the early 19th century (aka the First Industrial Revolution, or even the Transportation Revolution) meant the US became much more capitalistic. Working for wages in factories, called a wage economy- became more common and replaced the more subsistence existence that commonly relied on barter and trade with home-produced goods, what historians call the household economy. The US became faster, the standard of living generally rose, the middle class grew, and opportunities increased. 

But the benefits were not equally shared, and for many, life got much worse. There was no bottom to how low wages could go (federal minimum wage didn't start until 1938), and a large pool of laborers (like many Irish and some German immigrants) ensured they would compete for lower wages. Conditions were harsh and sometimes dangerous, with long hours and no recompense for injury or even death.

Women and children in poor families also worked, for fractions of a man's wage. Young women, in fact, were the first industrial laborers in the US, and also the first strikers, as you will read in Harriet Robinson's account of the Lowell Mill Strike of 1836. The Market Revolution also changed the way Americans thought about domestic life. Whereas the "household economy" that dominated earlier years created a sense of partnership between men and women- as both were very active in maintaining the family livelihood- the Market Revolution took "wage earning" work outside the home and isolated women in the domestic sphere. Wage-earning women, therefore, were considered particularly low class. 

Even worse than the industrial wage labor of the North was the growth of slavery in the South. Northern states moved away from slavery with gradual abolition laws, but the explosion of short staple cotton production enabled by Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin meant a massive increase is the slave trade and slavery in general. The selection from  The Ledger and the Chain  that you will read in the supplementary sources describes the slave trade and the contributions of Isaac Franklin-born in Sumner County and whose home- Fairview Plantation- is just across the highway from Vol State Gallatin campus. The maps will give you a visual of how cotton and slavery expanded in tandem. Here are the basics of how this process worked with the Market Revolution:

• In the South, the spread of slavery was predicated on the availability of land for growing cash crops. All American settlement had gradually moved natives further West, but end of the War of 1812 and Jackson's administration resulted in the Indian Removal Act, after which most indigenous Americans residing East of the Mississippi River were moved West, thus opening millions of acres of land in what became Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Tennessee to white settlement, and they brought their slaves with them
• Growing cash crops drains the soil. In the areas that had been long cultivated (like Virginia, NC, and Maryland) the land was depleted and they had more enslaved laborers than they needed. These states became "slave selling" states, and many people were trafficked into the Deep South where the land was fertile (at least until intensive slave-based cash cropping depleted it)
• The invention of the Cotton Gin (innovations being one of the hallmarks of the Market Revolution) sped up the cotton production process, making it more efficient and therefore more profitable. The profits were used to buy more land, and more slaves were needed to cut the soil and plant, tend, and harvest the cotton
• Explain the process by which the Market Revolution spurred the dispossession and removal of native Americans, as well as the expansion of cotton, the slave trade, and slavery
• Analyze both the positive and negative changes brought by the Market Revolution, providing specific examples
• Explain how women and children fit into the economic growth and changes of the period, as well as the impact that the Market Revolution had on cultural and social changes within the family
• Describe how this period helped push toward greater regional divisions, particularly North and South, but also East and West
• Choose your History Exploration Project topic from the Module 2 list of options
• Participate in the Textbook Chapter 8 Interactive Reading
• Participate in the Lesson 8 Supplementary Reading
• Submit your Lesson 8 Mini Essay

Get Started! Choose a Module 2 History Exploration Topic

Your Project Prep Worksheet is due in the next lesson, so go ahead and get rolling! Choose a question, and start reading the relevant sources. You have to read most of these sources anyway (they are part of your lesson assignments) so it does no harm to jump ahead. 

Module Two:

What competing visions for the US arose during the early years of the Republic?  required sources: American Yawp, George Washington, “Farewell Address” 1796 (L7),  A Kind of Revolution- Howard Zinn (L6),  Federalist Papers, selections (L6) and at least one high-quality, unique source from your school's library databases.

• What were the limitations of women's citizenship and rights? Why did those limitations exist? How did women shape the young nation, despite these limitations?   required sources: American Yawp,  Abigail and John Adams on Women’s Rights, 1776 (L5), Harriet H. Robinson Remembers a Mill Workers’ Strike, 1836 (L7) Sojourner Truth “Ain’t I a Woman?” (L 10), and at least one high-quality, unique source from your school's library databases. Recommended: Alexis de Tocqueville, “How Americans Understand the Equality of Sexes” (ch8) and Harriet Jacobs on slavery and rape (ch11)  .  
• Visit Belmont Mansion, which was built by slaves for Adelicia Franklin Acklen, the widow of Isaac Franklin, the nations largest slave trader during the 1830s and native of Gallatin, TN. Using the source here, answer the questions:  How did the Franklin's (Isaac and Adelicia) fit into the larger Market Revolution, it's benefits and consequences?  What does Belmont represent within the context of the expansive growth of the period?  required sources: American Yawp, Selections:  The Ledger and the Chain , Joshua Rothman (L8), at least one high-quality, unique source from your school's library databases and   Belmont Mansion | Nashville Historic House Museum |  and at least one other source. A docent or guide at Belmont can also act as a source, but not to replace one listed here.   
• Visit the  toll bridge abutment  in Nashville, the location of the first bridge crossing the Cumberland River and also where Cherokees and others were forced West on the Trail of Tears. Explore the connection between the technological and transportation developments that the bridge represents, and the forced relocation of indigenous people. Use the source here to answer the question:  How did the Market Revolution lead to Indian Removal?  required sources: American Yawp, Excerpts from a Memorial of the Cherokee Nation (L9), Selections:  The Ledger and the Chain , Joshua Rothman (L8), at least one high-quality, unique source from your school's library databases and one other source.  
• How democratic was Jacksonian Democracy?  (For the purposes of this question, define the word democratic as the "ideals and rights of democratic nation," such as equality, representation, freedom, voting, liberty, opportunity, government by the people, etc.). required sources: American Yawp, Video: Andrew Jackson, Reinventing the Presidency (L9) Indian Removal, various sources (L9), at least one high-quality, unique source from your school's library databases and at least one other source. recommended: Black Philadelphians Defend their Right to Vote, 1838 (ch9) and Jackson and the BUS, various sources (L9).

Textbook Chapter 8: The Market Revolution

If your class is not using Perusall:  Chapter 8 The Market Revolution

Chapter 8 Supplementary Readings

The ledger and the chain: how domestic slave traders shaped america (selections).

  Background: Isaac Franklin was born in Sumner County, Tennessee in 1789 and co-founded what became the largest slave trading firm in the US during the 1830s, Franklin and Armfield. The office headquarters were in Alexandria, VA, but much business was conducted in Natchez, MS and New Orleans. Franklin often used his home in Sumner County, Fairview (located adjacent to Vol State’s Gallatin campus) as a stopping point for slave coffles* being transported from the Upper South (the Chesapeake, Maryland and Virginia) to the Deep South. He also created massive plantations in Louisiana, one named Angola, that was later bought by the state and converted to the largest federal prison in the US. At the age of 50, Franklin married Nashville socialite Adalecia Hayes, who would inherit a massive estate upon Franklin’s death, including hundreds of slaves and thousands of acres of land in Tennessee, Texas, and Louisiana, making her the wealthiest woman in the state. Adalecia Hayes Franklin remarried, and with her husband Joseph Acklen, ordered the construction of Belmont Mansion in Nashville, which became their summer home.  

 *A coffle is a large group of enslaved humans chained together and moved over land. The term is also used for livestock.  

by Joshua Rothman, 2021

Chapter 2: Choices 

 Once Isaac Franklin got into the slave trade, he never really got out of it, though he could have if he had wanted to. In May 1815, a little over a year after ending his military service, he gave his father $500 for 132 acres of land in Sumner County on the western fork of Station Camp Creek, north of the Cumberland River and about 5 miles West of Gallatin. Within a few years, he enslaved between 10 and 15 people on the property. This course might have suggested a move toward a more settled life, a planters life built around commercial farming and capital investments in slaves rather than around trading in them. It was a move his older brother had made years earlier. Isaac Franklin chose to stay in the slave trade because he was good at it, because he liked it, and because it was a family business. Franklin older brothers used the market in black people to get started in the world. Isaac Franklin was mostly an apprentice in the slave trade before the War of 1812. But after it he would become a fixture in the trade for his extended family, mentoring younger relatives as they made some money and decided whether human merchandise was the business for them. 

Chapter 3: Associates 

Between the 1820s and the 1830s, the number of slaves transported across state lines increased by 85%, reaching the point where white people forced the migration of nearly 30,000 enslaved people, on average, from one state to another every year. Trafficking on such a scale was unprecedented in the United States, and it would never be matched again in American history. It was ubiquitous throughout the slaveholding portion of the country: along burned coastline, in the city streets and country roads, in taverns and hotels, county jails and on courthouse steps, in newspapers and on broadsheets posted to buildings and trees... In truth, the incessant chatter among white people about prices, the endless ports of black people once there and now gone, and the disquiet that the enslaved could never quite shake reminded them that wherever they were, the trade was there too.  

Travelers in the 1830s reported that deteriorating agricultural production had made selling enslaved people the most reliable source of income for slaveholders in the Chesapeake. When illustrator and engraver Abraham John Mason, for example, visited the United States from England, he observed that Virginia “principal traffic now consists in raising slaves for the more southern parts, becoming a complete slave nursery.” British anti-slavery activist Joseph Sturge noticed it early in the early 1840s that the “sterility and ever-encroaching desolation” in the Chesapeake and in North Carolina had resulted in the slaveholding sections of the country being “divided into the ‘slave breeding’ and ‘slave consuming’ states.” Indeed, Sturge concluded, “human flesh is now the great staple of Virginia.” 

Prominent Virginians acknowledged it too. Thomas Jefferson Randolph, grandson and namesake of the third president, lamented that Virginia had become "one grand menagerie, where men are reared for the market like oxen for the shambles.” But others saw an upside. State delegate James Golson, noting that “much of Virginia's wealth” came from the birth of enslaved people, believed slaveholders had as much right to profit from the increase as “the owner of brood mares” did to profit from “their product.” Congressman Charles Fenton Mercer appreciated that Virginia derived “an annual revenue of not less than a million and a half of dollars... from the exportation” of enslaved people, as did Thomas Dew, professor of political law at the College of William and Mary, who considered the slave trade “an advantage to the state.” It only made sense for slaveholders “to encourage breeding” among the enslaved, Dew thought, because “Virginia is in fact a slave-raising state for other states.” 

Cotton producing regions of the country still stood out most among those “other states,” and the demand for slave labor that received new stimuli late 1820s and early 1830s. Most significant were the Indian Removal policies of Andrew Jackson, who ascended to the presidency in 1829. Within a few years of taking office, Jackson engineered the massive expulsion of Native Americans from the lower South, opening new vistas for American cotton production, which increased nearly 40% in the first half of the 1830s. As the number of fortune hunters soared, slave traders came to them with stolen people to pack onto their stolen land. 

White people brought almost 30,000 slaves into Louisiana during the 1830s, nearly 80% more than they had in the 1820s, and cotton production in the state increased 63% between 1826 and 1834. Bigger still was Alabama, where white people brought in over 96,000 slaves, almost twice as many as they had in the 1820s. The total enslaved population of Alabama more than doubled over the course of the decade, and cotton production from 1826 to 1834 increased there by almost 90%. But the twinned amplification of slavery and commodity crops in Louisiana and Alabama paled in comparison to their growth in Mississippi. In the early 1830s, federal deportation of the Choctaw and Chickasaw peoples yielded 18 million acres of land there for white settlement, more than half the acreage of the entire state. Whites brought over 100,000 enslaved people into Mississippi during the 1830s, more than five times as many as they had in the previous decade, and the states enslaved population grew almost 200%. The cotton crop produced by the enslaved in Mississippi multiplied more than fourfold over the course of just eight years, and by 1834 the state stood alongside Alabama as the largest producer of cotton in the United States. 

Massive influxes of capital and credit followed and fanned the development of the cotton and slave trading frontiers. States experimented with chartering new kinds and larger numbers of banks. Investors from around the country and around the globe channeled millions into land and stock and bond ventures. The Second Bank of the United States, using federal money taken in mostly from public sales of Indian land, delivered over a third of its loans to the merchants, bankers, and planters of the lower South. In Mississippi alone, the number of incorporated banks grew from 1 to 13 within a few years after 1829, and banking capital in the state increased tenfold. Everything at bottom was predicated on the labor and commodity value of enslaved people. Black bodies propelled the American economy toward the future. 

Source:  The Ledger and the Chain, Joshua Rothman

COTTON PRODUCTION IN 1820 VERSUS 1860 

In 1820 there was one major production area for cotton centered in South Carolina. There were other production areas in Georgia, in the areas around Agusta and along the coast, near Savannah. Middle Tennessee had some cotton production as well as western Alabama and southwestern Mississippi into Louisiana. North Carolina had some cotton production in the areas surrounding its northern and southern borders. Cotton production pushed as far north as Richmond, Virginia. 

By 1860 the major areas of cotton production had more than quadrupled and were spread throughout the Southeast. From Raleigh, North Carolina all the way to Texas major cotton production could be found. The major areas were strong up the Mississippi River valley and across central Georgia and Alabama. The other production areas had also more than quadrupled. Cotton was no longer grown in Virginia. 

SLAVE GROWTH FROM 1790 TO 1860 

In 1790 the slave population was concentrated in the mid-Atlantic seaboard states. By 1860 it was widespread in the entire southeast United States. 

THE LOWELL MILL GIRLS GO ON STRIKE, 1836 

A group of Boston capitalists built a major textile manufacturing center in Lowell, Massachusetts, in the second quarter of the 19th century. The first factories recruited women from rural New England as their labor force. These young women, far from home, lived in rows of boardinghouses adjacent to the growing number of mills. The industrial production of textiles was highly profitable,and the number of factories in Lowell and other mill towns increased. More mills led to overproduction, which led to a drop in prices and profits. Mill owners reduced wages and speeded up the pace of work. The young female operatives organized to protest these wage cuts in 1834 and 1836. Harriet Hanson Robinson was one of those factory operatives; she began work in Lowell at the age of ten, later becoming an author and advocate of women’s suffrage. In 1898 she published Loom and Spindle, a memoir of her Lowell experiences, where she recounted the strike of 1836. 

  by Harriet Hanson Robinson 

One of the first strikes of cotton-factory operatives that ever took place in this country was that in Lowell, in October, 1836. When it was announced that the wages were to be cut down, great indignation was felt, and it was decided to strike, en masse. This was done. The mills were shut down, and the girls went in procession from their several corporations to the “grove” on Chapel Hill, and listened to “incendiary” speeches from early labor reformers. 

One of the girls stood on a pump, and gave vent to the feelings of her companions in a neat speech, declaring that it was their duty to resist all attempts at cutting down the wages. This was the first time a woman had spoken in public in Lowell, and the event caused surprise and consternation among her audience. 

Cutting down the wages was not their only grievance, nor the only cause of this strike. Hitherto the corporations had paid twenty—five cents a week towards the board of each operative, and now it was their purpose to have the girls pay the sum; and this, in addition to the cut in the wages, would make a difference of at least one dollar a week. It was estimated that as many as twelve or fifteen hundred girls turned out, and walked in procession through the streets. They had neither flags nor music, but sang songs, a favorite (but rather inappropriate) one being a parody on “I won’t be a nun. ” 

"Oh! isn’t it a pity, such a pretty girl as I- Should be sent to the factory to pine away and die? Oh ! I cannot be a slave, I will not be a slave, For I’m so fond of liberty That I cannot be a slave." 

My own recollection of this first strike (or “turn out” as it was called) is very vivid. I worked in a lower room, where I had heard the proposed strike fully, if not vehemently, discussed; I had been an ardent listener to what was said against this attempt at “oppression” on the part of the corporation, and naturally I took sides with the strikers. When the day came on which the girls were to turn out, those in the upper rooms started first, and so many of them left that our mill was at once shut down. Then, when the girls in my room stood irresolute, uncertain what to do, asking each other, “Would you? ” or “Shall we turn out?” and not one of them 1laving the courage to lead off, I, who began to think they would not go out, after all their talk, became impatient, and started on ahead, saying, with childish bravado, "I don’t care what you do, I am going to turn out, whether any one else does or not;‘’ and I marched out, and was followed by the others. 

As I looked back at the long line that followed me, I was more proud than I have ever been since at any success I may have achieved, and more proud than I shall ever be again until my own beloved State gives to its women citizens the right of suffrage. 

The agent of the corporation where I then worked took some small revenges on the supposed ringleaders; on the principle of sending the weaker to the wall, my mother was turned away from her boarding-house, that functionary saying,“Mrs. Hanson, you could not prevent the older girls from turning out, but your daughter is a child, and her you could control.” 

It is hardly necessary to say that so far as results were concerned this strike did no good. The dissatisfaction of the operatives subsided, or burned itself out, and though the authorities did not accede to their demands, the majority returned to their work, and the corporation went on cutting down the wages. 

And after a time, as the wages became more and more reduced, the best portion of the girls left and went to their homes, or to the other employments that were fast opening to women, until there were very few of the old guard left; and thus the status of the factory population of New England gradually became what we know it to be to-day. 

Source: Harriet Hanson Robinson, Loom and Spindle or Life Among the Early Mill Girls (New York, T. Y. Crowell, 1898), 83–86.  Available through the Internet Archive 

Assignment - Lesson 8 Mini Essay

Option 1: What role did women- both inside and outside the home- represent the changes brought by the Market Revolution?

Option 2:  Explain both the positive and negative changes brought by the Market Revolution, providing specific examples

Option 3: How did Isaac Franklin of Sumner County fit into the context of the Market Revolution? 

What You Need to Know for Lesson 9

Andrew Jackson was a president unlike his predecessors. In many ways, he used the worst attributes of democracy to achieve power, which is exactly what some founders had feared about democracy. He gained support by enfranchising more white men (but remember that even if all white men could vote, they are still a minority of adults), and used that popular support to wield power sometimes recklessly. He did not like to see restrictions to his own agenda and often manipulated the political process in ways that were unexpected and -to many- unwelcome. Watch the video "Reinventing the Presidency" to understand the big picture of how he changed the office of the president and the political system in the US.  Yawp  will go into greater detail about the specific events and issues that arose during Jacksons term. 

Despite many critics (then and now) Jackson was largely responsible for a movement to increase the electorate, he aimed to limit the power of the elite, and he proposed many ideas (most of which did not come to fruition during his term) that might be considered very "democratic" today- like abolishing the electoral college, term limits for members of Congress, and limits on presidential terms (which did happen, but over 100 years later in 1947 after Franklin Roosevelt had been elected to 4 consecutive terms). His democratic tendencies were designed only to benefit white men, whose representative power rose while it shrunk for people of color (EX: TN is one of multiple states that passed restrictions during the Jacksonian Era disenfranchising property holding men of color who, before this time,  had  been able to vote). The role of women in Jackson's cabinet is also very interesting. As you read about the Peggy Eaton affair, keep this in mind: Women were unable to vote and marginalized from political power in the US. In what ways were they wielding influence and power in the Eaton affair, and how did their influence have political consequences? 

There are plenty of significant events during this time period, but you should pay special attention to the Nullification Crisis. This conflict starring Jackson and his one time VP John Calhoun (a name to familiarize yourself with) is very much a precursor to the secession crisis the preceded the Civil War. Calhoun constructs an argument that basically suggests that states don't have to follow federal laws they don't like, and have the right to leave the Union. The issue was eventually resolved at the (after Jackson may or may not have threatened to hang Calhoun from a tree), but it set an important precedent that would arise again later. There is also a close correlation here with the Missouri Crisis and the Missouri Compromise, as they both end up being pivotal to the debate over slavery and federal power later on. 

The textbook is remarkably weak in meaningful discussion of Indian Removal, specifically the Trail of Tears. As you learned so far, native American land being stolen was a fairly consistent feature of colonial and US policy. But Jackson took this movement a step further- forcing nearly all eastern indigenous Americans to lands West of the Mississippi in a perversion of the Indian Removal Act (which did not actually call for forced removal and was in defiance of Supreme Court ruling in  Worchester v. Georgia  that stated the Cherokee had original right to their land). There are heart-wrenching accounts of both the natives plea to stay in their homes, as well as descriptions of the forced removal provided in your supplementary sources. 

But it's also worth remembering that white settlers and native Americans were not natural foes throughout history- there are probably more stories of cooperation, allyship, and deeply held feelings of mutual respect at the micro-level than Americans realize. Andrew Jackson himself formed some meaningful relationships with native Americans who allied with him in fighting the British in the war of 1812, and he even adopted a native boy (who died before adulthood). (NOTE: Cherokee Chief Junaluska reportedly saved Jacksons life at the battle of Horseshoe Bend, but was later forced out of NC with other Cherokee on the Trail of Tears). But the big picture- the long view of the nineteenth century- is certainly one of domination, exclusion, and dispossession on the part of the US government. 

• Construct an argument based on evidence that explores whether Jackson's presidency should be associate with an increased "democracy" or not.
• Explain the ways that Jackson reshaped the office of the president and the US political system
• Discuss the nullification crisis and the Missouri Compromise in terms of their lasting impacts, and how they contributed to later conflicts
• Explain the impact that the Jacksonian Era had on women and people of color
• Participate in the Textbook Chapter 9 Interactive Reading
• Participate in the Lesson 9 Supplementary Reading
• Submit your Lesson 9 Mini Essay
• Turn in your Project Prep Worksheet for your History Exploration Project that will be due at the end of this module

Textbook Chapter 9: Democracy in America

If your class is not using Perusall:  Chapter 9 Democracy in America

Chapter 9 Supplementary Readings

Andrew jackson: reinventing the presidency .

Source:  "Andrew Jackson: Reinventing the Presidency." YouTube, uploaded by AndrewJacksonPBS, Oct 18 2007,  https://youtu.be/G7OiNxkifX8

EXCERPTS FROM A MEMORIAL OF THE CHEROKEE NATION 

We wish to remain on the land of our fathers. We have a perfect and original right to remain without interruption or molestation.... 

But if we are compelled to leave our country, we see nothing but ruin before us. The country west of the Arkansas territory is unknown to us.... The far greater part of that region is, beyond all controversy, badly supplied with food and water; and no Indian tribe can live as agriculturalists without these articles. All our neighbors...would speak a language totally different from ours, and practice different customs.... It contains neither the scenes of our childhood, nor the graves of our fathers.... 

Shall we be compelled by a civilized and Christian people, with whom we have lived in perfect peace for the last forty years, and for whom we have willingly bled in war, to bid adieu to our homes, our farms, our streams and our beautiful forests? No. We are still firm.... Our consciences bear us witness that we are the invaders of no man's rights - we have robbed no man of his territory - we have usurped no man's authority, nor have we deprived any one of his unalienable privileges. How then shall we indirectly confess the right of another people to our land by leaving it forever? On the soil which contains the ashes of our beloved men we wish to live - on this soil we wish to die.... 

Source: "Memorial of the Cherokee Nation," as reprinted in Niles Weekly Register, August 21, 1830. 

MAP OF INDIAN REMOVAL 

Map of the South/Southeast shows the various routes taken by different Indian tribes during the removal. Cherokee, Chickasaw, Seminole, Choctaw and Creek were all moved to "Indian Territory" in what is now Oklahoma. 

ACCOUNTS OF THE TRAIL OF TEARS (EXCERPTS)

byJohn G. Burnett, Cherokee Messenger 

…I saw the helpless Cherokees arrested and dragged from their homes, and driven at the bayonet point into the stockades. And in the chill of a drizzling rain on an October morning I saw them loaded like cattle or sheep into six hundred and forty-five wagons and started toward the west… …One can never forget the sadness and solemnity of that morning. Chief John Ross led in prayer and when the bugle sounded and the wagons started rolling many of the children rose to their feet and waved their little hands good-by to their mountain homes, knowing they were leaving them forever. Many of these helpless people did not have blankets and many of them had been driven from home barefooted… …On the morning of November the 17th we encountered a terrific sleet and snow storm with freezing temperatures and from that day until we reached the end of the fateful journey on March the 26th, 1839, the sufferings of the Cherokees were awful. The trail of the exiles was a trail of death. They had to sleep in the wagons and on the ground without fire. And I have known as many as twenty-two of them to die in one night of pneumonia due to ill treatment, cold, and exposure. Among this number was the beautiful Christian wife of Chief John Ross. This noble hearted woman died a martyr to childhood, giving her only blanket for the protection of a sick child. She rode thinly clad through a blinding sleet and snow storm, developed pneumonia and died in the still hours of a bleak winter night, with her head resting on Lieutenant Greggs saddle blanket… 

Document source:  Digital History.uh.edu

BANK VETO MESSAGE TO CONGRESS JULY 10, 1832 (EXCERPTS)

by Andrew Jackson 

I sincerely regret that in the act before me I can perceive none of those modifications of the bank charter which are necessary, in my opinion, to make it compatible with justice, with sound policy, or with the Constitution of our country.... The present Bank of the United States...enjoys an exclusive privilege of banking,... almost a monopoly of the foreign and domestic exchange. 

It appears that more than a fourth part of the stock is held by foreigners and the (rest) is held by a few hundred of our own citizens, chiefly of the richest class. 

Of the twenty-five directors of this bank five are chosen by the Government and twenty by the citizen stockholders.... It is easy to conceive that great evils to our country...might flow from such a concentration of power in the hands of a few men irresponsible to the people. 

Is there no danger to our liberty and independence in a bank that in its nature has so little to bind it to our country? 

It is to be regretted that the rich and powerful too often bend the acts of government to their selfish purposes. 

Source: James D. Richardson,  A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents , 1789-1902, 1905. 

WEBSTER'S REPLY TO JACKSON'S BANK VETO MESSAGE JULY 11, 1832 (EXCERPT)

by Daniel Webster

 (President Jackson's message) extends the grasp of (the chief executive) over every power of the government.... It sows...the seeds of jealousy and ill-will against the government of which its author is the official head. It raises a cry that liberty is in danger, at the very moment when it puts forth claims to powers heretofore unknown and unheard of.... It manifestly seeks to inflame the poor against the rich, it wantonly attacks whole classes of the people, for the purposes of turning against them the prejudices and resentments of the other classes. 

Source:  Register of Debates in Congress, 22nd Cong., 1st sess., 1221-1240.  

Assignment- Lesson 9 Mini Essay

Option 1: Jackson's presidency is often associated with greater democracy in the US. Do you agree with this assessment? Explain why or why not, providing specific evidence.

Option 2:   Explain the role that women and people of color played in the Jacksonian Era

Option 3: Explain the ways that Jackson changed the office of the president and the US political system

Assignment - Turn in Your Module 2 Project Prep Worksheet

Share the research that you’ve conducted. On your own, find a high-quality, relevant, and unique source from one of your school's library databases that will help you answer your exploration project question (other sources may be acceptable on a case-by-case basis). The purpose of using researched sources is to expand your knowledge, therefore this source needs to add new ideas or information not found in the course content.

After submission you will receive feedback from your instructor about your work here in order to help you create your best project. 

What You Need to Know for Lesson 10

The current landscape of religion in the US is founded in the Second Great Awakening of the 19th century. The incredible multitude of Christian denominations in the US today (in the hundreds by some estimates) is largely due to the formation of many different churches during this period. What defined Protestant Christianity, therefore, was increasingly difficult to define. And though Christianity was by no means the only faith in the US, is was the faith that experienced the most dramatic upheaval. 

The causes of the Second Great Awakening stem largely from the changes wrought by the Market Revolution (as well as from the dispassionate rationalism that defined the Enlightenment). As you learned in earlier chapters, economic inequality increased with burgeoning capitalism, and that inequality- and, let's face it, brutality- created a myriad of social problems and ethical concerns. The Second Great Awakening was a spiritual response, but driven largely by the goal of reform (NOTE: the very same phenomenon occurred as a result of the Gilded Age of the late 19th century with similar economic circumstances, which led to the Progressive Era). This period, for example, is the beginning of the temperance movement that would not come to full fruition until Prohibition in 1919. 

Perhaps the most significant issue pressing reform-minded Christians at the time was slavery. There had always been critics of the system- especially those who suffered it directly- but this period begins a more cohesive and defined abolitionist movement. Much of the influence came from England, where abolitionists were successful in banning slavery throughout the British Empire in 1833 (though many Britons were continued to benefit from the slave system- a point that will come up again later), and abolitionism became a well-funded, organized, publicized movement. The movement to end slavery took many forms- some were devoted to gradualism, others wanted to see an immediate end to an evil institution. Angelina Grimke (and her sister Sarah) were Quakers, a religious group devoted to pacifism, and therefore hoped to end slavery without bloodshed. You will read a speech from Angelina in your supplementary sources. On the other hand, many saw violence as an acceptable means to end a system that relied on violence, as you will read in David Walker's  The Appeal . 

Women of all colors played a significant role in this movement, and it was the desire to further the cause of anti-slavery that made many women realized the need for greater political equality. At the time, the old English rule of  coverture  dictated that American (and most European) women's interests were represented by her closest male relative. When a woman married, she was considered legally dead and her property went to her husband. Women were not accepted into most serious educational institutions, they had little control over their own bodies (marital rape was not even a crime nationwide until 1993), they could not vote, and had no rights over their children. When a group of American men and women arrived in London for the World Anti-Slavery Convention in 1840, the women were refused entrance. Women realized that political and legal equality was necessary in order achieve their reform goals in society. You will watch a moving video portraying Sojourner Truth's famous speech  Ain't I a Woman,  in which she highlights the double oppression faced by enslaved women as well as the simple logic of women's rights. 

• Analyze the relationship between the abolitionist movement and the women's movement in the mid 1800s
• Explain the economic and social factors that led to the Second Great Awakening
• Construct a thoughtful argument as to who your favorite anti-slavery activist is and why
• Explain the connection between religion and social reform
• Examine the results of the Second Great Awakening in the US and how it reverberated for decades, both religiously, culturally and socially
• Participate in the Textbook Chapter 10 Interactive Reading
• Participate in the Lesson 10 Supplementary Reading
• Submit your Lesson 10 Mini Essay
• Turn in your Module 2 History Exploration Project 

Textbook Chapter 10 : Religion and Reform

If your class is not using Perusall:  Chapter 10 Religion and Reform

Lesson 10 Supplementary Readings

Appeal to christian women of the south (1836).

Women were active participants in every aspect of the abolitionist movement. In this document, Angelina Grimké, a former Southerner herself, attempts to persuade Southern women of the immorality of slavery. This tactic, called moral suasion, directed the efforts of abolitionists, especially in the 1830s and 1840s.   

by Angelina Grimeké RESPECTED FRIENDS, 

It is because I feel a deep and tender interest in your present and eternal welfare that I am willing thus publicly to address you. Some of you have loved me as a relative, and some have felt bound to me in Christian sympathy, and Gospel fellowship; and even when compelled by a strong sense of duty, to break those outward bonds of union which bound us together as members of the same community, and members of the same religious denomination, you were generous enough to give me credit, for sincerity as a Christian, though you believed I had been most strangely deceived. I thanked you then for your kindness, and I ask you now, for the sake of former confidence and former friendship, to read the following pages in the spirit of calm investigation and fervent prayer. It is because you have known me, that I write thus unto you. 

But there are other Christian women scattered over the Southern States, a very large number of whom have never seen me, and never heard my name, and who feel no interest whatever in me. ‘But I feel an interest in you, as branches of the same vine from whose root I daily draw the principle of spiritual vitality—Yes! Sisters in Christ I feel an interest in you, and often has the secret prayer arisen on your behalf, Lord “open thou their eyes that they may see wondrous things out of thy Law”—It is then, because I do feel and do pray for you, that I thus address you upon a subject about which of all others, perhaps you would rather not hear any thing; but, “would to God ye could bear with me a little in my folly, and indeed bear with me, for I am jealous over you with godly jealousy.” Be not afraid then to read my appeal; it is not written in the heat of passion or prejudice, but in that solemn calmness which is the result of conviction and duty. It is true, I am going to tell you unwelcome truths, but I mean to speak those truths in love, and remember Solomon says, “faithful are the wounds of a friend.” I do not believe the time has yet come when Christian women “will not endure sound doctrine,” even on the subject of Slavery, if it is spoken to them in tenderness and love, therefore I now address you. 

To all of you then, known or unknown, relatives or strangers, (for you are all one in Christ,) I would speak. I have felt for you at this time, when unwelcome light is pouring in upon the world on the subject of slavery…. We must come back to the good old doctrine of our fore fathers who declared to the world, “this self evident truth that all men are created equal, and that they have certain inalienable rights among which are, life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” It is even a greater absurdity to suppose a man can be legally born a slave under our free Republican Government, than under the petty despotisms of barbarian Africa. If then, we have no right to enslave an African, surely we can have none to enslave an American; if a self evident truth that all men every where and of every color are born equal, and have an inalienable right to liberty, then it is equally true that no man can be born a slave, and no man can ever rightfully be reduced to involuntary bondage and held as a slave, however fair may be the claim of his master or mistress through wills and title-deeds….  

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The Smithsonian Libraries and Archives' American History Research Guide is a select list of resources for students, teachers, and researchers to learn about various topics of American History. 

• Anacostia Community Museum
• Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage
• From Smithson to Smithsonian: The Birth of an Institution :  Bibliography on the History of the Smithsonian Institution
• National Air and Space Museum
• National Museum of African American History and Culture
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• Balch Institute for Ethnic Studies : The Balch Institute for Ethnic Studies which documents and interprets the ethnic and immigrant experience in the United States. Balch Institute for Ethnic Studies has recently merged into the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
• Bracero History Archive : The Bracero History Archive collects and makes available the oral histories and artifacts pertaining to the Bracero program, a guest worker initiative that spanned the years 1942-1964. Millions of Mexican agricultural workers crossed the border under the program to work in more than half of the states in America.
• Ellis Island : The Ellis Island Immigration Museum and their online American Family Immigration History Center (AFIHC) allows visitors to explore the collection of immigrant arrival records stored in the Ellis Island Archives.
• Immigrant Arrivals: A Guide To Published Sources : Library of Congress bibliography of print and web based resources.
• Immigration History Research Center : The IHRC develops and maintains a library and archival collection, provides research assistance, produces publications, and sponsors academic and public programs. Its work supports the parent institution, the University of Minnesota.
• Immigration to the United States, 1789-1930 : Immigration to the United States, 1789-1930, is a web-based collection of selected historical materials from Harvard's libraries, archives, and museums that documents voluntary immigration to the US from the signing of the Constitution to the onset of the Great Depression.
• I mmigration: The Changing Face of America : A Library of Congress site for teachers and students.
• National Archives & Records Administration Immigration Records: Immigration Records : NARA has immigration records for arrivals to the United States from foreign ports between approximately 1800 and 1959. The records are arranged by Port of Arrival.
• Beyond Steel: An Archive of Lehigh Valley Industry and Culture : This Lehigh University Digital Library site highlights the Lehigh Valley's mid nineteenth-century boom, late twentieth-century decline and continuing community readjustment. Through the digitization and presentation of letters, books, photographs, maps, essays, and oral histories the site will aid researchers in understanding not only the lives of railroad barons and steel titans, but also the experiences of average folks who worked and lived in the community.
• Inside an American Factory: Westinghouse Works Collection : A part of the Library of Congress American Memory Project, this collection of films, images and text. The collection contains 21 films showing various views of Westinghouse companies. Most prominently featured are the Westinghouse Air Brake Company, the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, and the Westinghouse Machine Company.
• U.S. Steel Gary Works Photograph Collection : The Indiana University Digital Library Program is produced this series of more than 2,200 photographs of the Gary Works steel mill and the corporate town of Gary, Indiana held by the Calumet Regional Archives at Indiana University Northwest.

American Music History Resources

• African-American Sheet Music, 1850-1920 : The sheet music in this digital collection has been selected from the Sheet Music Collection at the John Hay Library at Brown University. The full collection consists of approximately 500,000 items, of which perhaps 250,000 are currently available for use. It is one of the largest collections of sheet music in any library in the United States.
• Azúcar! The Life and Music of Celia Cruz

A bibliography of monographs and lesson plans for teachers from K to 12.

• Edinburgh University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments : Features descriptions and images of many items in the collection and publication lists.
• Historic American Sheet Music : The Historic American Sheet Music Project provides access to digital images of 3,042 pieces from the Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library at Duke University, published in America between 1850 and 1920.
• Historic Sheet Music, 1800-1922 : This sheet music collection from the Library of Congress consists of approximately 9,000 items published from 1800 to 1922, although the majority is from 1850 to 1920. The bulk was published in many different cities in the United States, but some of the items bear European imprints. Most of the music is written for voice and piano; a significant minority is instrumental. Notable in this collection are early pieces by Irving Berlin and Jerome Kern, as well as music by other popular composers such as Victor Herbert, Jean Schwartz, Paul Dresser, Ernest R. Ball, Gussie L. Davis, Charles K. Harris, and George M. Cohan. Numerous arrangements of classical tunes by Bach, Beethoven, Schubert and other famous classical composers are also well-represented.
• Lester S. Levy Collection of Sheet Music : This collection, at the Milton S. Eisenhower Library of The Johns Hopkins University, contains over 29,000 pieces of music and focuses on popular American music spanning the period 1780 to 1960. All pieces of the collection are indexed on this site and a search will retrieve a catalog description of the pieces and an image of the cover and each page of music.
• RoJaRo Index : An index to more than 300,000 entries, covering 250 music magazines from 20 countries, covering all types of contemporary popular music: rock, jazz, roots, blues, rap, soul, gospel, country, reggae, etc.

The Sheet Music Consortium : The Archive of Popular American Music is a non-circulating research collection covering the history of popular music in America from 1790 to the present. The collection is one of the largest in the country, numbering almost 450,000 pieces of sheet music, anthologies, and arrangements for band and orchestra, and 62,500 recordings on disc, tape, and cylinder. Subject strengths within twentieth-century holdings include music for theater, motion picture, radio and television, as well as general popular, country, rhythm and blues, and rocksongs.

• A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation : A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation consists of a linked set of published Congressional records of the United States of America from the Continental Congress through the 43rd Congress, 1774-1875.  A select number of documents and reports from the monumental U.S. Congressional Serial Set are available as well.
• American Presidency : This online exhibition from the National Museum of American History has a bibliography under the Resources and Teacher Materials which are age and grade specific.
• American Presidency Project : The American Presidency Project was established in 1999 as a collaboration between John Woolley and Gerhard Peters at the University of California, Santa Barbara. The archives contain 75,117 documents related to the study of the Presidency.
• American President : This resource is sponsored by the Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia. Launched originally in 2000 as the online companion to "The American President" -- the six-part PBS television series -- American President is a resource on the history of the presidency and the nature of contemporary policy making.
• Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress : Online publication of the Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress, published by the Senate Historical Office and the Legislative Resource Center of the House of Representatives. Includes images from the Senate Historical Office. Database is searchable by name, position, and state.
• Center for the Study of the Presidency : The Center is a non-profit educational institution devoted to the study of the presidency, government, and politics.
• Data.gov : The purpose of Data.gov is to increase public access to high value, machine readable datasets generated by the Executive Branch of the Federal Government. Data.gov includes searchable data catalogs providing access to data in three ways: through the "raw" data catalog, the tool catalog and the geodata catalog.
• Encyclopædia Britannica's profile of the American Presidency : Read about the presidents and explore the electoral process, election results, images, video, and important documents related to the evolution of the nation's highest office.
• I Do Solemnly Swear... Presidential Inaugurations : This Library of Congress collection offers approximately 400 items or 2,000 digital files from each of the 54 inaugurations from George Washington's in 1789 to George W. Bush's inauguration of 2001. This includes diaries and letters of presidents and of those who witnessed inaugurations, handwritten drafts of inaugural addresses, broadsides, inaugural tickets and programs, prints, photographs, and sheet music.
• JFK Assassination Records Collection Reference System : Over 170,000 assassination-related documents. Contributing agencies include: the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA); the Department of Justice; and the Department of State.
• Miller Center of Public Affairs : The Scripps Library and Multimedia Archive serves as a research facility for scholars of U. S. public policy. The Library’s collection is a specialized one focused on American politics and history with special attention paid to the American Presidency.
• POTUS: Presidents of the United States : This resource you will find background information, election results, cabinet members, notable events, and some points of interest on each of the presidents. Links to biographies, historical documents, audio and video files, and other presidential sites are also included.
• Presidential Libraries of the National Archives & Records Administration : The Presidential Library system is made up of ten Presidential Libraries. This nationwide network of libraries is administered by the Office of Presidential Libraries, which is part of the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), located in College Park, MD. These are not traditional libraries, but rather repositories for preserving and making available the papers, records, and other historical materials of U.S. Presidents since Herbert Hoover.
• The Role of the Vice President : A brief history of the role of the Vice President as President of the U.S. Senate.
• THOMAS - The Library of Congress : THOMAS has the Congressional Record and full text of legislation available from 1989 (101st Congress) to the present. In addition, THOMAS has summaries (not full text) of legislation from 1973 (93rd Congress). From the Library of Congress.
• Voting America: United States Politics, 1840-2008 : This University of Richmond project examines the evolution of presidential politics in the United States across the span of American history. It offers a wide spectrum of cinematic and interactive visualizations of how Americans voted in presidential elections at the county level over the past 164 years. There are expert analysis and commentary videos that discuss some of the most interesting and significant trends in American political history.
• Voting and Registration (U.S. Census Bureau Data) : Contains information on reported voting and registration by various demographic and socioeconomic characteristics for the United States.
• White House Historical Association : The White House Historical Association is a charitable nonprofit institution whose purpose is to enhance the understanding, appreciation and enjoyment of the White House.
• The White House Building : Information on the White House, including historical details.
• Women in Congress : This web site, based on the book Women in Congress, 1917–2006, contains biographical profiles of former women Members of Congress, links to information about current women Members, essays on the institutional and national events that shaped successive generations of Congresswomen, and images of each woman Member, including rare photos.
• American Jewish Historical Society : The American Jewish Historical Society is the oldest national ethnic historical organization in the United States. The Society’s library, archives, photograph, and art and artifacts collections document the American Jewish experience.
• American Religion Data Archive : The ARDA collection includes data on churches and church membership, religious professionals, and religious groups (individuals, congregations and denominations).
• Divining America: Religion and the National Culture : Divining America: Religion and the National Culture is designed to help teachers of American history bring their students to a greater understanding of the role religion has played in the development of the United States.
• Journal of Southern Religion : JSR is an online journal targeted toward scholars, students, and others who are engaged in or interested in the study of Southern religion and culture.
• Material History of American Religion Project : The Material History of American Religion Project studied (1995-2001) the history of American religion in all its complexity by focusing on material objects and economic themes.
• North Star: A Journal of African-American Religious History : An online journal sponsored by Princeton University.
• Religion and the Founding of the American Republic (Library of Congress) : Encompassing over 200 objects including early American books, manuscripts, letters, prints, paintings, artifacts, and music from the Library’s collections and complemented by loans from other institutions, Religion and the Founding of the American Republic explores the role religion played in the founding of the American colonies, in the shaping of early American life and politics, and in forming the American Republic.
• Religious Movements Homepage Project at the University of Virginia : This Web site presents detailed profiles of more than two hundred different religious groups and movements in the United States.
• Santos: Substance and Soul : There are nine separate reading lists on topics related to the history, culture, preservation, and identification of Santos objects.
• Brooklyn Daily Eagle Online  (1841-1902) : The Brooklyn Daily Eagle was published from October 26, 1841 to 1955 and was revived for a short time from 1960 to 1963. Currently, the digitized newspaper collection includes the period from October 26, 1841 to December 31, 1902, representing half of the Eagle's years of publication.
• Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers : This Library of Congress site allows you to search and read newspaper pages from 1900-1910 and find information about American newspapers published between 1690-present.
• Common-Place: The Interactive Journal of Early American Life : Common-Place is an electronic quarterly journal about early American history and culture before 1900.
• Documenting the American South - University of North Carolina : Documenting the American South (DocSouth) is a digital publishing initiative that provides Internet access to texts, images, and audio files related to southern history, literature, and culture. Currently DocSouth includes ten thematic collections of books, diaries, posters, artifacts, letters, oral history interviews, and songs.
• Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History : The Gilder Lehrman Collection is the largest private collection of American history documents in the world. It preserves, exhibits, and disseminates archival resources chronicling the history of the United States from the beginning of European colonization, with emphasis on the period from 1760 through 1876. The collection contains resources on the history of colonial settlement, Indian relations, the American Revolution and its origins, the Constitution, the struggle over slavery, and the Civil War.
• H-Net Web Site : H-Net Web Site includes archived copies of all history related listserv discussion lists and vacancy announcements for various fields in the humanities.
• Making of America - Cornell University : Materials accessible here are Cornell University Library's contributions to Making of America (MOA), a digital library of primary sources in American social history from the antebellum period through reconstruction. The collection is particularly strong in the subject areas of education, psychology, American history, sociology, religion, and science and technology.
• The G.I. Roundtable Series : The American Historical Association produced the G.I. Roundtable Series to help win World War II. The site is comprised of three main sections. Section I: The pamphlets, reproduced here as primary documents, provide a unique insight into what Americans were thinking about at the end of the war, and how the recent past was seen as a prelude to the future. Section II: A still-evolving selection of Background documents and related readings to provide context on the origins and production of the series and the historiography of the period. Section III: The site provides an extensive analysis of the origins of the series, and how it fit into both the Army's larger program of preparation for postwar changes as well as the larger culture in which they were produced.
• Within These Walls : An annotated reading list for elementary and middle school students and an extensive bibliography for older students interested in the themes related to the Ipswich House exhibition.
• Cookery and Foodways Collection : The University of Denver Cookery and Foodways Collection is particularly strong in American regional cookery, and contains a large number of privately published fund-raising cookbooks from churches, service organizations, and other community groups.
• Heaven Will Protect the Working Girl: Immigrant Women in the Turn-of-the-Century City : This web site is based upon curriculum materials produced by American Social History Project as part of the Who Built America? series.
• National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) Collection : The complete National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) Collection is a library of 700-800 titles collected between 1890 and 1938 by members of NAWSA and donated to the Rare Books Division of the Library of Congress on November 1, 1938. The bulk of the collection is derived from the library of Carrie Chapman Catt, president of NAWSA from 1900-1904, and again from 1915-1920. Additional materials were donated from the libraries of other members and officers, including Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone, Alice Stone Blackwell, Julia Ward Howe, Elizabeth Smith Miller, and Mary A. Livermore.
• Online Biographical Dictionary of the Woman Suffrage Movement in the United States : This free crowd-sourced project contains over 3,000 biographical sketches of grassroots women suffragists, including a special section focused on nearly 400 Black Women Suffragists.
• Sophia Smith Collection at Smith College : The Sophia Smith Collection at Smith College is an internationally recognized repository of manuscripts, photographs, periodicals and other primary sources in women's history.
• Women & Social Movements in the United States, 1775-2000 : The Women and Social Movements website is a project of the Center for the Historical Study of Women and Gender at the State University of New York at Binghamton and includes roughly 900 documents, 400 images, and 350 links to other websites.
• Women in America: 1820-1842 : During the first half of the nineteenth century, Tocqueville and Beaumont were joined by scores of other European travelers curious about the new republic, and anxious to fill the European demand for accounts of American life. One of the most striking was the status of women--their domestic roles, their freedom in youth, their responsibilities in marriage, and their importance to the moral and religious life of the republic. Tocqueville and Beaumont observed all manner of social gatherings and recorded the conversations with prominent American citizens on a number of matters, including morality and the status of women.
• Women Working, 1800 - 1930 : Women Working, 1800 - 1930 focuses on women's role in the United States economy and provides access to digitized historical, manuscript, and image resources selected from Harvard University's library and museum collections. The collection features approximately 500,000 digitized pages and images.

Automobile and Transportation History

• America on the Move : Teachers and parents can use the resource guides, lessons, and activity plans to teach children (K- Middle School) about transportation in American history.
• Antique Automobile Club of America : The Antique Automobile Club of America, founded in 1935, is dedicated to perpetuating the memories of early automobiles by encouraging their history, collection and use.
• Automobile in American Life and Society : This site was created and developed by the University of Michigan-Dearborn and the Henry Ford Museum. Each of the site’s five sections (design, environment, gender, labor, race) contains two essays—an overview of the topic and a more focused case study—plus a select annotated bibliography or bibliographic essay to guide further reading.
• Carriage Association of America : The Carriage Association of America is an organization devoted to the preservation and restoration of horse drawn carriages and sleighs. The site features information about the organization and links to related sites.
• Hemmings Motor News : This is the online resource of the advertising monthly that is devoted to antique, classic, vintage, muscle, street rod, and special interest automobiles, catering to car collectors and restorers. HMN also features the hobby's most complete calendar of upcoming events, hobbyists' legislative alerts, and a monthly listing of stolen collector cars.
• Henry Ford Museum : The Henry Ford Museum began as Henry Ford's personal collection of historic objects. Today, the 12 acre site is primarily a collection of antique machinery, pop culture items, automobiles, locomotives, aircraft, and other items. 
• Rural Heritage : The online version of the print journal in support of small farmers and loggers who use draft horse, mule and ox power. It features articles and dialogues on animals, equipment, health information, and other resources.
• Society for Commercial Archeology : Established in 1977, the SCA is the oldest national organization devoted to the buildings, artifacts, structures, signs, and symbols of the 20th-century commercial landscape.
• Best of History Web Sites
• Documents in Law, History, and Diplomacy
• Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History  
• History Matters: The U. S. Survey Course on the Web
• National Archives Research Room
• National History Day
• Smithsonian History Explorer
• Using Primary Sources on the Web
• Architecture and Urbanism of the Southwest : Architecture and Urbanism of the Southwest, is an illustrated essay by John Messina (AIA, Research Architect) and the University of Arizona Southwest Studies Center and the School of Architecture. The site also provides a recommended readings list of books and articles.
• Bata Shoe Museum : Located in Toronto, the Bata Shoe Museum holds over 10,000 shoes in the collection.
• Built in America: Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) and the Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) 1933 to present : The Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) and the Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) collections are among the largest and most heavily used in the Prints and Photographs Division of the Library of Congress. This online presentation of the HABS/HAER collections includes digitized images of measured drawings, black-and-white photographs, color transparencies, photo captions, data pages including written histories, and supplemental materials.
• City Beautiful: The 1901 Plan for Washington, DC : A University of Virginia American Studies project, this site documents the first explicit attempt to utilize the vaguely classical Beaux-Arts architectural style, which emerged from the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893, for the explicit intent of beautification and social amelioration was the Senate Park Commission's redesign of the monumental core of Washington D.C. to commemorate the city's centennial. The McMillan Plan of 1901-02, named for Senator James McMillan, the commission's liaison and principal backer in Congress, was the United States' first attempt at city planning.
• Corning Museum of Glass : The Corning Museum of Glass's home page begins with its local address and phone numbers and provides a menu of places to visit within the museum site, including, "A Resource for Glass," a collection of information developed to answer questions about glass, and "Glossary of Glassmaking Terms," an alphabetical list of terms with in-depth definitions.
• Digital Library for the Decorative Arts and Material Culture : The Digital Library for the Decorative Arts and Material Culture collects electronic resources for study and research of the decorative arts, with a particular focus on Early America. Included are electronic texts and journals, image databases, and information on organizations, museums and research facilities. The site was created and is maintained at the University of Wisconsin-Madison Libraries.
• Digital Library for the Decorative Arts and Material Culture: Image and Text Collections : The Digital Library for the Decorative Arts and Material Culture collects and creates electronic resources for study and research of the decorative arts, with a particular focus on Early America. Included are electronic texts and facsimiles, image databases, and Web resources. Made possible by the Chipstone Foundation, the project is produced at the University of Wisconsin Madison General Library System.
• Furniture Glossary : A compilation of terms and acronyms on furniture styles, design and construction.
• Harper's Bazaar Magazine : A browse-able collection of issues from the 19th Century magazine, Harper's Bazaar (1867-1900). 
• MAD: Maine Antique Digest : MAD's bulletin board, with table of contents from current issues, and over 90 book reviews of books dealing with antiques and collectibles.
• Museum of Glass: International Center for Contemporary Art : The Museum of Glass: International Center for Contemporary Art in Tacoma Washington presents contemporary art with a sustained concentration on the medium of glass. The Museum exhibition schedule includes works by internationally known artists and trends in contemporary art. The exhibition program offers artists and audiences the opportunity to experiment with and experience a full range of media in the visual arts.
• National Building Museum : Created by an act of Congress in 1980, the National Building Museum is America’s premier cultural institution dedicated to exploring and celebrating architecture, design, engineering, construction, and urban planning.
• National Register of Historic Places : The National Register of Historic Places is the Nation's official list of cultural resources worthy of preservation.  Authorized under the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, the National Register is part of a national program to coordinate and support public and private efforts to identify, evaluate, and protect our historic and archeological resources. Properties listed in the Register include districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects that are significant in American history, architecture, archeology, engineering, and culture. The National Register is administered by the National Park Service, which is part of the U.S. Department of the Interior.
• The Noble Craftsman We Promote: The Arts and Crafts Movement in the American Midwest : An online version of the Toledo University exhibition, looks at four particular areas of Arts and Crafts in the Midwest: the book arts, architecture, interior and exterior design, and the decorative arts and attempts to explain how the movement in the heartland differed from its purer British counterpart.
• Paint by Number: Accounting for Taste in the 1950s : A brief resource list for a unique subject.
• Quilt Index : The Quilt Index aims to be a central resource that incorporates a wide variety of sources and information on quilts, quiltmakers and quiltmaking. The Quilt Index was conceived and developed by The Alliance for American Quilts and implemented in collaboration with Michigan State University's MATRIX: The Center for Humane Arts, Letters and Social Sciences Online and the Michigan State University Museum.
• Sears Modern Homes : This site features a history of the Sears Modern Homes program, photos, catalog advertisements, references and a registry of owners. More than 100,000 Sears ready-made houses were sold from 1908 to 1940.
• Skyscraper Museum : Founded in 1996, THE SKYSCRAPER MUSEUM is a private, not-for-profit, educational corporation devoted to the study of high-rise building, past, present, and future. Located in New York City, the world's first and foremost vertical metropolis, the museum celebrates the city's rich architectural heritage and examines the historical forces and individuals that have shaped its successive skylines. Through exhibitions, programs and publications, the museum explores tall buildings as objects of design, products of technology, sites of construction, investments in real estate, and places of work and residence.
• Society of Architectural Historians (SAH) : Founded in 1940, the Society encourages scholarly research in the field and promotes the preservation of significant architectural monuments that are an integral part of the worldwide historical and cultural heritage.  They publish the quarterly Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians and bimonthly Newsletter.  There are several bibliographies and links to related organizations.
• Stained Glass Magazine : Stained Glass Magazine on the World Wide Web, featuring the Stained Glass Association of America's conference schedule, professional announcements, calls for papers, and lists of useful catalogues and resources of interest to collectors and historians of stained glass.
• Strong Museum (Rochester, NewYork) : The Strong Museum's more than 500,000 objects include the world's largest and most historically significant collection of dolls and toys, America's most comprehensive collections of homecrafts and souvenirs, and nationally important collections of home furnishings and advertising materials.
• Textile Society of America : The Textile Society of America provides a forum for the exchange and dissemination of information about all aspects of textiles: historic, artistic, cultural, social, political, economic, and technical.
• Urban Planning, 1794-1918: An International Anthology of Articles, Conference Papers, and Reports : These documents are primary source material for the study of how urban planning developed up to the end of World War I. They include statements about techniques, principles, theories, and practice by those who helped to create a new professional specialization. This new field of city planning grew out of the land-based professions of architecture, engineering, surveying, and landscape architecture, as well as from the work of economists, social workers, lawyers, public health specialists, and municipal administrators.
• Vernacular Architecture Forum : The term "vernacular architecture" applies to traditional domestic and agricultural buildings, industrial and commercial structures, twentieth-century suburban houses, settlement patterns and cultural landscapes.  The Vernacular Architecture Forum was formed in 1980 to encourage the study and preservation of these informative and valuable material resources.
• Victoria & Albert Museum (London) : The Museum's ceramics, glass, textiles, dress, silver, ironwork, jewellery, furniture, sculpture, paintings, prints and photographs span the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa, and date from ancient times to the present day. There are 2000 images of the collection available for online viewing.
• Winterthur Museum & Library (Delaware) : The Winterthur Library contains approximately half a million imprints, manuscripts, visual materials, and printed ephemera for research from the 17th century to the early 20th century. The museum collections include 85,000 domestic artifacts and works of art made or used in America to 1860.
• Work of Charles and Ray Eames: A Legacy of Invention : This site is in association with the Eames exhibition tour
• American Environmental Photographs, 1891-1936: Images from the University of Chicago Library : This collection consists of approximately 4,500 photographs documenting natural environments, ecologies, and plant communities in the United States at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century. The photographs were taken by Henry Chandler Cowles (1869-1939), George Damon Fuller (1869-1961), and other Chicago ecologists on field trips across the North American continent.
• Bureau of Reclamation History : The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation History site is a collection of oral histories, photographs, and papers on the agency and it's work.
• Conservation and Environment - Library of Congress : The historic and more recent maps contained in this category show early exploration and subsequent land use in various areas of the United States. These maps show the changes in the landscape, including natural and man-made features, recreational and wilderness areas, geology, topography, wetland area, vegetation, and wildlife. Specific conservation projects such as the growth and development of U.S. National Parks are included in this category.
• Evolution of the Conservation Movement, 1850-1920 : The Evolution of the Conservation Movement, 1850-1920 documents the historical formation and cultural foundations of the movement to conserve and protect America's natural heritage, through books, pamphlets, government documents, manuscripts, prints, photographs, and motion picture footage drawn from the collections of the Library of Congress. The collection consists of 62 books and pamphlets, 140 Federal statutes and Congressional resolutions, 34 additional legislative documents, excerpts from the Congressional Globe and the Congressional Record, 360 Presidential proclamations, 170 prints and photographs, 2 historic manuscripts, and 2 motion pictures.
• Forest History Society Databases : The Forest History Society has six databases that are searchable on the website via InMagic's Web Publisher software. All of the databases provide useful, detailed information about primary or secondary resource materials that aid research in the broad fields of forest, conservation, and environmental history.
• H-Environment - H-NET, the Humanities & Social Sciences Online initiative : This website is intended as a general resource for people interested in environmental history. Much of its content is compiled from the discussion list H-Environment and includes book reviews, conference announcements, a course syllabus library, and a survey of films. There are also links to other organizations and websites where you can find materials of interest.
• History of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service : Official website of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, with links to their archival collections, oral histories, and other information sources.
• Love Canal Collection : The University Of Buffalo Library holds the records of the Ecumenical Task Force, 1979-1991 which contain extensive documentation of the toxic waste controversies associated with the Love Canal and related toxic waste sites in Niagara County, New York. The ETF assembled a resource file of government and other reports concerning the Love Canal and related environmental issues. The reports in the resource file and elsewhere in the records include draft documents, photocopied statements prepared by Love Canal residents, scientists and ETF members for hearings on the Love Canal, speeches, consultant reports, articles, as well as printed and online reports.
• Bon Appétit! Julia Child's Kitchen at the Smithsonian : The Smithsonian's National Museum of American History website of their Julia Child's Kitchen exhibition.
• Doubtless as Good: Thomas Jefferson's Dreams of American Wines Fulfilled : This short bibliography, prepared by staff at the National Museum of American History, includes books on the material culture of viniculture, some historic works on American winemaking not included in the Gabler bibliography, and some relevant works on American culture and taste.
• Feeding America: The Historic American Cookbook Project : The Michigan State University Library and the MSU Museum have created an online collection of some of the most influential and important American cookbooks from the late 18th to early 20th century.
• Food Reference Website : A fairly comprehensive private website that provides links to articles, information, food history dates, and a wide range of useful information on food.
• Food Timeline : A resource about food history, social history, manners and menus covering Prehistory through modern day.
• Janice Bluestein Longone Culinary Archive : The Janice Bluestein Longone Culinary Archive at the William L. Clements Library on the University of Michigan campus in Ann Arbor contains thousands of items from the 16th to 20th centuries - books, ephemera, menus, magazines, graphics, maps, manuscripts, diaries, letters, catalogues, advertisements, and reference works. It is a work in progress, and material is being added and catalogued daily.
• New York Food Museum : A new and developing web-based resource on New York City foodways and food history.
• Peacock Harper Culinary Collection - Virginia Tech University : The Peacock Harper Culinary Collection is a collection of cookbooks and related items housed in the Virginia Tech Library. The VT Image Base contains over 700 images pertaining to culinary history and the collection. They publish an online newsletter called the Virginia Culinary Thymes
• Southern Foodways Alliance : The Southern Foodways Alliance website contains links to ongoing research projects, symposiums and their oral history texts. It is a subsidiary of the University of Mississippi's, Center for the Study of Southern Culture.
• Taking America to Lunch : This Smithsonian exhibition in the National Museum of American History features samples from the museum's collection of lunch boxes from the 19th century plain metal buckets to 20th century popular culture images on boxes made of synthetic materials.

Graphic Art

• American Printing History Association : The American Printing History Association was founded to encourage the study of printing history and its related arts and skills, including calligraphy, typefounding, typography, papermaking, bookbinding, illustration, and publishing. APHA is especially, but by no means exclusively, interested in American printing history.
• Fine Press Book Association : The Fine Press Book Association is an organization formed by individuals interested in the art of fine printing to promote printing skills and the appreciation of beautiful books.
• Graphic Artists Guild
• Robert C. Williams Paper Museum : This Web site traces the history, art, and science of paper making.
• Society for the History of Authorship, Reading & Publishing : The Society (SHARP) provides a global network for book historians, 1000 members in over 20 countries, including professors of literature, historians, librarians, publishing professionals, sociologists, bibliophiles, classicists, booksellers, art historians, reading instructors, and independent scholars.
• Separate Is Not Equal: Brown vs. Board of Education : The annotated bibliography includes information about related Web resources and teacher materials, as well as fiction and non-fiction books for children, young adults, and adults.
• Slates, Slide Rules, and Software: Teaching Math in America : A collection of reference resources on the tools used in teaching mathematics in the United States from the 1800s onward.

History of Technology - Invention and Inventors

• Canada Science and Technology Museum : This site links you to the various collections within the Canada Science and Technology Museum.
• Edison After Forty : This listing includes Edison's Papers, book-length studies, children's books, and museums.
• Edison Papers Web Site : The Edison Papers Web Site is a searchable database, based on the University Press of America's editions of Thomas Edison's papers, which detail the first 31 years of his life.
• Hagley American Patent Models : The largest privately-owned collection of United States patent models in the world. Containing nearly 4,000 patent models and related documents, the collection spans America's Industrial Revolution.
• Lighting a Revolution: A Bibliography of Lighting : A collection of books, articles, and web sites on the history and technology of electrical lighting.
• National Inventors Hall of Fame : Web site for the National Inventors Hall of Fame, in Akron, Ohio. Features a collection of biographies of members of the National Inventors Hall of Fame.
• Powering a Generation of Change : This bibliography lists books, journal articles, and reports documenting the story of electrical power restructuring in North America.
• Society for the History of Technology (SHOT) : The Society for the History of Technology (SHOT) is dedicated to the historical study of technology and its relations with politics, economics, labor, business, the environment, public policy, science, and the arts.
• The Office Museum : This commercial website engages in research on the history and evolution of offices, antique office machines and equipment, and business technology based on original documents and artifacts.
• U.S. Patent & Trademark Office : The official web site of the USPTO has a searchable database. Patents issued between 1790 and 1976 are searchable only by patent number and current US classifications.
• Yesterday's Office : This site contains articles on antique or redundant office technology and links to related sites.
• Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota : CBI is dedicated to promoting study of the history of information technology and information processing and their impact on society.
• Chronology of Events in the History of Microcomputers : A timetable of significant events in the history of computing, with product announcements and delivery dates from a variety of sources.
• Computer Museum History Center (Silicon Valley) : The Computer Museum History Center is a non-profit entity dedicated to the preservation and celebration of computing history. It holds one of the largest collections of computing artifacts in the world.
• Intel Museum (Santa Clara) : This museum documents the development and construction of computer chips by one of the leading manufacturers of chip technology.
• Internet Archive : The Internet Archive is a non-profit that was founded to build an Internet library, with the purpose of offering permanent access for researchers, historians, and scholars to historical collections that exist in digital format. Founded in 1996 and located in the Presidio of San Francisco, the Archive has been receiving data donations from Alexa Internet and others. In late 1999, the organization started to grow to include more well-rounded collections. Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software as well as archived web pages in the collections.
• Internet Histories : A collection of links about the history of the Internet, from the ISOC , the Internet Society, a non-governmental international organization, committed to global cooperation and coordination for the Internet.
• Making the Macintosh: Technology and Culture in Silicon Valley : "Making the Macintosh" is an online project documenting the history of the Macintosh computer. This project collects and publishes primary material on the Macintosh's development and early reception. It draws on the extensive holdings of the Stanford University Library's Department of Special Collections, the personal papers of engineers and technical writers involved in the Macintosh project, and interviews conducted for the project.
• Discovering Lewis and Clark : This comprehensive website contains more than 1,400 pages, and is updated monthly with additional material. This website includes a nineteen-part synopsis of the expedition's story by historian Harry W. Fritz, illustrated with selections from the journals of the expedition, photographs, maps, animated graphics, moving pictures, and sound files.
• Kansas State Historical Society: Lewis and Clark : This website provides the user with information about the history of the expedition in Kansas.
• Lewis and Clark Expedition: Selected Resources : The Smithsonian Institution has created this directory of sites on the Lewis and Clark Expedition.
• Lewis and Clark Across Missouri : The Geographic Resources Center at the Department of Geography, University of Missouri partnered with the Missouri State Archives to create this website offering campsite maps, photo-realistic images of important river landmarks, and animated virtual Missouri River travel to trace Lewis and Clark's expedition. 
• Lewis and Clark in North Dakota : Lewis and Clark in North Dakota is one of most informative websites available about the expedition. A highlight is the In North Dakota Link that includes personal profiles of the individuals involved in the expedition, background information about the sites that Lewis and Clark visited, an expedition chronology, a facts and trivia section, maps, and a bibliography.
• Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation Inc. : The mission of the Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation is to stimulate public appreciation of the Lewis and Clark Expedition's contributions to America's heritage, and to support education, research, development, and preservation of the Lewis and Clark experience. Their website includes a detailed history of the expedition with a bibliography. The site also includes a link to the The Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation Library. The Library  has about 800 book titles and 300 articles relating to the Lewis & Clark Expedition. The library also has maps, genealogical information, sound, and video recordings. Users can search the library's catalog online.
• Lewis and Clark: Indiana Bicentennial Commission : This site outlines Indiana's important role in the expedition and lists events to commemorate the expedition.
• Lewis and Clark: Mapping the West : This Smithsonian site reviews the cartographic work of the Corps of Discovery.
• Monticello, The Home of Thomas Jefferson: Jefferson's West : This website has a special section on Lewis and Clark that includes an expedition timeline, bibliography, website links, and online study resources for teachers and students. This site is particularly recommended for users who are interested in researching the role that President Thomas Jefferson played in the expedition.
• PBS Online: Lewis and Clark : This website is a companion resource to the Ken Burns film: The Journey of the Corps of Discovery and contains several special features that will appeal to users. It provides users with a search engine enables users to search the expedition journals by author, date, or year. It contains transcripts of unedited interviews with various experts and historians about their perspectives on the expedition. It also includes expedition timelines, maps, a bibliography, and related links.
• Rivers, Edens, Empires: Lewis & Clark and the Revealing of America : This site provides a small sampling of primary materials (maps and journal entries) related to the Lewis and Clark expedition that are housed in the Library of Congress.
• The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition : The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition website makes available for users the text of the celebrated Nebraska edition of the journals, edited by by Gary M. Moulton. Moulton's edition is considered to be the most accurate and inclusive version published. Currently, the site offers almost two hundred pages from volume 4. In the future, the site will provide access to the full set of journals, almost 5000 pages of primary source material. This site also includes a full text search engine.
• Artificial Anatomy: Papier-Mâché Anatomical Models : Resources on Anatomy, Papier- Mâché, Preservation, and Trade Catalogs.
• DeWitt Stetten, Jr., Museum of Medical Research (NIH) : Established in 1986 as a part of the NIH centennial observance, the Stetten Museum collects and exhibits biomedical research instruments and NIH memorabilia.
• Human Radiation Experiments (DOE) : A website from the US Department of Energy offering a "roadmap" to the stories and records of the cold-war story of radiation research on human subjects.
• Medical Antiques & Pre-1900 Antique Surgical Sets : From the Arbittier Museum of Medical History, examples of medical antiques, amputation, and surgical sets by some of the most famous makers of the 1800's. Of particular interest are those surgical antiques used in the Civil War. There is a section on pricing and valuation of early surgical sets and kits as well as extensive topics on antique medical collecting.
• Medical Heritage Library : The Medical Heritage Library is a digital curation collaborative among some of the world’s leading medical libraries. The collection resides at the Internet Archive.
• Medicine in the Americas, 1619-1914 : The Medicine in the Americas website provides access to a number of key primary historical documents that deal with a number of areas, such as women’s health, public health, and clinical works of enduring historical value. Currently, there are a total of eight works in the archive, and they include Clara Barton’s “The Red Cross of the Geneva Convention” from 1878 and L. Emmett Holt’s 1894 work “The Care and Feeding of Children: A Catechism for the Use of Mothers and Children’s Nurses”.
• National Library of Medicine : National Library of Medicine home page, with links to a variety of sites on the Internet.
• Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) : This database is a catalog of human genes and genetic disorders authored and edited by Dr. Victor A. McKusick and his colleagues at Johns Hopkins and elsewhere, and developed for the World Wide Web by NCBI, the National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• The Medical Heritage Library : The Medical Heritage Library (MHL) is a digital curation collaborative among some of the world’s leading medical libraries. The collection resides at the Internet Archive.
• Access to Military Service and Pension Records : The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) is the official repository for records of military personnel who have been discharged from the U.S. Air Force, Army, Marine Corps, Navy and Coast Guard.
• Air University Library's Index to Military Periodicals : The Air University Library's Index to Military Periodicals is a subject index to significant articles, news items, and editorials from English language military and aeronautical periodicals. The Index contains citations since 1988 and is updated continuously. A comprehensive list of all journals covered by AULIMP since 1949 is available as the Historical Index of AULIMP titles.
• Company of Military Historians : The web site for the journal with several useful links and color plates of uniforms.
• Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms : Sets forth standard US military and associated terminology to encompass the joint activity of the Armed Forces of the United States in both US joint and allied joint operations, as well as to encompass the Department of Defense as a whole.
• Historic U.S. Government Publications from World War II : This Southern Methodist University Libraries site allows users to search or browse a collection of over 300 United States government documents produced during World War II.
• Index to the Uniforms of the American Revolution : This site is provided by the Sons of the Revolution in the State of California and contains several images of American Revolutionary War uniforms.
• Military Review - English Edition Archives : Archival collection of the professional journal of the U.S. Army Combined Arms Center (CAC) and the Command and General Staff College (CGSC).
• Military Women Veterans : This site documents the contributions of American women to the Armed Forces of the United States.
• Papers of the War Department, 1784-1800 : Papers of the War Department is a project of the Center for History and New Media, George Mason University and the National Historical Publications and Records Commission. This collection of more than 55,000 documents is in an online format with extensive and searchable metadata linked to digitized images of each document.
• Price of Freedom: Americans at War : This online exhibition from the National Museum of American History presents a timeline of American military conflicts from the War of Independence through the War in Iraq, 2003. It also includes information on hundreds of artifacts related to America’s military history, along with learning resources for educators.
• Redstone Hyper-media Historical Information : Designed by the MICOM Historical Office, this home page features the Redstone Arsenal Complex Chronological Highlights such as; The Pre-Missile Era (1941-1949) and Women at War: Redstone's WWII Female
• United States Army Center of Military History : CMH Online is an information and education service provided by the U.S. Army Center of Military History.
• Valley of the Shadow : The Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities (IATH) at the University of Virginia's Web page featuring Edward Ayers's material on the Great Valley in the Civil War.
• Veterans History Project - Library of Congress : The Veterans History Project covers World War I, World War II, and the Korean, Vietnam, and Persian Gulf wars. It includes all participants in those wars--men and women, civilian and military. It documents the contributions of civilian volunteers, support staff, and war industry workers as well as the experiences of military personnel from all ranks and all branches of service--the Air Force, Army, Marine Corps, and Navy, as well as the U.S. Coast Guard and Merchant Marine.
• War Times Journal : The War Times Journal is a free online magazine which covers all periods of military history and military science.
• West Point in the Making of America : There are eight subject categories from this exhibition reading list on West Point graduates and their contributions to the nation in peace and war.
• World War I Edition of Stars and Stripes - Library of Congress : From February 8, 1918, to June 13, 1919, by order of General John J. Pershing, the United States Army published a newspaper for its forces in France, The Stars and Stripes. This online collection, presented by the Serial and Government Publications Division of the Library of Congress, includes the complete seventy-one-week run of the newspaper's World War I edition.

Naval and Maritime History

• Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology : The Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology has been at the forefront of underwater archaeology for over 35 years. The ACUA serves as an international advisory body on issues relating to underwater archaeology, conservation, and submerged cultural resources management.It is working to educate scholars, governments, sport divers, and the general public about underwater archaeology and the preservation of underwater resources.
• All Hands Magazine Archives : Each issue of this U. S. Navy bulletin and magazine (1922-2011) has been scanned and digitized in Adobe Acrobat format.  Free access.
• American Merchant Marine at War : The U.S. Maritime Service Veterans complied this collection of war service related topical links.
• Council of American Maritime Museum : The Council of American Maritime Museums (CAMM) is an organization dedicated to preserving North America's maritime history. The Members include museums, museum professionals, and scholars from United States, Mexico, Bermuda, Australia and Canada. CAMM works to promote high professional standards in the preservation and interpretation of maritime history. Our Members seek to convey and preserve this history through collections, sites, vessels, projects, exhibitions, and research.
• Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships : The Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, commonly known as DANFS, is the foremost reference regarding U.S. naval vessels. Published in nine volumes (from 1959 to 1991), it gives histories for virtually every U.S. naval vessel.
• Fast Attacks & Boomers: Submarines in the Cold War : Selections for further reading on the growth and development of the U.S. Nuclear Navy.
• Historic Naval Ships Association : The purpose of the Historic Naval Ships Association is to facilitate the exchange of information and provide mutual support among those who are working hard to maintain their aging vessels physically and financially. The ships of HNSA are located in the United States, Canada, Western Europe, and Australia. The ships are organized into three categories on the site: name of ship, type of ship, and location.
• Index to Ships in Books -- Search Page : This index allows researchers to search the names of commercial and naval vessels that were published in a variety of books and serials. A bibliography of those printed resources is included.
• International Congress of Maritime Museums : The International Congress of Maritime Museums is a professional guild of associations, organizations, and individuals in the maritime preservation field. Their website includes a news section that provides information about recently discovered wrecks, upcoming museum exhibits, and other developments in the field.
• Maritime History Links on the Net : This comprehensive list covers a variety of subjects related to Maritime History.
• Nautical Research Guild, Inc. : The Nautical Research Guild links researchers, collectors, and builders of the highest quality ship models. The Guild emphasizes learning about ships and maritime history through academic research, as applied and expressed in the process of ship model building and other artistic and academic endeavors.
• Steamship Historical Society of America : The Steamship Historical Society (SSHSA) is an organization dedicated to preserving artifacts and memories from the steamship days of the past.
• U.S. Naval Historical Center : The Naval Historical Center is the official history program of the Department of the Navy. The Center now includes a museum, art gallery, research library, archives, and curator as well as research and writing programs.
• U.S. Naval Vessel Register : The Naval Vessel Register contains information on ships and service craft that comprise the official inventory of the U.S. Navy from the time of vessel authorization through its life cycle and disposal. It also includes ships that have been stricken but not disposed.
• American Numismatic Society : Official website of the American Numismatic Society offers a list of online resources , including MANTIS , a searchable database of over 600,000 objects from the Society's collections of international coins, paper money, tokens, ‘primitive’ money, medals and decorations.
• American Numismatics Association : Features information about ANA, a membership form, a link to ANA's ftp site, and links to an educational and museum directory. The FTP site includes press releases; ANA's library catalog; ANA's classification system; video list; and slide lists. The educational and museum directory features ANA's exhibits online; scholarship information; and convention updates.
• Coins of Colonial and Early America : This University of Notre Dame site features discussions, descriptions and images of the coins and tokens used in Colonial and Confederation America based on examples in the Department of Special Collections. A companion project features Colonial and Confederation era paper currency.
• Money - Past, Present & Future : Sources of information on monetary history, contemporary developments, and the prospects for electronic money.
• National Numismatic Collection, Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of American History : The Smithsonian's National Numismatic Collection (NNC) is America's collection of monetary and transactional objects. This diverse and expansive global collection contains objects that represent every inhabited continent and span more than three thousand years of human history.
• U.S. Department of the Treasury : U.S. Department of Treasury's Home Page includes press releases and updates on new programs and seminars being offered by the Department.
• Freeze Frame: Eadweard Muybridge’s Photography of Motion : Information on the collection, links, and readings on Muybridge and his work on locomotion.
• George Eastman Museum: International Museum of Photography and Film : The George Eastman Museum collects and interprets images, films, literature, and equipment in the disciplines of photography and motion pictures and cares for the George Eastman legacy collections.
• International Center of Photography : The International Center of Photography is a museum, a school and a center for photographers and photography, whose mission is to present photography's vital and central place in contemporary culture and to lead in interpretation issues central to its development.
• Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Collection : Link to the "Collection Finder" page of the Library of Congress American Memory site.
• LIFE Magazine photo archive hosted by Google : Search millions of photographs from the LIFE photo archive, stretching from the 1750s to today. Most were never published and are now available for the first time through the joint work of LIFE and Google.
• Museum of Photographic Arts : The Museum of Photographic Arts (MoPA) is one of the first museum facilities in the United States designed exclusively to collect and present the world's finest examples photographic art.
• National Stereoscopic Association : The association promotes the study, collection and use of stereographs, stereo cameras and related materials for collectors and students of stereoscopic history. There is a link to the Oliver Wendell Holmes Stereoscopic Research Library.
• NYPL Digital : The New York Public Digital Library is a continually expanding collection of digitized images and text selected from throughout the Research Libraries' collections.
• Stereoscopy : Stereoscopy.com provides information about stereoscopic imaging (3-D) for both amateurs and professionals.
• The Daguerreian Society : The Daguerreian Society is an organization of individuals and institutions sharing a common interest in the art, history and practice of the daguerreotype.
• UCR Arts : This museum features contemporary exhibitions, digital and web art online, and a vast historical photograph collection.
• Building the Washington Metro : This site tells the story of the Washington Metro, a 103-mile rapid transit system serving Washington, D.C., and the surrounding areas of Maryland and Virginia.
• Center For Railroad Photography & Art : The center's focus is on the preservation and presentation of railroad-related photography and art.
• Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum : This expansive website has an online library of 19th century pictures (more than 2,300), maps and descriptions of railroad construction and travel.
• Great Northern Railway Historical Society : The Society works to preserve and promote the history of the Great Northern Railway, which was created in September 1889 from several predecessor railroads in Minnesota and eventually stretched from Lake Superior at Duluth and Minneapolis/St.Paul west through North Dakota, Montana and Northern Idaho to Washington State at Everett and Seattle.
• National Railway Historical Society : Founded in 1935, the National Railway Historical Society has nearly 18,000 members and over 177 Chapters spread throughout the United States, Canada and Great Britain. It is now the United States' largest rail enthusiast organization.
• Railroad Maps, 1828-1900 : The maps presented here are a selection from the Library of Congress Geography and Map Division holdings, based on the cartobibliography, Railroad Maps of the United States: A Selective Annotated Bibliography of Original 19th-century Maps in the Geography and Map Division of the Library of Congress. This annotated list reveals the scope of the railroad map collection and highlights the development of railroad mapping in 19th-century America. Described are 623 maps chosen from more than 3,000 railroad maps and about 2,000 regional, state, and county maps, and other maps which show "internal improvements" of the past century.
• Railroads and the Making of Modern America : This University of Nebraska project seeks to document and represent the rapid and far-reaching social effects of railroads and to explore the transformation of the United States to modern ideas, institutions, and practices in the nineteenth century. Railroads and the Making of Modern America seeks to use the digital medium to investigate, represent, and analyze this social change and document episodes of the railroad's social consequence.
• Academic Info: The American West : Academic Info, an educational organization, created this directory of Internet resources on the history of the American West. This list covers a variety of subjects including Native Americans, women, religious history, the Gold Rush, Asian Americans, and railroads.
• History of the American West, 1860-1920 : This site contains over 30,000 photographs, drawn from the holdings of the Western History and Genealogy Department at Denver Public Library. These photos illuminate many aspects of the history of the American West. Most of the photographs were taken between 1860 and 1920. They illustrate Colorado towns and landscape, document the place of mining in the history of Colorado and the West, and show the lives of Native Americans from more than forty tribes living west of the Mississippi River.
• New Perspectives on the West : This is the companion website to the Ken Burns documentary series, the West. This site contains selected documentary materials, archival images and commentary, as well as links to background information and other resources.
• The First American West: The Ohio River Valley, 1750-1820 : This Library of Congress site consists of 15,000 pages of original historical material documenting the land, peoples, exploration, and transformation of the trans-Appalachian West from the mid-eighteenth to the early nineteenth century. The collection is drawn from the holdings of the University of Chicago Library and the Filson Historical Society of Louisville, Kentucky
• The Oregon Territory and its Pioneers : This website focuses on the pioneers of the Oregon Territory up to and including 1855...The first section is called THE SETTLING OF OREGON and is a compilation of information [including pioneer lists by year of emigration] extracted from a variety of sources. The second section lists the UPDATES that are in progress. The third section is devoted to RESEARCHING THE PIONEERS and provides links to research and historic sites that may be of interest."
• The Oregon Trail : This website is a comprehensive source of information about the historic Oregon Trail. It includes primary source documents such as Trail diaries and memoirs. The site was created by Prof. Mike Trinklein and Steve Boettcher, creators of The Oregon Trail, the award-winning documentary film which aired nationally on PBS.
• Canadian Centre for Architecture  CCA Library: Special Collections Trade Catalogues : Approximately 5,600 trade catalogues documenting building technology and construction methods from the late eighteenth century to the present. Core of the collection formed through acquisition of the relevant portions of the Franklin Institute trade catalogue collection. Coverage is broad and includes such categories as concrete and lumber, metalwork and woodwork, flooring, heating and insulation, plumbing and electricity, windows and roofing.
• Columbia University. Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library : The American collection is one of the most extensive in existence. It begins with the first pertinent book to be published in the colonies, Abraham Swan's British Architect (Philadelphia, 1775), and includes a large number of titles listed in H.R. Hitchcock's basic bibliography, American Architectural Books. In the seventies and eighties the scope of the American collection was expanded to include printed source materials not previously collected. These include early trade catalogs from the manufacturers of building products (1840-1950).
• Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum Library Reference Collection : There are over 4,500 trade catalogs in the Cooper-Hewitt Library collection, some dating from the 17th century.
• Corning Museum of Glass. Rakow Research Library : The Juliette K. and Leonard S. Rakow Research Library of The Corning Museum of Glass has a wide-ranging collection including books, magazines, trade and auction catalogues, personal and corporate archives, videotapes, microforms, sound recordings, drawings, prints, photographs, and slides. Its mission is to acquire and preserve all informational resources on the art, history and early science and technology of glass, in all languages and all formats.
• D'Arcy Collection : The D'Arcy Collection of the Communications Library of the University of Illinois is a collection of almost two million original advertisements published between 1890 and 1970. The collection, which was donated by the D'Arcy, MacManus & Masius advertising agency (now D'Arcy Masius Benton & Bowles) in 1983, is a rich source of research information on products advertised by many agencies. While the vast majority of these advertisements appeared in newspapers, magazines and trade journals, there are a few in other forms such as brochures, signs, and programs. Most of the clippings advertise standard consumer products, but there are a number of obsolete categories such as spats, bathing shoes, and Prohibition.
• Digital Collections & Trade Catalogs from the Indiana Historical Society : This collection concentrates on catalogs from businesses that were either headquartered in Indiana or had a substantial presence in the state. Items in this collection date from the 1840s through the 1990s. The catalogs document the wide range of commodities that have come out of Indiana.
• Hagley Museum and Library : The library houses an important collection of books, pamphlets, trade catalogs, manuscripts, photographs, ephemera, and audiovisual materials documenting the history of American business and technology. Hagley's main strength is in the Middle Atlantic region, but the scope of collecting includes business organizations and companies with national and international impact.
• Instruments for Science, 1800-1914: Scientific Trade Catalogs in Smithsonian Collections : Digital collection of scientific instrument trade catalogs
• John W. Hartman Center for Sales, Advertising, and Marketing History : The Ad*Access Project presents images and database information for over 7,000 advertisements printed in U.S. and Canadian newspapers and magazines between 1911 and 1955. Ad*Access concentrates on five main subject areas: Radio, Television, Transportation, Beauty and Hygiene, and World War II. The advertisements are from the J. Walter Thompson Company Competitive Advertisements Collection of the John W. Hartman Center for Sales, Advertising & Marketing History in Duke University's David M. Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library.
• Marketing in the Modern Era : Marketing in the Modern Era: Trade Catalogs and the Rise of 19th-Century American Advertising: an online exhibit at the Baker Library at Harvard University.
• National Museum of American History Library Trade Literature Collection : This collection contains more than 460,000 catalogs, technical manuals, advertising brochures, price lists, company histories and related materials representing over 36,000 companies.
• National Museum of American History -- Archives Center, Warshaw Collection of Business Americana : The National Museum of American History purchased the Warshaw Collection of Business Americana, ca. 1724-1977 in 1967. The collection was assembled by Isadore Warshaw and represents the largest advertising ephemera collection in the United States, occupying more than 1,020 cubic feet of storage space.  Organization, re-housing, and description of the Warshaw Collection are a long-term project. Most portions of the collection are open to researchers in the Archives Center.
• New Jersey Trade and Manufacturers' Catalogs : Housed in Special Collections and University Archives, the Rutgers University Libraries collection of New Jersey trade and manufacturers catalogs represents part of the University's effort "to collect, preserve and make available for research, primary and secondary materials in various formats, documenting all aspects of New Jersey's history, from its founding to the present."
• Otis Historical Archives, National Museum of Health and Medicine, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology : Particularly strong collections within the OHA include the areas of medical illustration, including anatomical drawings and paintings, photographs, and photomicrographs; reconstructive surgery and prosthetics; tropical and infectious disease research; trade literature and advertisements; medical technology and battlefield surgery from the Civil War through to the present conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan. 
• Seed Catalogs from the Smithsonian Libraries Trade Literature Collection : The Smithsonian Libraries has a unique trade catalog collection that includes about 10,000 seed and nursery catalogs dating from 1830 to the present, documenting the history of the seed and agricultural implement business in the United States, as well as providing a history of botany and plant research such as the introduction of plant varieties into the US. Additionally, the seed trade catalogs are a window into the history of graphic arts in advertising, and a social history, through the text and illustrations, showing changing fashions in flowers and vegetables.
• Sewing Machine Galleries : Created by David and Lin Best, this site comprises photographs of over 130 sewing machines from their collection, together with information about the manufacturers that produced them.
• Sewing Machines: Historical Trade Literature in Smithsonian Institution Collections : This guide illustrates the range of materials published by and about sewing machine companies in the United States, starting in the 1840s. Sewing machine catalogs and other industry materials are just one portion of the remarkable collections of manufacturers' trade literature held in the libraries, archives and curatorial units of the Smithsonian Institution. 
• Shedding Light on New York: Edward F. Caldwell & Co. : The E. F. Caldwell & Co. Collection at the Cooper-Hewitt Museum Library, Smithsonian Institution Libraries, contains more than 50,000 images consisting of approximately 37,000 black & white photographs and 13,000 original design drawings of lighting fixtures and other fine metal objects that they produced from the late 19th to the mid-20th centuries.
• The Virtual Laboratory (Max Planck Institute for the History of Science) : The digital library of the Virtual Library contains scans of historical books, journals, laboratory notebooks and instrument catalogues. Furthermore, it provides bibliographical information based on tables of contents (overview) and on existing personal bibliographies which have been checked for consistency. Every item can be acessed by author, title, year or word contained in the title.
• University of California, Santa Barbara. Library. Special Collections. Romaine Trade Catalog Collection : Lawrence B. Romaine (1900-1967) was an antiquarian book dealer, who bought and sold rare books, manuscripts, trade catalogs, and other Americana. Romaine was recognized as the leading expert in the U.S. on trade catalogs, and was the author of A Guide to American Trade Catalogs, 1774-1900 (New York: R. R. Bowker Company, 1960), the standard reference work in this field.  Romaine spent approximately 30 years collecting over 41,000 trade catalogs from the 19th and early 20th centuries, on every imaginable product from agricultural implements, clothes, medical and surgical instruments to weathervanes and windmills. The bulk of his collection focused on machines, tools, engines and other hardware used in agriculture and manufacturing industries.
• University of Delaware Trade Catalogs: An online exhibition : The University of Delaware Library Special Collections Department houses an extensive collection of trade catalogs and advertising ephemera produced in the United States from the middle of the eighteenth century until the present day. The trade catalog collection also complements the Special Collections Department's traditional strengths in the history of horticulture, science and technology, printing and publishing, and the book arts. Companies selling printing supplies, agricultural implements and nursery stock, type founders, publishing companies, and booksellers are particularly well-represented as are the catalogs of Delaware businesses.
• Victoria and Albert Museum, National Art Library : The National Art Library holds numerous examples of trade catalogues within its collections. Some items entered the NAL during the 19th century, and both current and retrospective examples of trade catalogues have been added to the collections throughout the 20th century. Since 1983 the policy has been to actively collect both current and retrospective examples of trade literature in areas broadly in line with the research interests of the Victoria and Albert Museum.
• Winterthur Museum Library : WinterCat is the Winterthur Library's online catalogue and includes nearly 60,000 bibliographic records, representing the holdings of the four collections that constitute the Winterthur Library. Records for imprints, periodicals, rare printed materials, manuscript and ephemera holdings, photographs, and archival resources are all in one database, which researchers can use to determine the library's holdings on any given topic, person, or organization through one search. WinterCat features hyperlinks to manuscript finding aids and selected images.
• Women Working, 1800-1930: trade catalogs : To illustrate the world of women working, the Open Collections Program of Harvard University Library has digitized a group of trade catalogs. These colorful works illustrate the dramatic changes that were taking place between 1870 and 1930 in the home, in the workplace, and in the minds of retailers and manufacturers. 
• Geographic Names Information System (GNIS) : This site contains approximately two million physical and cultural geographic features in the United States and its territories. The Federally recognized name of each feature described in the data base is identified, and references are made to a feature's location by State, county, and geographic coordinates.
• Library of Congress Map Collection 1500-2004 : The Library of Congress' map collection contains the topical areas of cities and towns, conservation and environment, discovery and exploration, cultural landscapes, military battles and campaigns, as well as transportation and communication.
• Mapping History: American History : The maps cover a variety of historical topics from pre-1500 Native American culture, to the Civil War and Reconstruction, to 20th century health. Some of these maps are interactive.
• National Map Small-Scale Collection : The site from the U.S. Geological Survey offers a collection of small-scale datasets available for free download, along with hundreds of printable reference maps developed as part of the 1997-2014 edition of the National Atlas. 
• University of Georgia Libraries Hargrett Rare Books and Manuscripts : The collection encompasses 500 years including maps on Georgia, the New World, the Colonial America, the revolutionary America, the revolutionary Georgia, the Union and expansion, the American Civil War, the frontier to the new South, Savannah and the coast, and transportation.
• University of Illinois Historical Maps Online : These maps mainly focus from 1650 to 1994 on North America and the Northwest Territory, Maps of the Midwest, Illinois and Champaign County, and the Warner & Beers Atlas of 1876.
• University of Texas at Austin's Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection : This collection contains maps arranged by state, city, and topical. Many of the maps are from the late 1700s through the early 1900s.
• US History by Online Highways : The topical maps include the areas of early America, Colonial Period, Revolutionary America, young republic, and election maps of the early 1900s.

World's Fairs and Expositions

• A Century of Progress: The 1933-34 Chicago World's Fair : The John Crerar Library (which is now part of the University of Chicago Libraries) collected various official publications, press releases, guidebooks, and other related materials pertaining to this world exposition. Approximately 350 of those collected items are now available on this website. The collection may be browsed by publication author, publication title, and the general subject of each publication.
• Alaska Yukon Pacific Exposition Centennial : This University of Washington Libraries digital collection contains more than 1200 photographs of the 1909 fair held on the grounds of the University of Washington, depicting buildings, grounds, entertainment and exotic attractions.
• Donald G. Larson Collection on International Expositions and Fairs, 1851-1940 : The Donald G. Larson Collection at Cal-State Fresno, consists of approximately 1,600 books and more than 6,500 pamphlets, postcard, sheet music, and other materials.
• ExpoMuseum : ExpoMuseum was first created as a web site in 1998 by Urso S. A. Chappell, and is maintained by him.The site pays tribute to the past, present, and future of these immensely popular expositions, and also includes a number of fun features, such as a discussion area and a special section dedicated to the architecture of these places.
• Hyper-text Thesis on the World's Columbian Exposition : A Masters thesis, by Julie K. Rose, M.A. English, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA on the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893, in Chicago, Illinois, which features a virtual tour of the Fair and offers analysis of social and cultural importance of the World's Columbian Exposition.
• Paris 1900 - The Exhibit of American Negroes : The Exhibit of American Negroes is a reconstruction of highlights from an exhibit of the same name put together by W. E. B. DuBois, Thomas Calloway and the Historic Black Colleges for the Paris 1900 International Exposition.
• Progress Made Visible: American World's Fairs and Expositions : The Special Collections Department of the University of Delaware Library holds a wide variety of primary source materials relating to the World's Fairs and Expositions held in the United States between 1876 and 1939.
• Revisiting World's Fairs and International Expositions: A Selected Bibliography, 1992 - 1999 : This Smithsonian Institution Library bibliography supplements Bridget Burke's bibliography, "World's Fairs and International Expositions: Selected References 1987-1993," which was published as part of Fair Representations: World's Fairs and the Modern World, edited by Robert Rydell and Nancy Gwinn. It focuses on secondary materials that were published between 1992 and mid-summer 1999, but also includes some entries for materials prior to 1992 that were not included in the Burke's bibliography.
• The 1904 World's Fair: Looking Back at Looking Forward : An online exhibition in association with the Missouri Historical Society's 2004 centennial celebration of the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair.
• The History of World Expositions : An EXPO 2000 resource on twenty previous World's Fairs and Expositions from 1851 to 2000.
• The Iconography of Hope: The 1939-40 New York World's Fair : Created by John C. Barans, this site features historical information and digitized photographs chronicling the 1939-40 New York World's Fair.

586 Excellent American History Topics & Tips for an A+ Paper

How can you define America? If you’ve ever asked yourself this question, studying US history will help you find the answer.

This article will help you dive deeper into this versatile subject. Here, you will find:

• Early and modern US history topics to write about. We’ve also got topics for DBQ essays for students taking an AP US history class.
• Tips on how to create a great history paper.

Have you checked out our custom writing service yet? Our experts are always ready to help you with your assignments.

🔝 Top 10 American History Topics

✅ how to write a history paper.

• 🔥 Top 10 US History Topics
• 🎓 Topics for College Students
• 📚 APUSH Topics
• ❓ Research Questions
• 💡 Topics after 1877
• 🗽 20th Century Topics
• 🔫 Topics on WWI & II
• ☮️ Civil Rights Movement Topics
• 💬 Debatable Topics
• 🏞️ Native American Topics
• ⭐ Topics on Famous People
• 🦅 Other Topics

🔍 References

• The ideology of the Black Panthers
• How did tenements affect America?
• Why was Wilmot Proviso so controversial?
• What characterizes the Roaring Twenties?
• Cause and effect of the Missouri Compromise
• The role of women during the Great Depression
• Did anyone profit from the 1929 Stock Market Crash?
• Michael Collins’ contribution to the space exploration
• How did the US benefit from the Bracero Program?
• Brigham Young’s contribution to the development of the West

History writing is controversial by nature. Selecting questions and topics is already a subjective process. On top of that, you need to interpret the sources. So, there is much to think about when it comes to history papers.

We’ve compiled several tips to make it easier for you. Check it out:

• Don’t be afraid to disagree . People explain many issues by conventional wisdom. Be skeptical and examine your own bias.
• Explore new terrains . Not all historical events get the attention they deserve. Writing about generally neglected topics can yield fascinating results.
• Consider how situations change over time . Frame your subject with a start- and endpoint.
• Wonder . History is not just descriptions of what happened—it also questions how and why specific events took place.
• Avoid relating everything to the present . Examine the past on its own terms. In doing so, keep the chronological order straight.
• Don’t judge your subject . Your goal is to understand the past. Remember: moral norms might have been different in the period you’re studying.
• Give context . It’s crucial to engage with and interpret your sources. Pinpoint their place in the grand scheme of events.

Finally, you might want to write in the present tense. While this works for other social sciences, it’s not advisable for history. It’s best to keep the past in the past! Also, if you need to construct a MLA title page , there’s nothing wrong in using a specialized tool to do that, as long as it allows you to concentrate on the more important part—writing.

🔥 Top 10 US History Research Paper Topics

• What caused the Red Scare?
• What did the Loyalists fight for?
• Literacy rates during Puritan times
• The effects of the Great Awakening
• Why was the Boston Tea Party justified?
• The aftermath of the Battle of Bunker Hill
• Why was presidential Reconstruction a failure?
• The causes of the economic recession of the 1780s
• Railroads development role in the Industrial Revolution
• Frederick Douglass’s contribution to the abolition of slavery 

🎓 American History Research Paper Topics for College Students

Have you ever wondered how the decisions made by people centuries ago continue to impact the USA today? Pick any of the topics below, and you will see how important history is:

• Virginia Hall: the woman who helped win World War II.
• Why did the power of the Plains Indians end by 1890? 
• Investigate the mid-century Onion Debacle in the US. 
• How did the Russo-Japanese War make the US more powerful? 
• The role of the US government in the banking industry at the beginning of the Great Depression. 
• Nationwide prohibition of alcohol in 1920: pros and cons. 
• Explore the West Virginia coal wars and their outcomes. 
• The rise of the populist movement: main consequences. 
• Examine the benefits and limitations of the New Deal. 
• Bacon’s Rebellion and its key outcomes. 
• The importance of the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps. 
• How did the economies of the North and South differ before the Civil War? 
• Determine the root causes of the United States’ technological boom. 
• Civil Rights Movement: from Martin Luther King to BLM. 
• The influence of slavery on the economy and society of the South. 
• The social problems facing America in the 21st century. 
• Analyze Ku Klux Klan and its initial goal. 
• What interest did Theodore Roosevelt have in environmental conservation? 
• The key reasons for the Constitution amendments in 1789. 
• The origins of the Sherman Antitrust Act. 
• Andrew Jackson: why was he the “people’s president”? 
• The significance of the Bill of Rights. 

📚 APUSH Research Paper Topics

The Advanced Placement US History course covers events from approximately 1491 to the present, starting with Native American societies and European exploration of the New World. APUSH not only helps students analyze events within their historical contexts but also develops critical thinking skills.

Check out these excellent US history research paper topics:

• The economic benefits of the Columbian exchange. 
• Explore the Age of Exploration in the US and its peculiarities. 
• The origins of slavery on the American continent.  
• Assess the impact of King Philip’s War on the American identity development. 
• Cultural contribution of Olaudah Equiano. 
• The key causes of the Bloody Massacre. 
• Constitutional Convention of 1787 and its purpose.  
• Examine the importance of the Proclamation of Neutrality Act. 
• The rise and fall of the American Whig Party. 
• Application and extension of the Monroe Doctrine. 
• Effects of the temperance movement on local laws in 1830. 
• The “House Divided” speech and its key ideas. 
• Investigate the influence of Uncle Tom’s Cabin on American culture. 
• The Grange Movement and its main outcomes. 
• The purpose of anti-corporate cartoons in the US in 1900. 
• Women’s role in United States politics in the 20th century. 
• Explore the rise of consumerism in the US in the 1920s. 
•  Nuclear arms race and its impact on the US during the Cold War. 
• Explain the root causes of the Vietnam War. 
• The fight for LGBT rights in the US after World War II.  
• The significance of the Immigration Act of 1965. 
• Tragic events of September 11 and their political consequences. 

❓ US History Research Questions

A clear research question is a crucial part of the research process since it aids in providing direction and making your investigation focused. If you need effective research questions in US history, go through the suggestions below:

• How did the Boston Tea Party’s destruction of the tea change US history? 
• What role did Susan B. Anthony play in the women’s suffrage movement? 
• How did the US involvement in the Vietnam War guide foreign policy decisions? 
• How did the threat of communism transform American politics? 
• What factors led to the US participation in the Mexican Revolution? 
• How did African Americans fight against Jim Crow segregation? 
• How did the Square Deal attempt to balance the interests of big business, labor unions, and consumers? 
• What role did the battles of Saratoga and Yorktown play in the American Revolution? 
• How did the Good Neighbor policy regulate US relations with the Caribbean? 
• What were the reasons for inflation that struck the United States in the 1970s? 
• How did the early Americans justify slavery? 
• What factors triggered the westward expansion of the United States in the 19th century? 
• How has Obama’s presidency altered America? 
• What major technological innovations defined the Roaring Twenties? 
• Why did USA feminism become radical by the late 19th century? 
• What were the goals of the Workingmen’s Party? 
• How did the justifications for Indian Removal evolve over time? 
• How did the development of the railroad industry contribute to the advancement of the US economy? 
• How did the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in 1911 modify labor laws? 
• Why has political polarization become a main difficulty in United States politics? 
• How did the US mobilize its economy, industry, and military upon entering WWI? 
• What were the diplomatic aftermaths of the Spanish-American War? 

💡 US History Research Paper Topics after 1877

But wait, that’s not all of it. We’ve got more, including topics on American history since 1877:

• Did the situation for freedmen improve after Reconstruction?
• How did industrialization affect African Americans?
• Discuss what consequences the Compromise of 1877 had.
• The role of transportation during industrialization.
• How does an assembly line work?

• The invention of the automobile.
• Describe in what ways mass production affected American society.
• What was the Panic of 1873?
• Long-term effects of Plessy v. Ferguson.
• How did the Freedmen’s Bureau help former slaves?
• Why did rebuilding the South prove so difficult?
• Debate the effects of the print revolution on American society.
• What was the primary goal of Reconstruction?
• How did the Reconstruction Act affect politics in the South?
• What caused the formation of Radical Republicans?
• The transformation of leisure in late 19 th century America.
• Analyze why landownership was a crucial issue in establishing African American equality.
• Was President Johnson’s attempted impeachment in 1868 justified?
• How did the US government help exacerbate the wealth gap in the late 19 th century?
• What changes did transcontinental railroad transportation bring?
• How did John D. Rockefeller influence the American economy?
• The role of oil in industrializing America.
• Discuss the relevance of the Great Upheaval.
• Changing gender roles in times of urbanization.
• Industrialization and Education: obstacles and opportunities for women and African Americans.
• Analyze how industrialization and urbanization in the USA challenged old values.
• How did the American newspaper business change in the 19 th century?
• The impact of sensationalism on the American public.
• Why did steel become such a crucial material during the late 1800s?
• What caused the Reconstruction Era to come to an end?
• How did contemporary cartoons attempt to depict the mood during Reconstruction?
• What problems did Ulysses S. Grant have to face with his administration?
• Compare and contrast reconstruction measures in various states.
• Why did cities become increasingly attractive for America’s rural population in the 19 th century?
• Examine the significance of the Slaughterhouse Cases.
• Determine the difference between Presidential Reconstruction and Radical Reconstruction?
• From the black code to Jim Crow: institutionalized racism in the southern states.
• The combined rise of populism and imperialism in the 1800s.
• Discuss the significance of regional differences during industrialization .
• The impact of labor unions on the American work environment.

🗽 20th Century US History Topics to Write About

By the turn of the century, the US was a significant global player. Events such as the Great Depression affected the whole world. In addition, American contributions to the arts changed the cultural sphere forever. If you’re looking for modern US history thematic essay topics, this section is for you.

• Why did the “final frontier” gain such importance in the 20 th century? Your essay could examine if the space race was an extension of Manifest Destiny.
• How did the Titanic’s sinking influence innovation and safety regulations ? The ship was the biggest and most technologically advanced ocean liner at the time. Carrying over 2000 passengers, it sank on its maiden voyage. Investigating its legacy might yield fascinating results.
• How did progressivism shape the political landscape in America at the turn of the century? In the early 1900s, the USA was almost a different country than it was 50 years prior. How did this happen? And who were the leading figures of this process?
• Are you curious about the development of American workplace laws? Write about the consequences of the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire.
• If you’re into corporate history, look into the rise and fall of America’s formerly largest retailer, Sears.
• The real William Randolph Hearst vs. his portrayal in David Fincher’s Mank . This topic allows you to combine film theory and the history of American journalism.
• The impact of Citizen Kane on movies around the globe. To this day, Citizen Kane is considered one of the most influential films ever made. In a paper on the 1941 masterpiece, you can focus on what made it special. Which features are still prominent in cinema today?
• How did the eugenics movement affect American society? You might want to investigate marriage laws or forced sterilizations.
• Consequences of the Spanish-American War. The brief battle didn’t last long, but its impact was immense. Your essay could highlight the war as a stepping stone to making the US a global power.
• Escalating racial violence: The Rosewood Massacre. In 1923, the entire town of Rosewood, Florida, was wiped out by white aggressors. How did racial tensions get so far?

Haven’t found anything yet? Here are some other American history thesis topics for you to explore:

• The impact of the Cold War on the American economy.
• What caused the Great Depression?
• Ellis Island as a beacon of hope for immigrants and refugees.
• The transformation of the American school system in the 1920s.
• What were pop art’s main concepts?
• Moral vs. political considerations during the annexation of Hawaii.
• Who were the Social Gospel preachers?
• John Dewey’s role in advancing education.
• What sources fueled American progressivism?
• Trace the timeline of Theodore Roosevelt’s presidency.
• What was laissez-faire capitalism?
• How did President Woodrow Wilson reform businesses?
• A dive into the speakeasy culture.
• How did the widespread availability of cars impact American dating life?
• Prohibition: reasons and consequences.
• Connecting arts and civil rights: The Harlem Renaissance.
• Al Capone and the rise of organized crime in the 1920s.
• What was the New Deal, and why was it necessary?
• How did FDR’s “Alphabet Agencies” help the economy after the Great Depression?
• Explore the funding of the UN.
• Discuss the significance of the Berlin Airlift.
• Screen rebels: how James Dean and Marlon Brando changed American cinema forever.
• Find a connection between McCarthyism and the Salem Witch Trials.
• How did affordable television perpetuate the idea of the ideal American family?
• Analyze the political consequences of the Watergate scandal.
• A new American culture: variety shows in the 1950s.
• The origins of Rock’n’roll.
• What caused the US to slide into inflation in the 1970s?
• Counterculture literature in the middle of the century: The Beat Generation.
• The aftermath of the Vietnam War.
• What made John F. Kennedy a popular president?
• The development of Hippie culture in the 1960s.
• Reproductive rights and the rise of American feminism in the late 20 th century.
• Intertwining show-business and government: Ronald Reagan’s presidency.
• Outline the tactical maneuvers of Operation Desert Storm.
• How did MTV revolutionize the music industry ?
• Why did drug use become an existential problem in America during the 1970s and 80s?
• American environmental reform policies from 1960 to 1980.
• ’70s fashion as a social and political statement in the US.
• How did the sexual revolution redefine American social life?

🔫 Topics about America in World Wars I & II

America during the World Wars is an engaging writing prompt. But it may be too broad for an essay. That’s why it makes sense to narrow your focus. Which area do you find most interesting about the subject? For example, you can choose between culture, economy, technology, and, of course, the military.

• Repressions and progress went hand in hand in the postwar US. Writing about the impact of WWI on domestic American politics would give you various directions to research.
• President Woodrow Wilson was against entering the war until 1917. What events led the US to break its neutrality?
• Many Germans of the time called the Treaty of Versailles a “dictate of shame.” It is often considered a significant reason for World War II. What was the US’ position on the Treaty of Versailles?
• After WWI, America followed isolationist politics. Until 1941, when they declared war on Japan after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Could the USA have stayed out of WWII?
• How did WWII affect the American economy? Think about military needs and rationing.
• President Woodrow Wilson was a fierce supporter of the League of Nations. But congress coerced him not to have the USA join. Should America have become a member of this organization?

• How did American civilians contribute to the war effort? Your essay can focus specifically on women. Be sure to examine new arrangements in daily life.
• If you’re more into art, why not analyze how the world wars influenced American art?
• WWII changed all aspects of American life, including their diet. What new methods of food preservation emerged during that time?
• Another fascinating topic to engage in is propaganda and advertisement in the US during WWII. Your focus might lie on how they targeted different members of society.

Don’t forget to read the rest of our topics on this issue:

• Evaluate Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points program.
• How did the American army recruitment work in WWII?
• “Kilroy was here”: examine where the mysterious slogan comes from.
• Outline the history of Japanese Americans in Japanese internment camps.
• US spies: where and how did they operate?
• The Manhattan Project: trace the making of the atomic bomb.
• How did migration shape American society in the 1930s and ‘40s?
• The notion of freedom in America before, during, and after the wars.
• What role did communication play for the military in WWI vs. WWII?
• Canadian-American relations during WWII.
• How did the wars spur transportation developments in the US?
• Discuss the significance of D-Day.
• Could the allies have won WWII without the USA?
• Why did America emerge as a “Global Policeman” after the world wars?
• The effects of National Socialism in America.
• In what ways does the outcome of WWII still influence American society today?
• Compare and contrast military strategies in Europe vs. the Pacific.
• Was the dropping of the atomic bomb necessary?
• After the Little Boy’s devastating results, why did the American government decide to drop Fat Man?
• What made the Zimmerman telegram such a central document for American war participation?
• What happened to prisoner-of-war camps in the US after the fighting was over?
• Compare the leadership styles of Franklin D. Roosevelt in WWII and Woodrow Wilson in WWI.
• Why did the Japanese attack Pearl Harbor?
• What methods did the American government use to conceal their operations?
• Growing up in the ‘40s: how did the war impact the manufacture of toys?
• Which medical advancements were helpful to American soldiers in WWII that didn’t yet exist in WWI?
• How did the 1940s fashion in the USA reflect the global situation?
• Did the two world wars change the civil rights situation for African Americans? If so, how?
• How did the war affect employment in the US?
• What was unique about the Higgins boats?
• The role of submarines in WWI.
• How did America cooperate with the allied forces in Europe in WWI?
• Discuss how the American citizens reacted to being drawn into WWI vs. WWII.
• Did anyone in the US profit from the wars? If so, who?
• Describe how American families changed during WWII.
• What stories do letters that soldiers sent to their families back home tell?
• Joseph Heller’s depiction of World War II in the novel Catch-22 .
• Compare and contrast memory culture concerning WWII in Russia vs. the USA.
• How did the perception of America on the global stage change after World War I?
• The role of women in the US military.

☮️ American History Research Paper Topics on Civil Rights

The struggle for African American equality finally intensified in the 1950s and 60s. Influential figures such as Martin Luther King and Rosa Parks emerged. Their resilience inspired countless others. Seventy years later, the fight is far from over. The rights of minorities and people of color are still a crucial topic in American society today.

• Nine months before the Montgomery Bus Boycott , Claudette Colvin refused to give up her seat to a white woman. Yet, Rosa Parks is the one commonly associated with sparking the event. Why is Claudette Colvin often ignored in history?
• Everybody knows Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr, but who were the Civil Rights Movement’s lesser-known figures? Start your research with Aurelia Browder and Susie McDonald.
• Which concepts and themes can you find in Martin Luther King Jr. ’s I Have A Dream speech? One idea is to focus on how he expresses hope and freedom for black Americans.

• Which committees and organizations were central to the Civil Rights Movement’s success ? Discuss the roles of the SNCC, CORE, and NAACP.
• What makes Malcolm X a controversial figure? Be sure to mention his nationalist ideas and membership in the Nation of Islam.
• The Little Rock Nine: what made their integration into Little Rock Central High School difficult? In your research paper, you can write about harassment issues and military intervention.
• What did the Civil Rights Act of 1957 change? On the one hand, you can talk about the history of voter rights. On the other, you might want to investigate how the public reacted to the new law.
• If you prefer personal stories, you can trace Ruby Bridges’ experiences. She became famous as the first black person to go to an all-white school. She’s still alive today.
• History can be ugly. If you’re not afraid to encounter violence during your research, check out the Freedom Rides. How did they help attract international attention to the Civil Rights Movement?
• Consequences of Martin Luther King Jr.’s assassination. Did the movement die with him? How did the government respond?

Are you curious for more? Have a look at these prompts:

• Compare the modern Black Lives Matter movement with the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s.
• What did the Black Panthers party achieve?
• The best way to teach about the Civil Rights Movement in 8 th grade.
• What happened at the Greensboro sit-ins?
• Why did the civil rights activists encounter so much violence, even though they mostly protested peacefully?
• Compare and contrast Gandhi’s methods and those of Martin Luther King Jr.
• Why was Bloody Sunday a crucial moment for the Civil Rights Movement
• What was the “long, hot summer”?
• Examine the creation of the Kerner Commission.
• The role of students in advancing civil rights for African Americans.
• What rights did black Americans gain through the Civil Rights Movement
• Describe the Nation of Islam’s goals.
• Who were the members of the Black Panther Party?
• What distinguishes the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s from previous movements to establish more rights for African Americans?
• Give a brief overview of the most important Supreme Court decisions concerning the struggle for equality.
• The importance of the church for the Civil Rights Movement.
• Compare the effects of various marches for freedom.
• What made Martin Luther King Jr. a great leader for the movement?
• How did the murder of Emmett Till affect the public’s view on segregation and racism?
• How did the press support or hinder the Civil Rights Movement?
• Loving v. Virginia: legacy and contemporary significance.
• What did the notion of “miscegenation” entail?
• What were the Jim Crow laws?
• Describe the goals and achievements of Operation Breadbasket.
• Who was Stokely Carmichael?
• Analyze Ralph Abernathy’s autobiography And the Walls Came Tumbling Down . Why do some people consider it controversial?
• Debate the criticism brought up against the Congress of Racial Equality.
• Why did some civil rights activists in the 1960s radicalize?
• Did the election of Barack Obama mark the end of the struggle for equal rights?
• Discuss the success of the Baton Rouge bus boycott.
• What events led to Lyndon B. Johnson’s signing of the Voting Rights Act?
• Examine Coretta Scott King’s career after her husband’s passing.
• Investigate conspiracy theories concerning James Earl Ray’s role in the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.
• The publishing and writing process of Malcolm X’s autobiography.
• How and why did the 2020 election undermine parts of the Voting Rights Act?
• Is studying the Civil Rights Movement still relevant today? If so, why?
• How did CORE help desegregate schools in Chicago?
• Who is Jesse Jackson?
• Contemporary commemoration of the Civil Rights Movement.
• How did John F. Kennedy’s death impact the Civil Rights Movement?

💬 Debatable US History Topics to Research

Controversy has been a constant companion of American history. And it’s not only questionable segregation practices that are up for debate. Women’s and LGBT rights, as well as welfare programs, are issues still unresolved today. If you want argumentative or persuasive essay topics about American history, check out this section.

• Memories are always socially constructed. “How do various communities around the US perceive monuments of slaveholders?” is an engaging question to explore in your essay.
• In 1995, an exhibition at the Smithsonian centered around the Enola Gay sparked a nationwide controversy. Critics said the exhibit focused too much on the Japanese suffering the nuclear bomb dropped from the aircraft caused. Was that criticism justified?
• In the past, Colonial Williamsburg’s issues with slavery were often overlooked. Instead, when creating and developing the historical site, the focus lay on its democratic values. Is Colonial Williamsburg still a good place to learn about American history?
• What does the Liberty Bell stand for today? You can include recent and older controversies surrounding the location and custody of the bell.
• Tracing the history of LGBT rights will yield many debatable insights. Which court decisions would you consider especially controversial, and why?
• The legacy of the Centralia massacre in 1919: are the events linked to the Red Scare? How did the town try to obscure the truth?
• In 1887, President Eisenhower supported a campaign to promote patriotism. Part of this was the addition of “under God” to the American Pledge of Allegiance. Analyze the debates surrounding the issue.
• The history of prostitution laws in the US. Your thesis could suggest a connection between decriminalizing sex work and the workers’ wellbeing.
• In the 2020 election, several states voted to legalize not only marijuana but also other drugs. History shows many movements to legalize recreational drug use. What was different now?
• Many older Disney cartoons depict racist stereotypes. The question of adjusting them to modern values sparked much debate. Using this discussion to explore how America should deal with problematic media from the past might be promising.

Keep reading and discover more controversial United States history topics.

• Did President Barack Obama deserve his Nobel Peace Prize?
• What did the US gain from the Iraq War?
• Would Germany have won WWII without America’s intervention?
• Should the presidents of the previous century have done more to promote animal rights?
• Given its historical context, should we keep celebrating Thanksgiving?
• Why did it take so long for American women to achieve legally equal rights?
• Find historical reasons why the US never instituted universal healthcare.
• The necessity of cow’s milk in America: past vs. present.
• Was the annexation of Puerto Rico justified?
• Did the Chicano Movement achieve positive changes for Mexican Americans?
• John F. Kennedy’s most controversial presidential actions.
• The ratification of the 8 th amendment.
• Was the government’s response to 9/11 justified?
• The role of faith in American history before 1877 and after.
• Who or what caused the US’ drug overdose epidemic?
• HIV/AIDS denialism in America in the 1990s.
• What should Locust Grove do to restore its deteriorating African American cemetery? Can the place be considered a historical site?
• Why did some states introduce felon disenfranchisement in 1792? Did the new law spark any outrage?
• Trace the historical timeline of the same-sex marriage debate.
• The USA has always been a country of immigrants. How did this lead to immigration being a fiercely discussed topic nowadays?
• How did the US contribute to the current instability in the Middle East?
• Was the “Lost Generation” reckless?
• How do US historians influence public opinion?
• Does the Red Scare reflect on Russian-American relations today?
• Should Bill Clinton have stayed in office ?
• Discuss the benefits of being a hippie in the 60s.
• Can the members of the Beat Generation serve as role models for travel enthusiasts today?
• Roe v. Wade: what made the court case a turning point in the fight for women’s reproductive rights?
• Did American feminism become too radical by the late 19 th century?
• The rise and fall of DDT: Why was it allowed in the first place?
• What should US history education for high school students look like?
• From a historical perspective, does the reality in Watchmen seem like a likely scenario for the future?
• Psychiatric methods in early 1900s America.
• The role of performance-enhancing drugs in the history of American sports achievements.
• Why do some people believe that the moon landing was staged?
• Criticism against Ayn Rand’s objectivism and its influence.
• Before opening America’s first women’s hospital, gynecologist J. Marion Sims experimented on slaves. Should he still be celebrated as the ‘father’ of modern gynecology?
• Is the notion of “American Century” accurate?
• American exceptionalism in the 20 th century vs. now.
• Has technological innovation always been beneficial for the American public?

🏞️ Native American Topics to Write About

Much effort has gone into improving the relations between Americans and the indigenous peoples. Unfortunately, this hasn’t always been the case. The history of native Americans is tainted with cruel battles. Taking a closer look reveals the interplay of various cultures and customs.

• Pocahontas is one of the most renowned figures in Native American history. Compare Pocahontas’ real life vs. how she is depicted in the media. Why was she often romanticized?
• How did Andrew Jackson’s government justify the Indian Removal Act? Moral standards during that time and economic reasoning might be a compelling area to focus on.
• Native American participation in American wars. The colonists fought many battles with each other. France, Spain, and England all competed for the new territory. Did Native Americans participate in these fights? If so, whose side were they on?
• African peoples were not the only ones who suffered serfdom. Your research paper could cover the colonial enslavement of Native Americans.
• In the 18 th century, settlers and natives negotiated a variety of treaties. What did they say? Were these treaties ever beneficial for the natives?
• The Indian Appropriations Act of 1851 organized Native American lives into reservations. What did life look like for natives in these reservations? Additionally, you could examine how reservations affect their lives today.
• Attempts to deal with Native Americans included assimilation and “civilization.” How did these methods work out? For a concrete example, investigate Henry Pratt’s Carlisle Indian Industrial school.
• If you want to know more about Indian belief systems, research the emergence of the Ghost Dance. Originating in the late 19 th century, many native communities adapted the new tradition.
• Geronimo escaped captivity countless times before turning himself in. How did he do that? Your essay can look at his beliefs and this geographical knowledge.
• The Narragansett was the first tribe to encounter European settlers. What were their relations? How did they develop? Consider territorial struggles and the role of Roger Williams.

Are you looking for something else? Check out these US history essay questions and prompts:

• Compare and contrast American and Australian historical relations to their native population.
• What events led to the breakout of King Philip’s War?
• Ancient Indian burial rituals and modern myths.
• How did the Cherokees rebuild their lives after the Trail of Tears?
• Sacagawea’s contribution to the success of the Lewis and Clark expedition.
• Great Native American leaders: Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull.
• What happened at the Battle of the Little Bighorn?
• Consequences for Native American lives after the proclamation of 1763.
• The crucial role of Navajo Code Talkers in WWII.
• How did integration into American culture transform tribal life for different tribes?
• Explore naming customs of various Native American tribes.
• Is Black Elk Speaks an accurate representation of Lakota culture?
• What did the American Indian Movement achieve?
• What makes the Massacre of Wounded Knee significant?
• Trace Leonard Peltier’s career in politics and activism.
• Chief Tecumseh and the Indian confederacy.
• Compare and contrast the cultures of native tribes from various regions in America before colonization.
• How did American policies regarding the indigenous population change from the Mayflower’s arrival until now?
• What happened to California’s extensive Native American population after it became a state?
• The development of Native American music.
• Traditional Cherokee farming tools and techniques.
• Native Americans and religion: what compelled some chiefs to convert to Christianity?
• How did N. Scott Momaday’s House Made of Dawn shape indigenous cultures’ image for the general public?
• How did native spiritualism relate to the environment?
• Gender roles of the Sioux tribe before 1900.
• The greatest battles between First Nations and Americans.
• Why were the Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, Seminole, and Cherokee considered the “Five Civilized Tribes”?
• America’s first native newspaper: The Cherokee Phoenix and its modern equivalent.
• How did many of today’s Native Americans become entangled with alcohol and gambling?
• Myths and speculations on the ancient origins of indigenous Americans.
• Economic development of Native American tribes in the 20 th century.
• Why did Cochise and his Apache warriors raid American settlements?
• Trace the history of indigenous feminism.
• What were the blood quantum laws, and why were they introduced?
• Sitting Bull and Buffalo Bill: forging an unlikely friendship.
• The accomplishments of Oglala Lakota chief Red Cloud.
• How did the Louisiana Purchase impact First Nations in the region?
• The history of Native Americans in law and politics.
• The political aftermath of the Sand Creek Massacre
• Cheyenne warrior societies: the emergence of Dog Soldiers as a separate band.

⭐ Topics on Famous People in American History

People shape history. Many of America’s leading historical figures made it to global importance. This section provides you with history essay topics on American artists, presidents, innovators, and more.

• The “King of Pop” Michael Jackson died a decade ago. Why is he still one of the most debated American celebrities? Your essay could focus on the controversial allegations of child abuse towards him.
• The social influence of Benjamin Franklin’s journalism is an enticing topic. It allows you to look at the founding father from a different angle. Make sure to include in your essay his desire to educate Americans in morality.
• John Harvey Kellogg was a progressive healthcare leader. He was also a fierce follower of Adventism. If you endorse obscure things, write about Kellogg’s “warfare with passion.”
• Mural made Jackson Pollock famous. Reflect on his career before and after the painting. How did the artist find his passion for drip painting?
• As a First Lady, Betty Ford was a strong advocate for women’s rights. But her political influence didn’t end with her husband’s career. Discuss Betty Ford’s accomplishments after her time in the White House. Mention her addiction and the subsequent establishment of the Betty Ford Center.
• In 1935, J. Edgar Hoover founded the FBI. In his later years, he became a controversial figure due to his abuses of power . Examine Hoover’s investigations of subversion. What do you find surprising about them?
• Before his brother’s assassination, Bobby Kennedy wasn’t particularly popular in the US. Analyze his speeches during his political career after the event. What made him a compassionate orator?
• The Kennedy-Nixon debates provide a rich foundation for those interested in political campaigning. How did the public react to them? What did the polls say? Keep in mind that it was America’s first televised presidential debate.
• If you seek to combine environmentalism and politics, Al Gore is your man. How did Al Gore shape America’s political discourse in the 2000s? Consider his loss against George Bush in the controversial 2000 election.
• Literature enthusiasts know Allen Ginsberg for his explicit poem Howl . How did he express his political and social activism in his works? You could focus on his fight for free speech and the Howl trial.

We’ve got more topics on regents and other famous Americans for you to check out:

• Just Say No: Nancy Reagan and the failure of her anti-drug campaign.
• Why was Abraham Lincoln such a controversial figure?
• Kurt Cobain and Nirvana: the voice of the ‘90s youth.
• Ronald Reagan was an actor before he became president. What drove him into politics?
• What circumstances made Donald Trump’s presidency possible?
• Why was Jimmy Carter such an unpopular president?
• Discuss what Eleanor Roosevelt achieved for women.
• Stanley Kubrick: was he the greatest filmmaker of the 20 th century?
• The role of First Ladies before the Civil War.
• Judith Butler’s influence on American feminism.
• Margaret Sanger: the initiator of the birth control movement.
• How did Oprah Winfrey get to where she is now?
• Steve Jobs and the revolution of computer technology.
• Research the mysterious Zodiac Killer and his ciphers. Why were many people obsessed with him?
• How did the Wright Brothers shape the history of aviation?
• Amelia Earhart’s disappearance: myths and facts.
• J. Robert Oppenheimer’s contributions to physics.
• Bruce Lee and the transformation of martial arts.
• How did O.J. Simpson end up in the US’ most famous car chase?
• Charles Goodyear and the road to vulcanized rubber.
• Creating nanotechnology : the legacy of Eric Drexler.
• Muhammad Ali’s influence on raising awareness for Parkinson’s research.
• Describe how Bobby Fischer impacted the world of chess.
• What made Chuck Norris so famous?
• How did Marilyn Monroe change the American attitude towards sexuality?
• Truman Capote’s role in advancing LGBT rights.
• Harper Lee’s biography after the publishing of To Kill A Mockingbird .
• Transforming science fiction: the legacy of Philip K. Dick.
• Andy Warhol as a global anti-capitalist icon.
• Bringing quantum physics forward: the brilliance of Richard Feynman.
• Samuel Colt and the consequences of inventing the revolver.
• Analyze the significance of Helen Keller’s work for women’s and disabled persons’ rights.
• How did Sam Walton become the wealthiest American in 1985?
• Discuss the importance of Thurgood Marshall for the Civil Rights Movement.
• What inspired Bill W. to found Alcoholics Anonymous?
• Paving the way for gay politicians: the activism of Harvey Milk.
• What was Louis B. Mayer’s management style with MGM?
• Walt Disney: who was the person behind the chipper cartoons?
• Trace Estée Lauder’s success story.
• How did Olympia Brown contribute to advance gender equality in the religious sphere? 

🦅 Other US History Topics to Write About 

Essay topics on us history before 1865.

The period of colonial America is packed with turmoil. Think of the Boston Tea Party or the American Revolution. And these are only two of that era’s most notable events. In this rubric, you’ll find colonial American history essay topics. The period in question starts with the British arrival in the New World and ends with the Civil War.

• The origins of Thanksgiving. One idea is to find out why the Pilgrims started celebrating it in the first place. Alternatively, you could examine how it became a national holiday.
• Why did the British begin settling in the New World? This topic allows you to explore the rivalry with Spain. Or you could investigate England’s problem with poverty.
• Discuss the emergence of joint-stock companies. Who profited from them? What is their legacy? You might also want to study their role in early settling attempts.
• Compare and contrast the Jamestown and Plymouth settlements. You can concentrate on areas such as religion and government.

• Why did Americans start revolting? An excellent place to begin might be America’s position in global power struggles. The impact of the European Enlightenment movement is also something to consider.
• The history of African American culture. Ask yourself these questions: How does it differ from the way it is now? What factors influenced its development?
• What problems arose during the drafting of the Constitution? You might want to write about the economic crisis. Other important factors include different interest groups and their expectations.
• How did the American Revolution influence society? Your essay can be concerned with its immediate or long-term impact. Find out how women, slaves, and other groups reacted to the revolutionary spirit.
• Consequences of the Royal Proclamation of 1783. American settlers didn’t obey the proclamation, but it still proved to be influential. Your paper could discuss why. Perhaps you’d also like to ponder if it was a good idea.
• The role of nationalism in the westward expansion. Explore how Americans justified their belief in Manifest Destiny.

Don’t forget to check out these essay topics on early American history:

• Why did the settlers start importing slaves?
• How did Texas become a sovereign republic?
• Why was the American Revolution successful?
• Discuss the significance of the Louisiana Purchase.
• What events led to the war of 1812 ?
• How did the French Revolution impact America?
• Describe the changes the American Revolution brought to the states.
• What did “American” mean in the 18 th century?
• The role of the Sons and Daughters of Liberty in achieving unity.
• Why was the right to bear arms included in the Bill of Rights?
• The first President of the United States.
• Investigate the origins of the two-party system.
• Alexander Hamilton’s financial policies: opposition and political consequences.
• How did Washington, DC become the national capital?
• Trace the Lewis and Clark expedition.
• Analyze the importance of cotton for the South’s economy in the 1800s.
• How did the relations between the settlers and Native Americans develop over time?
• Who formed the abolitionist movement, and why?
• How did Kansas become a battleground for proponents and opponents of slavery?
• Who were the Border Ruffians?
• What was the Compromise of 1850?
• Consequences of the Mexican-American war.
• Long-term influences of Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin .
• Compare the real Underground Railroad with the Underground Femaleroad in Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale .
• The Declaration of Independence and its legacy.
• What did the philosophy of transcendentalism entail?
• Abigail Adams and the fight for women’s rights in the new republic.
• Who was Daniel Shays?
• Trace the ratification process of the United States’ Constitution.
• What problems arose with the Missouri Compromise ?
• The revival of religion in the US after achieving independence.
• How did the mass immigration of Germans and Irish people impact the US?
• Nativism in the US: riots and the politics of the Know-Nothings.
• How did the South and the North respectively argue for and against slavery?
• Investigate the emergence of the “Old American West.”
• Study the connection of the blue jeans’ invention with the California gold rush .
• Describe a day in a life of a slave.
• Why was the Dred Scott Decision significant?
• How does the 1860 election relate to the southern states seceding from the Union?
• Explain the term “popular sovereignty.”

Civil War Topics for Your Paper

In the pre-war period, tensions in the US over state rights and slavery were high. The differences seemed impossible to overcome. Eventually, this led to several southern states seceding from the Union. What followed was the bloodiest war ever to take place on American ground. In writing about the Civil War, you can explore military, political, and social issues.

• Did the South ever have a chance to win? The conflict seemed to be heavily in favor of the more industrialized North. Still, it took four years of fighting to get the South to surrender. Your essay could examine the South’s underestimated strengths.
• Compare and contrast the South’s and North’s economic situation on the eve of the Civil War. You might want to investigate the following questions: What did they produce? How did this influence the decision to wage war?
• How did the Emancipation Proclamation affect the war? You could focus on the contributions of African American soldiers.
• Discuss the fatal mistakes made on the battlefields of the Civil War. What decisive moments impacted its results the most? Your paper might explore what the generals could have done differently.
• Was the Civil War inevitable ? It may be interesting to contemplate a possible compromise. In doing so, think about whether this would have merely delayed the war.
• The general public’s position on the Civil War. It might be compelling to analyze who supported the effort and why. One focal point could be on differences between social classes.
• The role of beliefs during the Civil War. You could investigate what the South and the North respectively held sacred. Were religious beliefs a crucial motivator for one or both sides?
• The “Angel of the Battlefield”: Clara Barton. An essay could analyze how she contributed to the recognition of women’s war participation. It could also examine how it forwarded the struggle for women’s rights.

• What were the political reasons to fight the Civil War? Investigating this question might yield surprising insights.
• Contrasting Stonewall Jackson and Ulysses Grant might be engaging for those who are interested in military strategies.

Do you want more? Have a look at the following topic samples for high and middle school students:

• Analyze why Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address became a critical moment in American history.
• Was the Civil War justified?
• Why was Fort Sumter relevant?
• How did the Civil War battles impact the American social sphere?
• What does the notion of the “Lost Cause” mean?
• Would the election of a different man other than Abraham Lincoln as president have prevented the Civil War?
• Why did many former slaves enlist in the Union army after the Emancipation Proclamation?
• Describe the consequences of Abraham Lincoln’s assassination .
• Why was slavery essential for the South?
• Foreign US policy during the 1860s.
• European reactions on the American Civil War.
• How did Jefferson Davis’ government differ from Abraham Lincoln’s ?
• Analyze the notion “A rich man’s war and a poor man’s fight.” Why was this especially true in the South?
• Why did the Union rely heavily on blockades to weaken the Confederation?
• Examine how Mary Boykin Chesnut’s A Diary from Dixie reflects on the war.
• How did the war affect life in the South vs. the North?
• Investigate the events that led to the Union victory in 1864-65.
• Was the abolitionist movement the catalyst for the war?
• The impact of industrialization on the battlefield.
• What technologies emerged during the Civil War?
• Discuss the societal effects of war photography.
• How did the Civil War affect the many immigrants who recently entered the United States?
• Did the American Civil War impact the rest of the globe? If so, how?
• Can one consider Abraham Lincoln one of the best presidents in American history? If so, why?
• Compare and contrast the most important generals and their tactics.
• Debate the influence of Manifest Destiny on exacerbating tensions.
• What states were devastated the most after the war, and why?
• Describe the South’s and North’s goals during the Civil War.
• What does the term “Bleeding Kansas” mean?
• Newspaper coverage of the Civil War in the South vs. the North.
• Analyze various letters to understand how people from different backgrounds perceived the Civil War.
• Art and theater in 1860s America.
• Debate how sectionalism and protectionism contributed to pre-war tensions in the US.
• Why did the Crittenden Compromise fail?
• How did the border states perceive the battles of the Civil War?
• Explore the war contributions and legacy of Mary Edwards Walker.
• The importance of the US navy in leading the Union to victory.
• What happened on the West Coast during the Civil War?
• Trace a timeline of the Civil War’s key battles.
• Nation-building and national identity: how did the Civil War shape the idea of “Americanness”?

Essay Topics on Reconstruction & Industrialization

After the war, industrialization was rapidly changing the American landscape. Additionally, restoring the order after years of fighting proved a challenge. In abolishing slavery, Republicans took the first step to ensure constitutional rights for African Americans. But not everyone shared the same viewpoints. Dive deeper into these confusing times with one of our topics on American history before 1877:

• Why did scholars initially view the Reconstruction Era in a bad light? When answering this question, you can focus on the idea of “Black Supremacism.” You also might want to analyze what compelled them to shift their perspective.
• Another option is investigating what caused Reconstruction to fail . You can further argue where it succeeded and perhaps offer a new interpretation.
• Maybe you’d prefer an essay on why the Reconstruction Era mattered . This topic allows you to highlight crucial contemporary debates still relevant today.
• Tracing the origins of the Ku-Klux-Klan has much to offer. You can link this topic to today and question if handling them has changed.
• Why did President Johnson veto the enactment of the Civil Rights Act in 1866? It might be interesting to contrast his political reasoning and his personal beliefs.
• Compare the phases of Reconstruction. How did the concept change from Lincoln’s initial plans to President Johnson’s execution?
• How did urbanization affect American life? Your paper could contrast life in the city and the countryside. You can take economic, social, and health factors into account.
• How did the American landscape change during industrialization? You might want to examine city growth and architecture.
• The invention of electricity was one of the most important events in human history. It might be compelling to wonder what side effects its implementation had.
• Why not investigate the symbolism of skyscrapers? Ayn Rand’s The Fountainhead is a fascinating source for this subject. 

Black History Topics for an Essay

African American experiences are still very different than those of their white compatriots. That’s why it’s crucial to analyze people of color’s perspectives of and contributions to history. Black history includes thematic topics on education, society, and culture.

• Steve McQueen’s 12 Years A Slave adapts the 1853 memoirs of Solomon Northup. Though the film doesn’t shy away from brutal images, critics argued it was too soft. Should film writers surrender accurate historical representation to make their content more accessible?
• After the Civil War, slavery was officially banned in the US. Still, the South continued to find ways to exploit black labor. Examine the consequences of new methods such as convict leasing and sharecropping.
• Many of those who opposed slavery complied with the system by staying silent or inactive. What did this mean for the reality of African Americans? Why didn’t these people stand up?
• A paper on what caused the Red Summer of 1919 can focus on the South to North migration of African Americans during WWI.
• In the 20 th century, the Great Migration relocated many African Americans. How did this event impact the development of black culture? Your paper could concentrate on art movements or political activism.
• The GI Bill promised financial benefits to veterans. But former black soldiers didn’t profit as much as their white compatriots. To analyze a concrete example of racist inequality, you can write about how the GI Bill affected African American veterans.
• For decades, American universities did their best to keep African Americans from receiving higher education. How is education inequality still impacting black students today?
• After WWI, Tulsa was a prosperous city home to the so-called “ Black Wall Street .” Then the Tulsa Race Massacre happened, and the area was left in shambles. Explore the moving history of Tulsa’s Greenwood District.
• Do you want to investigate the powerful interplay between cinema and reality? Dedicate your essay to the connection between D.W. Griffith’s 1915 picture The Birth of a Nation and the Ku Klux Klan’s revival. What did this mean for black lives in the early 20 th century?
• Pan-Africanism in the United States: Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association. Writing about this topic, you might want to highlight African American nationalism in the 20 th century.

Are none of these prompts for you? Don’t worry; we’ve got more African American history paper topics for college students:

• Booker T. Washington vs. W. E. B. Du Bois: similarities and disagreements.
• African American innovators who never received credit for their inventions.

• From Hiram Rhodes Revels and Shirley Chisholm to Barack Obama: African Americans who paved the way for modern American democracy.
• Should the US government pay reparations to descendants of former slaves?
• Sojourner Truth: how did the former slave fight to end injustice?
• How did job competition in the North intensify racial tensions in the 20 th century?
• The accomplishments of Dorothy Johnson Vaughan.
• Ida B. Wells’ legacy and the history of lynching in America.
• Why do we celebrate Black History Month, and why is it important?
• What does Juneteenth commemorate?
• Histories of the most famous black scientists in the United States.
• How did the geographic distribution of black people in America transform over time?
• Key activists of the abolitionist movement.
• How did African Americans contribute to NASA’s success?
• African Americans in the age of Prohibition: views and effects.
• Juxtapose the development of black rights and felon rights.
• Analyze the significance of Marian Anderson’s show on the National Mall for the Civil Rights Movement.
• African American women in the beauty business: the story of Madame C. J. Walker.
• What motivated many black Americans to fight in WWI voluntarily?
• How did enslaved people manage to escape to the Northern states?
• Compare the origins and outcomes of the Civil Rights Movement’s various marches.
• The New Deal’s effect on African Americans.
• Explore the connection between black history in the US and cotton.
• What does the term “black flight” mean, and why might the phenomenon be a problem?
• How did white capping inhibit the development of black communities?
• What were the goals of the Che Lumumba Club?
• Analyze the Regents of the University of California v. Bakke case. What did its outcome mean for equality?
• What makes Angela Davis a crucial figure in the black history discourse?
• Analyze how Jackie Robinson broke the “color line” to pave the way for African American participation in professional sports.
• Discuss the long-term consequences of the Tuskegee experiment.
• How did the Watts Riots affect African American communities in California?
• Explore the origins of Kwanzaa.
• African American poetry before 1877: Lucy Terry’s Bars Fight .
• Not so free after all: enactment of the Fugitive Slave Law.
• Did the situation for American people of color improve after the implementation of Affirmative Action laws? If so, how?
• Trailblazing black Americans in education.
• How did sports help promote equality for African Americans in the 1900s?
• Who were the Scottsboro boys?
• Journalism’s fight for social justice: The Crisis magazine then and now.
• How did Prohibition help dissolve segregation?

We hope you found your ideal essay or project topic on US history. Good luck with your assignment!

Further reading:

• Americanism Essay: Examples, Tips & Topics [2024 Update]
• 497 Interesting History Topics to Research
• 460 Excellent Political Topics to Write about in 2024
• 149 Interesting History Essay Topics and Events to Write about
• A List of 450 Powerful Social Issues Essay Topics
• 210 Immigration Essay Topics
• A List of 175 Interesting Cultural Topics to Write About
• 512 Research Topics on HumSS (Humanities & Social Sciences)
• Pre-Columbian to the New Millenium: US History
• A Brief Guide to Writing the History Paper: Harvard
• American Civil War: History.com
• Reconstruction: Encyclopedia Britannica
• Industrialization and Urbanization in the United States: Oxford Research Encyclopedias
• The United States in WWI: Khan Academy
• America Goes to War: The National WWII Museum
• Controversies: National Council on Public History
• The 100 Most Significant Americans of All Time: Smithsonian Magazine
• American History: History Central
• The 25 Moments From American History That Matter Right Now: Time
• All Topics: American Historical Association
• Native American: Library of Congress
• African American History: National Archives
• Civil Rights Movement: ADL
• US 20th Century: Princeton University
• The Progressive Era: Lumen Learning
• Timeline: United States History: World Digital Library
• Explore by Timeline: The New Nation (1783-1860): US General Services Administration
• The Emergence of Modern America: Smithsonian Institution
• What Was the Cold War?: National Geographic
• The Story of the Atomic Bomb: The Ohio State University
• Continental Feminism: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• The Constitution: The White House
• The US During World War I: Delaware.gov
• America in the First World War: The British Library
• Key Events and Figures of Reconstruction: The City University of New York
• Reconstruction and Its Impact: IDCA
• 400 Years since Slavery: a Timeline of American History: The Guardian
• American Revolution Facts: American Battlefield Trust
• The Presidents of the United States: Constitution Facts
• What Caused the American Industrial Revolution: Investopedia
• Reasons Behind the Revolutionary War: NCpedia
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543 American History Essay Topics & Good Ideas

• Icon Calendar 18 May 2024
• Icon Page 4964 words
• Icon Clock 22 min read

Exploring the multifaceted nature of American history provides a wide range of thought-provoking essay topics. Basically, there are many subjects that can be analyzed, studying the country’s indigenous origins, its struggle for independence, its participation in world wars, the civil rights movement, technological advancements, ongoing sociopolitical discourse, and others. In the United States (US), some themes can focus on significant events, like the Revolutionary War or the Space Race, important figures, such as Abraham Lincoln, Rosa Parks, or Martin Luther King Jr., or major periods, including the Great Depression or the Cold War era. The examination of how historical influences have shaped current American society, issues of racial and gender equality, immigration policy, and foreign affairs, offers rich perspectives. Thus, American history essay topics cover a deep understanding of the evolution of the nation built on diverse ethnicities and ideologies.

Cool American History Essay Topics

• Examination of Manifest Destiny’s Influence on Territorial Expansion
• Colonial Era’s Impact on Modern American Democracy
• Evaluating the Emancipation Proclamation’s Consequences
• Prohibition Era: Analysis of Society and Law
• Understanding the Trail of Tears: Native American Displacement
• Civil War’s Effects on American Industrialization
• Abolition Movement’s Roles in Shaping American Values
• Vietnam War: Implications for Foreign Policy
• Exploring Women’s Suffrage Movement: A Milestone in Gender Equality
• Apollo Program’s Influence on Science and Technology
• Examining the Harlem Renaissance’s Impact on African American Culture
• McCarthyism’s Consequences on Freedom of Expression
• Revolutionary War: Analysis of the Birth of a Nation
• Influence of Immigration on the Cultural Landscape of America
• Civil Rights Movement’s Impact on Legislation and Society
• Japanese Internment during World War II: An Examination
• Investigation of the Cuban Missile Crisis’ Effect on Cold War Tensions
• Roles of Transcontinental Railroad in Westward Expansion
• Impacts of the Great Awakening on American Religious Practices
• Watergate Scandal: A Study in Political Ethics
• Exploration of the Roaring Twenties’ Societal Shifts
• Revolutionary Figures: Contributions of the Founding Fathers

Easy American History Research Topics

• American Exceptionalism: Origins and Influence on Global Policy
• Analysis of the Louisiana Purchase’s Impact on Expansion
• Jazz Age: Implications for American Music and Culture
• Evaluating the Space Race: National Pride and Technological Advancement
• Consequences of the Teapot Dome Scandal in the Roaring Twenties
• Federalist Papers: Shaping American Governance
• Westward Expansion: Effect on Native American Communities
• Impacts of the Dred Scott Decision on Slavery Debates
• Cold War: Ramifications for American Society
• Influence of Thomas Paine’s ‘Common Sense’ on Revolutionary Sentiment
• Exploration of American Neutrality in World War I
• Bay of Pigs Invasion: An Examination of Failed Foreign Policy
• The Dust Bowl: Environmental Impact and Migration
• Roles of Television in the Nixon-Kennedy Debates
• The Stonewall Riots: Catalyst for the LGBTQ+ Rights Movement
• Populist Movement: Impact on American Politics
• Influence of the Gold Rush on California’s Development
• Ratification of the Bill of Rights: Impact on Citizen Liberties
• Rise of Labor Unions: Influencing Workers’ Rights
• Civil War Reconstruction: Successes and Failures
• The Zenger Trial: A Landmark for Freedom of the Press

Interesting US History Topics

• Exploration of the Battle of Gettysburg’s Significance in the Civil War
• Implications of the Monroe Doctrine on American Foreign Policy
• Marbury vs. Madison: Analysis of Judicial Review
• Unraveling the Causes and Consequences of the Iran-Contra Affair
• The American Red Scare: Effects on Society and Politics
• Causes and Implications of the 1929 Wall Street Crash
• Underground Railroad: Role in Abolitionist Movement
• Analysis of the Three-Fifths Compromise’s Impact on Representation
• Significance of the Missouri Compromise in Slavery Debates
• The Pentagon Papers: A Study in Government Transparency
• Roles of Susan B. Anthony in the Women’s Suffrage Movement
• Influence of the Scopes Trial on the Teaching of Evolution
• Understanding the Impact of the GI Bill on Post-War America
• Tracing the Development of American Modernism in the 20th Century
• Federal Indian Policy: An Examination of Treaties and Legislation
• Impacts of the Homestead Act on Westward Expansion
• Analysis of the Lewis and Clark Expedition’s Contribution to Scientific Discovery
• Analysis of the Pentagon Papers’ Effect on Public Trust
• Exploration of the Boston Tea Party’s Impact on Revolutionary Sentiment
• Vietnam War Protest Movement: Influence on Public Policy
• Mexican-American War: Causes and Consequences
• Repercussions of the Atomic Bomb on Global Politics
• The Gilded Age: Scrutinizing Wealth and Inequality

US History Topics for High School

• Impacts of the Gold Rush on California’s Development
• Significance of the Monroe Doctrine in US Foreign Policy
• Manifest Destiny and Expansion of the American West
• Examination of The Great Depression’s Socioeconomic Effects
• Role of Women in the American Revolution
• Native American Resistance: Case Study of the Sioux Nation
• Influence of Jazz Music on the Harlem Renaissance
• Abolitionism’s Effect on Pre-Civil War Politics
• Reconstruction Era: Assessing its Success and Failures
• Impact of Immigration Waves on American Culture and Economy
• Evolution of US Foreign Policy During the Cold War
• Transformation of American Society During the Roaring Twenties
• Examination of The Civil Rights Movement’s Major Milestones
• Roles of Labor Unions in the Industrial Revolution
• Influence of The Second Amendment on Gun Control Debates
• Native American Assimilation Policy: The Carlisle Indian School
• Cuban Missile Crisis: A Pivotal Moment in Cold War History
• Women’s Suffrage Movement and the 19th Amendment
• Exploration of the Gilded Age’s Economic Disparities
• Significance of the Federalist Papers in Constitutional Interpretation
• Analysis of the Patriot Act’s Impact on Civil Liberties
• Effects of the Vietnam War on Domestic Social Movements
• Roles of New Deal Programs in America’s Economic Recovery

US History Topics for College Students

• Exploration and Impact of the Louisiana Purchase
• Evolution of the American Civil Rights Movement
• Native American Resistance to European Colonization
• Establishment and Influence of the Federal Reserve System
• Impacts of Industrialization on American Society
• Consequences of Prohibition: The 18th and 21st Amendments
• Influential Innovations During the Second Industrial Revolution
• Manifest Destiny and Its Sociopolitical Implications
• African-American Soldiers in the American Civil War
• Formation and Legacy of the Hudson Bay Company
• Roles of Religion in the Founding of American Colonies
• American Policy and the Vietnam War: An Analysis
• Development of the Transcontinental Railroad
• Expansion of American Pop Culture During the Cold War
• Key Legal Cases in the Fight for Desegregation
• LGBTQ+ Rights: The Stonewall Riots and Beyond
• Role of the American Media During the Gulf War
• Technological Advances and the American Space Race
• Examination of the US Immigration Policies Throughout History
• Rise of American Suburbia in the Post-WWII Era
• Development of the American Healthcare System: Legislation and Impact

US History Topics for University

• Watergate Scandal and Its Influence on American Politics
• Native American Civil Rights Movement in the 20th Century
• Cuban Missile Crisis: Cold War Diplomacy and Consequences
• Influence of the American Labor Movement on Working Conditions
• Mexican-American War: Causes, Progress, and Consequences
• Women’s Suffrage: From Seneca Falls to the 19th Amendment
• Role of American Inventors in the Age of Enlightenment
• Effects of the US Interstate Highway System on American Society
• Examination of the US Intervention in Latin America
• Impacts of the Baby Boomer Generation on American Culture
• California Gold Rush and its Influence on Westward Expansion
• Abolition Movement: Influential Figures and Strategies
• Development and Impact of the US Postal Service
• Key Economic Policies of the Roosevelt Administration
• Influence of the Harlem Renaissance on American Literature
• Technological Shifts and the Digital Age in America
• Evolution of Gun Control Legislation in the United States
• Exploration of the Oregon Trail: Migration and Hardship
• Rise and Fall of the American Temperance Movement
• Impacts of the GI Bill on Post-War American Society
• American Imperialism: From the Philippines to Puerto Rico
• Cultural Significance of the American Beat Generation
• Causes and Outcomes of the American Housing Bubble in 2008

American History Essay Topics on Revolution Battles and Key Events

• The Battle of Saratoga and Its Influence on the American Revolution
• African Americans’ Roles in Revolutionary War
• Impacts of the Battle of Yorktown on American Independence
• Thomas Paine’s “Common Sense” and Its Revolutionary Ideals
• Women’s Contributions to the American Revolution
• The Battle of Trenton: Pivotal Point in Revolutionary War
• Boston Massacre: Instigator of Colonial Dissent
• French Alliance: A Game-Changer in American Victory
• Constitutional Convention: Shaping the American Government
• The Battle of Bunker Hill: Boosting Revolutionary Morale
• Declaration of Independence: Foundation of American Nationhood
• Lexington and Concord: Sparking the Revolutionary War
• Native Americans’ Impacts on the American Revolution
• Treaty of Paris (1783): Securing American Independence
• Battle of Cowpens: Key Turning Point in Southern Campaign
• George Washington’s Influence on Revolutionary Leadership
• Valley Forge: Endurance and Transformation During the Revolution
• Guilford Courthouse: Decisive Battle in the Southern Campaign
• Stamp Act Crisis: Prelude to Revolutionary Resistance
• Militia’s Roles in the Revolutionary War

American Essay History Topics Before 1865

• Founding Fathers’ Vision for a Democratic Republic
• Revolutionary War: Catalyst for American Independence
• Slavery and the Abolitionist Movement
• Louisiana Purchase: Expanding National Borders
• Manifest Destiny and Westward Expansion
• Underground Railroad: Resistance against Slavery
• Boston Tea Party: Igniting the American Revolution
• Emancipation Proclamation: Eliminating Slavery in the Confederacy
• Declaration of Independence: Establishing American Nationhood
• Constitutional Convention: Framing the US Constitution
• Dred Scott Case: Impact on African Americans’ Rights
• Lewis and Clark Expedition: Exploring the Western Frontier
• Industrialization: Transforming American Society
• Battle of Yorktown: British Surrender and American Victory
• Women’s Suffrage Movement: Achieving Voting Rights for Women
• Mexican-American War: Annexing Texas and Western Territories
• Great Awakening: Religious Revival in Colonial America
• Missouri Compromise: Balancing Free and Slave States
• Marbury vs. Madison: Establishing Judicial Review
• War of 1812: Forging American National Identity

US Research Paper Topics on Black History

• Struggles and Triumphs: The Impact of the Underground Railroad on Black History
• The Legacy of Harriet Tubman: A Trailblazer for Freedom and Equality
• Examining the Abolitionist Movement: From Slavery to Liberation
• African American Soldiers in the Civil War: Their Role and Contribution
• Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott: Igniting Change for Civil Rights
• Martin Luther King Jr.: A Visionary Leader for Equality
• The Black Panthers: Revolutionizing Racial Empowerment
• Celebrating Black Culture and Artistic Expression: The Harlem Renaissance
• Pioneers of African American Military Aviation: The Tuskegee Airmen
• Desegregation in Schools: Brown vs. Board of Education’s Impact
• The March on Washington: A Milestone for Civil Rights Advancement
• Malcolm X: A Voice for Black Nationalism and Self-Determination
• Rebuilding After the Civil War: The Era of Reconstruction
• Breaking Down Legal Barriers: The Civil Rights Act of 1964
• The Great Migration: Black Americans’ Journey Northward
• Integration of New Orleans Schools: Ruby Bridges’ Courageous Stand
• Tragedy and Resilience in Tulsa: The Black Wall Street Massacre
• The Vital Role of Black Women in the Civil Rights Movement
• Redefining Black Identity and Empowerment: The Black Power Movement
• Frederick Douglass: From Escaping Slavery to Becoming a Leader

US History Essay Topics on Civil Rights Movement Topics Beyond the 20th Century

• Women’s Roles in the Civil Rights Struggle Beyond the 20th Century
• LGBTQ+ Activism’s Impacts on Contemporary Civil Rights
• Addressing Police Brutality in the Fight for Civil Rights Today
• Progress and Challenges of the Voting Rights Act in Post-Civil Rights America
• Intersections of Race and Immigration in the Struggle for Equal Rights
• Environmental Justice: Linking It to the Civil Rights Movement Today
• Reparations Debate: Remedying Historical Injustices for Civil Rights
• Disability Rights Movement: Achievements and Ongoing Struggles
• Indigenous Rights Movements: Continuing the Fight for Civil Liberties
• The Battle for Educational Equality in the Post-Civil Rights Era
• Affirmative Action: Equalizing Opportunities or Reverse Discrimination?
• Asian American Civil Rights Activism in the 21st Century
• Criminal Justice System and Civil Rights: Reforming for Equality
• Reproductive Rights as Fundamental Civil Liberties: Progress and Challenges
• Native American Tribal Sovereignty: Preserving Civil Rights in Modern America
• Nonviolent Resistance: A Powerful Tool in Modern Civil Rights Movements
• Addressing Racial Disparities: Civil Rights and the Mass Incarceration Crisis
• Immigrant Rights Movements: Upholding Civil Liberties in America
• Islamophobia and Civil Rights: Combating Discrimination in the 21st Century
• LGBTQ+ Rights: Fighting for Equality and Marriage Freedom
• Balancing Second Amendment Rights and Public Safety: The Gun Control Debate

American History Essay Topics on Cold War and McCarthyism

• Impacts of the Korean Conflict on Cold War Politics
• Red Scare and the Hollywood Blacklist
• Space Race and Significance in Cold War Dynamics
• Eisenhower’s “New Look” Policy and Nuclear Arms Race
• Berlin Crisis and Construction of the Wall
• McCarthyism and Suppression of Civil Liberties
• Bay of Pigs Invasion: Failed US Intervention in Cuba
• Vietnam Conflict as Proxy War in Cold Era
• Marshall Plan and American Economic Aid in Cold War
• Suez Crisis: Cold War Politics in the Middle East
• U-2 Spy Plane Incident and Escalating Tensions
• Hungarian Revolution and Soviet Repression
• Cultural Impacts of the Beat Generation During the Cold War
• Arms Control Negotiations: SALT and START Treaties
• Domino Theory and US Involvement in Southeast Asia
• CIA’s Roles in Covert Operations During Cold Conflict
• Influence of Korean Conflict on US Military Strategy
• Space Exploration: Cold War Competition for Technological Superiority
• Nuclear Test Ban Treaty: A Step Toward Détente
• Brinkmanship Strategy and Cuban Missile Crisis

American History Topics on Civil Rights Movement

• The Impact of Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott
• The Influence of Brown vs. Board of Education on Desegregation
• The March on Washington: Pursuing Equality
• Nonviolent Resistance: Catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement
• The Voting Rights Act: Expanding Ballot Access
• Freedom Riders: Challenging Segregation in Transportation
• Sit-In Movement: Breaking the Chains of Racial Segregation
• Birmingham Campaign: A Turning Point in the Struggle for Civil Rights
• Formation and Significance of the Black Panther Party
• Assassination of Malcolm X: Impact on the Civil Rights Movement
• Selma to Montgomery March: Milestone for Voting Rights
• Mississippi Freedom Summer: Empowering African American Voters
• Women’s Contributions to the Civil Rights Movement
• Black Power Movement: Revolutionizing Activism
• Civil Rights Act of 1964: Banning Discrimination
• Integration of Little Rock Central High School: Breaking Barriers
• Chicago Freedom Movement: Urban Segregation and Activism
• Medgar Evers’ Assassination: Tragic Loss for the Civil Rights Movement
• Fair Housing Act of 1968: Combating Housing Discrimination
• Albany Movement: Lessons From an Unsuccessful Campaign
• Impacts of the 24th Amendment: Eliminating Poll Taxes

US History Essay Topics on Immigration & Ethnic

• The Impact of Irish Immigration on American Society
• Chinese Exclusion Act: Origins and Ramifications
• Mexican Migration and the Bracero Program
• Italian Americans: Assimilation and Cultural Heritage
• The Great Migration: African American Movement to the North
• Japanese Internment: World War II Consequences
• Ellis Island: Gateway to the American Dream
• The Harlem Renaissance: Cultural Expression and Immigrants
• Irish Americans: Famine, Resilience, and Success
• Puerto Rican Migration and Nuyorican Culture
• Angel Island: The West Coast Immigration Center
• Immigration’s Impacts on Industrialization in the United States
• Polish Americans: Traditions and Integration
• The Bracero Program and Agricultural Labor
• Jewish Immigration and American Zionism
• Chinese Exclusion Act’s Influence on Immigration Policy
• Mexican Americans: Struggles and Achievements in the Southwest
• Immigration and the California Gold Rush
• German Americans: Contributions and Integration in American Society
• The Immigration Act of 1924: Restricting National Origins

American Industrial Revolution History Topics

• Roles of Eli Whitney’s Cotton Gin in Industrial Transformation
• Evolution of Transportation: Railroad’s Influence on American Industry
• The Rise of Urbanization during the Industrial Era
• Women’s Participation in the Industrial Workforce: Challenges and Achievements
• Native American Communities: Industrialization’s Impact
• Labor Movements and Worker Rights in the Industrial Age
• Technological Advancements and the Birth of the American Industrial Revolution
• Development of Factory System: Transition From Artisanal to Mass Production
• Immigration and Workforce Transformation in the Industrial Revolution
• Agricultural Practices: Industrialization’s Impact on American Farms
• American Markets: Industrial Revolution’s Role in Expansion
• The Growth of Urban Centers: Industrialization’s Effect on Cities
• Child Labor and the Industrial Revolution in America
• Changing Roles of Women in American Society during Industrialization
• Industrialization and American Trade and Commerce
• Government Regulation and Control in American Industrialization
• Impacts of the Industrial Revolution on American Education and Literacy
• Technological Advances in Communication during Industrialization
• Environmental Consequences of American Industrialization
• Industrial Revolution’s Influence on American Architecture
• Effects of Industrialization on American Art and Cultural Trends

Latin American History Essay Topics

• Conquest and Resistance in Latin America
• Economic Exploitation in Colonial Latin America
• Independence Movements in Latin America
• The Impact of European Immigration on Latin American Societies
• The Role of Women in Latin American Independence Movements
• Indigenous Cultures and Their Contributions to Latin American History
• Latin American Revolutions: Comparing Mexico and South America
• The Influence of African Slavery in Latin American Societies
• Dictatorships and Authoritarian Regimes in Latin America
• The Mexican Revolution: Causes and Consequences
• Cultural Identity and Nationalism in Latin America
• The Falklands War: Britain and Argentina in Latin America
• The Zapatista Movement: Indigenous Rights in Mexico
• Latin American Literature and the Boom of the 1960s
• Neoliberalism and Economic Crisis in Latin America
• Drug Trafficking and Its Impact on Latin American Societies
• Environmental Movements in Latin America
• Indigenous Land Rights and Conflicts in Latin America
• The Sandinista Revolution in Nicaragua
• Chilean Dictatorship: Pinochet’s Rule and Its Legacy

American History Topics on Progressive Era

• Reforming the American Education System During the Progressive Era
• Industrialization and Urbanization: Impact on Progressive Era Society
• Regulating Big Business: Anti-Trust Reforms in the Progressive Era
• Political Transformations: From Municipal to National Level in the Progressive Era
• Progressive Era Leaders: Teddy Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson
• Investigating Corruption: Muckrakers and Journalism in the Progressive Era
• Preserving America’s Natural Resources: The Conservation Movement in the Progressive Era
• Labor Rights and Social Justice: Workers’ Struggles in the Progressive Era
• Progressive Era Initiatives: Social Welfare Reforms and Their Impact
• Temperance and Prohibition: The Progressive Era’s Crusade Against Alcohol
• Suffrage and Equality: Women’s Fight for Political Rights in the Progressive Era
• Progressive Era Policies: Immigration Regulations and Nativism
• Ensuring Consumer Safety: Consumer Protection Reforms in the Progressive Era
• Science and Social Control: Eugenics and Social Darwinism in the Progressive Era
• Public Health and Sanitation: Reforms During the Progressive Era
• African Americans and Civil Rights: Challenges in the Progressive Era
• Expanding Federal Power: Progressive Era and the Growth of Government Authority
• Intellectual Movements of the Progressive Era: Pragmatism and Social Gospel
• The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire: A Turning Point for Labor Reforms
• Child Labor and Reform Efforts: Progressive Era’s Fight Against Exploitation
• Diversity and Assimilation: Progressive Era Immigration Policies

American History Essay Topics on Roaring Twenties

• Economic Prosperity and Consumerism in the Roaring Twenties
• Impacts of Prohibition on American Society During the Jazz Age
• Women’s Empowerment Movement in the Roaring Twenties
• Jazz Age: Cultural Revolution of the 1920s
• Harlem Renaissance: African-American Art and Culture in the Jazz Age
• Technological Advancements and Their Influence in the Roaring Twenties
• Red Scare and Fear of Communism in 1920s America
• The Great Gatsby: Symbolism and Critique of the Jazz Age
• Flappers and the Evolution of Gender Roles in the Roaring Twenties
• Scopes Trial: Clash of Evolution and Creationism in the 1920s
• Mass Media and Popular Culture in the Roaring Twenties
• Wall Street Crash of 1929: The End of an Era
• Political and Social Movements in the Jazz Age
• Prohibition Enforcement: Bootlegging and Hidden Bars in the 1920s
• Fashion Transformations in the Roaring Twenties
• Impact of Radio and Movies on American Culture in the Roaring Twenties
• Women’s Suffrage Movement and the 19th Amendment in the 1920s
• Race Relations and the KKK in the Roaring Twenties
• Art Deco: Architectural and Design Trends of the Jazz Age
• Automobile Industry’s Influence on American Society in the 1920s

American Reconstruction History Essay Topics

• The Evolution of Freedmen’s Rights in American Reconstruction
• Political Reforms and Transformation in Post-Civil War America
• Economic Shifts and Development During the Reconstruction Era
• The Influence of the Thirteenth Amendment on American Society
• Reconstruction Policies and Their Impact on Southern States
• Women’s Suffrage Movement: A Catalyst in Reconstruction
• African American Political Leadership in the Reconstruction Era
• The Struggle for Civil Rights in the Reconstruction Period
• The Establishment and Impact of the Freedmen’s Bureau
• African Americans’ Changing Roles in Post-Civil War America
• The Reconstruction Amendments: Expanding the Notions of Citizenship
• Education Reforms: Empowering the Disenfranchised During Reconstruction
• The Ku Klux Klan’s Opposition to Reconstruction
• The Reconstruction Act of 1867: Restructuring the South
• The Debate on Land Redistribution in the Reconstruction Era
• Reconstruction’s Enduring Influence on American Identity
• The Compromise of 1877: An End to Reconstruction
• Radical Republicans and Their Influence on the Reconstruction Era
• Shifting Political Dynamics: Southern Power During Reconstruction
• The Legacy of Reconstruction: Shaping American History
• The Supreme Court’s Role in Shaping Reconstruction Policies

LGBTQ+ American History Research Paper Topics

• Historical Milestones of LGBTQ+ Rights in America
• The Stonewall Riots: Catalyst for LGBTQ+ Activism
• Impacts of Harvey Milk on American LGBTQ+ Politics
• Transgender Rights Movement in the United States
• The AIDS Crisis and Its Effects on the LGBTQ+ Community
• Intersectionality: Race and Activism in LGBTQ+ History
• Lesbian Feminism in America: Past and Present
• Homophobia and Its Roots in American Society
• Evolution of LGBTQ+ Representation in Media and Entertainment
• LGBTQ+ Veterans: Advocacy on the Battlefield
• Significance of LGBTQ+ Landmarks in American History
• Religious Perspectives on LGBTQ+ Rights in America
• LGBTQ+ Activism in the Civil Rights Movement
• Impacts of Section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA)
• Challenges Faced by LGBTQ+ Youth in American Society
• LGBTQ+ Resistance and Resilience in Conservative States
• Role of LGBTQ+ Activism in Shaping Employment Discrimination Laws
• Pioneering Transgender Individuals in American History
• Queer Literature’s Contribution to LGBTQ+ Identity
• Roles of LGBTQ+ Community Centers in Promoting Equality

Native American History Essay Topics

• Native American Resistance During Early Colonial Encounters
• Impacts of European Diseases on Indigenous Populations
• Tribal Governance Structures and Political Systems of Native Nations
• Contributions of Native Americans to the American Revolution
• Forced Removal of Indigenous Tribes: The Trail of Tears
• Significance of Native American Diplomacy in the 19th Century
• Assimilation Policies and the Dawes Act: Effects on Indigenous Communities
• Native American Women in History: Leaders, Activists, and Guardians
• The Wounded Knee Massacre: Causes and Consequences
• Indigenous Art, Literature, and Music: Cultural Contributions
• Native American Tribes’ Role in the Civil War
• The Indian Reorganization Act: Impact on Tribal Sovereignty
• Land Rights and Legal Challenges Faced by Indigenous Peoples
• Native American Religion and Spiritual Practices: Continuity and Adaptation
• Native American Code Talkers in World Wars I and II
• Boarding Schools and Cultural Suppression: Indigenous Experiences
• The American Indian Movement (AIM): Impact on Indigenous Activism
• Indigenous Trade Networks and Economic Systems
• Reservation Policies and Tribal Self-Governance Among Indigenous Peoples
• Hunting, Gathering, and Agricultural Practices of Native Nations
• Indigenous Languages: Preservation and Revitalization Efforts

American History Research Paper Topics About World War I & II

• The Impact of Propaganda on American Society During World War I
• Women’s Roles in the American Homefront During World War II
• The Aftermath of World War I: Treaty of Versailles and Its Consequences
• America’s Race to Build the Atomic Bomb: The Manhattan Project
• African Americans’ Contribution to World War II
• The Great Depression’s Influence on American Entry Into World War II
• America’s Aid to Allied Forces: The Lend-Lease Act During World War II
• Racial Tensions in America During World War II: The Zoot Suit Riots
• The GI Bill: Impact on Post-World War II America
• America’s Shift in Foreign Policy After World War I: The Interwar Period
• The Battle of Midway: A Decisive Moment in the Pacific Theater of World War II
• Cold War Paranoia in America: The Red Scare and McCarthyism
• Japanese Americans’ Internment During World War II
• The Marshall Plan: American Aid for Post-World War II European Reconstruction
• Unsung Heroes of World War II: The Navajo Code Talkers
• Veterans’ Struggles During the Great Depression: The Bonus Army March
• American Nurses’ Role in World War I and II
• Tragedy in the Pacific Theater of World War II: The Bataan Death March
• Mexican Laborers in the American War Effort: The Bracero Program
• America’s Involvement in a Cold War Proxy Conflict: The Korean War

American History Essay Topics About Founding Fathers and the Constitution

• The Revolutionary Vision: Exploring the Ideals of America’s Founding Fathers
• Jefferson’s Influence on American Democracy
• Hamilton’s Economic Policies and Their Impact on the Constitution
• James Madison: Shaping the Foundation of the Constitution
• The Delicate Balance: Compromises at the Constitutional Convention
• Analyzing the Federalist Papers: Arguments for Ratifying the Constitution
• Safeguarding Individual Liberties: The Significance of the Bill of Rights
• John Adams: Statesman and Advocate for Independence
• Thomas Paine’s Impact: Common Sense and Revolutionary Ideas
• Benjamin Franklin: Influencing American Diplomacy
• Abigail Adams: Trailblazing Woman and Her Role in Nation-Building
• Opposition to the Constitution: Examining the Anti-Federalist Movement
• Alexander Hamilton’s Economic Policies: A Federalist Approach
• Shaping American Jurisprudence: The Contributions of John Jay
• The Articles of Confederation: Weaknesses and the Call for a New Constitution
• Crafting American Government: The Constitutional Convention
• Slavery and the Constitution: Debate Over the Three-Fifths Compromise
• Samuel Adams: Revolutionary Catalyst and Political Figure
• Patrick Henry’s Inspiring Speeches: Fanning the Flames of Independence
• The Northwest Ordinance: Guiding Principles for Westward Expansion
• Challenging Free Speech: The Alien and Sedition Acts

American History Topics About Space Race and NASA’s Contributions

• NASA’s Roles in the Space Race: A Historical Perspective
• The Mercury Seven: Trailblazers of American Space Exploration
• Apollo 11: A Monumental Leap for Mankind
• The Impact of Sputnik on US Space Programs
• Lunar Exploration: NASA’s Quest to Unravel the Moon’s Mysteries
• Revolutionizing Space Travel: The Legacy of the Space Shuttle Program
• Unsung Heroes: The Hidden Figures of NASA’s Early Years
• The Cold War Context and the Space Race
• Advancements in Weather Forecasting and Earth Observation by NASA
• Beyond Our Solar System: NASA’s Voyager and Pioneer Missions
• Skylab: America’s First Orbital Space Station
• Robotic Pioneers: NASA’s Missions to Explore the Solar System
• Lessons Learned From the Challenger Disaster for Space Exploration
• Expanding Horizons: The Hubble Space Telescope’s Contributions
• International Collaborations in Space Exploration: NASA’s Global Impact
• Revealing Mars’ Secrets: NASA’s Robotic Rovers
• Trailblazing With the X-15 Program: Advancing Spaceplane Technology
• Enabling Satellite Communications: NASA’s Contributions
• Apollo-Soyuz Test Project: A Symbol of US-Soviet Space Cooperation
• The Space Shuttle Challenger Tragedy: Aftermath and Reforms

US Civil War Research Paper Topics

• Causes and Consequences of the Battle of Gettysburg
• Reconstruction Policies and Their Impact on Post-Civil War America
• Women’s Roles in the Civil War: From Nurses to Spies
• Abraham Lincoln’s Leadership and the Emancipation Proclamation
• The Underground Railroad: Freedom Heroes and Heroines
• Battle of Antietam: Decisive Turning Point
• African American Soldiers in the Union Army
• Sherman’s March to the Sea: Total Warfare Strategy
• The Battle of Bull Run: A Shocking Wake-Up Call
• Significance of the Vicksburg Campaign in the Civil War
• Election of 1860 and the Secession Crisis
• Civil War Photography’s Impact on Public Perception
• Formation and Ideals of the Confederate States of America
• Fort Sumter: Prelude to War
• Clara Barton and the Red Cross: Humanitarian Aid during the Civil War
• Draft Riots of 1863: Social Unrest in New York City
• Robert E. Lee’s Military Strategies and Leadership
• Emancipation Proclamation: Freedom for the Enslaved
• Battle of Shiloh: Bloodiest Conflict in the Western Theater
• Jefferson Davis and the Confederate Government’s Formation

American History Research Paper Topics on Vietnam War

• The Nixon Doctrine: America’s Foreign Policy Approach During the Vietnam War
• Women’s Role and Contributions in the Vietnam War Effort
• The My Lai Tragedy: Atrocity and Its Consequences in the Vietnam Conflict
• Draft Resistance Movements: Opposition to the Vietnam War
• Negotiating Peace: The Paris Accords and the End of the Vietnam Conflict
• The Ho Chi Minh Trail: North Vietnam’s Strategic Supply Route
• Agent Orange: Environmental and Health Impacts of Chemical Warfare
• The Fall of Saigon: The Final Chapter of the Vietnam War
• The Gulf of Tonkin Incident: Escalation and Justification of the Vietnam Conflict
• Battle of Khe Sanh: Symbolism and Significance in the Vietnam War
• Anti-War Movement: Activism and Protests Against the Vietnam Conflict
• The Phoenix Program: Counterinsurgency Tactics in the Vietnam War
• Operation Rolling Thunder: Aerial Bombing Campaign During the Vietnam Conflict
• Hamburger Hill: Intense Combat and Sacrifice in the Vietnam War
• Kent State Shootings: Tragedy and Student Demonstrations in the Vietnam War
• The Siege of Khe Sanh: A Crucial Moment in the Vietnam Conflict
• Congressional Response: The War Powers Act and Its Impact on the Vietnam War
• African American Soldiers: Contributions and Challenges in the Vietnam War
• Strategic Hamlet Program: Counterinsurgency Strategy in the Vietnam Conflict
• Laotian Civil War: Regional Dynamics and Their Influence on the Vietnam War

American History Essay Topics on Women’s Suffrage and Feminist Movement

• The Evolution of Women’s Suffrage in American History
• Key Leaders in the American Feminist Movement
• Seneca Falls Convention: Catalyst for Change
• Abolitionism’s Influence on Women’s Suffrage
• Progressive Era: Intersection With Women’s Rights
• Susan B. Anthony’s Impact on the Suffrage Movement
• National American Woman Suffrage Association: Formation and Impact
• Alice Paul and the National Women’s Party’s Influence
• Women’s Suffrage and World War I: Shifting Perspectives
• Battle for the 19th Amendment: Triumphs and Challenges
• Suffragettes’ Strategies: Methods and Successes
• African American Women’s Contributions to Suffrage Movement
• Native American Women’s Role in the Fight for Suffrage
• Women’s Suffrage in the Western States: Trailblazers of Progress
• Feminist Movement and World War II’s Impact
• Second Wave Feminism: Objectives and Accomplishments
• Feminist Literature: Catalyst for Social Change
• Betty Friedan’s “The Feminine Mystique” and Its Influence
• Women’s Liberation Movement: Birth of NOW
• Roe vs. Wade: Women’s Reproductive Rights Examined
• Title IX: Transforming Women’s Sports and Education

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Navigating US History: A Student’s Guide to Research Paper Topics

As a student of history, you’re on a constant journey through time. Writing a research paper is more than just an assignment—it’s an opportunity to delve deeper into the events and periods that shaped the world we live in today. Whether you’re just beginning your journey or looking for fresh perspectives on well-trodden paths, this guide will provide a comprehensive list of US history research paper topics.

Table of content

The Importance of History Learning

Studying history provides a deeper understanding of societies, cultures, and the human condition. History shapes our collective memory, instilling a sense of identity and understanding of our place in the world. Exploring different eras helps us comprehend the consequences of certain actions, understand patterns, and better anticipate the future. Writing research papers on US history equips us with an analytical lens to critically assess the past, promoting empathy and encouraging informed citizenship.

The Art of Research Writing

Research writing requires a careful synthesis of existing knowledge with original thought. As a historical researcher, you act as a detective, deciphering mysteries, drawing connections, and unveiling the truths hidden in the annals of time. Your research paper is an exploration of your chosen topic and a demonstration of your analytical skills, critical thinking, and the ability to articulate complex ideas coherently.

Crafting your Research Paper Topic

Selecting an engaging and manageable topic is crucial in the research process. Your topic should be both broad enough to offer plenty of study sources and narrow enough to allow in-depth exploration. Below is a list of possible US history research paper topics.

Colonial Period

The Colonial Period, from the late 15th Century to the late 18th Century, marked the beginning of European settlement in what is now the United States. This era saw significant events such as the arrival of the Pilgrims, the establishment of the thirteen colonies, and the interactions between the settlers and the Native American tribes. This period set the stage for America’s diverse cultural, political, and social foundation.

Research Paper Topics for the Colonial Period

• Role of the Church in Colonial Society.
• Jamestown: Successes and Failures.
• Impact of Tobacco Cultivation on Colonial Economy.
• Life of Indigenous Tribes Pre-Colonization.
• The Salem Witch Trials: Causes and Consequences.
• The Role of Women in Colonial America.
• Early Forms of Democracy: The Mayflower Compact.
• Slavery in the Early Colonies.
• The Transatlantic Trade: Its Impact on the Colonies.
• Comparison of Northern and Southern Colonies.
• Analysis of Colonial Laws and Their Impact on Society.
• Evolution of Education in Colonial America.
• The Great Awakening and Its Impact on American Society.
• Indentured Servitude vs. Slavery: A Comparative Study.
• Navigation Acts and Their Influence on the Colonies.
• Impact of European Diseases on Native American Population.
• The Role of the Dutch in New Amsterdam (New York).
• The French and Indian War: Causes and Consequences.
• The Influence of the Enlightenment in the Colonies.
• Colonial Architecture: A Reflection of Cultural Identity.
• The Pennsylvania Colony: A Quaker Experiment.
• Cultural Exchange between Colonists and Native Americans.
• The Evolution of Colonial Economies: From Mercantilism to Capitalism.

Revolutionary Era

The Revolutionary Era, roughly from the 1760s to the 1780s, marked a period of political upheaval and radical change. It included events such as the American Revolution and the drafting of the US Constitution. This period represents America’s struggle for independence and the nation’s birth.

Research Paper Topics for the Revolutionary Era

• The Impact of the Stamp Act on the Colonies.
• The Boston Massacre: An Analysis.
• Role of Women in the American Revolution.
• The Philosophical Underpinnings of the Declaration of Independence.
• The Continental Congress: Achievements and Challenges.
• The Role of Propaganda in the American Revolution.
• Significance of the Battle of Saratoga.
• Comparative Analysis of the American and Haitian Revolutions.
• The Treaty of Paris (1783): Implications for America.
• Founding Fathers: Contributions and Controversies.
• The Federalist vs. Anti-Federalist Debate.
• The Role of African Americans in the Revolutionary War.
• The Impact of the Revolutionary War on Native Americans.
• Influence of the Enlightenment on the US Constitution.
• George Washington was a Military Leader.
• The Articles of Confederation: Strengths and Weaknesses.
• The Legacy of Thomas Jefferson.
• The Formation and Influence of the Sons of Liberty.
• Impact of the American Revolution on French Political Thought.
• The Bill of Rights: A Study in Civil Liberties.
• The Northwest Ordinance and Its Impact on American Expansion.
• Impact of the Revolutionary Era on American Literature.
• Loyalists during the American Revolution: Their Experiences and Contributions.

Nineteenth Century

The 19th Century was a time of dramatic transformation in America. From the expansion westward to the abolition of slavery and from the Industrial Revolution to the Civil War, these changes forged a new nation. It was an era defined by innovation, conflict, and expansion.

• The Impact of the Cotton Gin on the Southern Economy.
• The Missouri Compromise: An Analysis.
• The Role of Women in the 19th Century.
• Manifest Destiny and Its Impact on American Identity.
• The Abolitionist Movement: Key Figures and Contributions.
• The Mexican-American War: Causes and Consequences.
• The Impact of the Industrial Revolution on American Society.
• Analysis of the Compromise of 1850.
• The Fugitive Slave Act and Its Implications.
• The Influence of Transcendentalism on American Thought.
• The Homestead Act and Westward Expansion.
• Causes and Consequences of the Civil War.
• The Reconstruction Era: Successes and Failures.
• Role of African Americans in the Civil War.
• The Trail of Tears: Causes and Implications.
• The Emancipation Proclamation: Its Impact and Legacy.
• The Indian Removal Act: An Analysis.
• The Influence of the Gold Rush on American Society.
• The Formation of Labor Unions and Workers’ Rights.
• The Women’s Suffrage Movement: Key Events and Figures.
• The Dred Scott Decision and Its Impact on American Politics.
• The Impact of Railroads on Economic and Social Change.
• The Gilded Age: An Analysis of Social and Economic Disparities.

Twentieth Century

Monumental changes in technology, culture, politics, and social norms marked the 20th Century. The US emerged as a global superpower through its involvement in two World Wars, the Cold War, and numerous other international conflicts. This era also witnessed significant social changes, including the Civil Rights Movement, Women’s Liberation, and the Gay Rights Movement.

Research Paper Topics for the Twentieth Century

• Impact of World War I on American Society.
• The Harlem Renaissance: A Cultural Revolution.
• Causes and Consequences of the Great Depression.
• The Influence of the New Deal on American Government.
• Role of Women in World War II.
• The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II.
• The Rise of Suburbia in Post-War America.
• The Cold War: An Analysis of US Foreign Policy.
• The Civil Rights Movement: Key Figures and Milestones.
• Impact of the Vietnam War on American Culture.
• The Watergate Scandal and Its Effect on Public Trust.
• The Feminist Movement in the 1960s and 1970s.
• The Space Race and Its Influence on Technology.
• The Impact of Television on American Society.
• The Environmental Movement and the Creation of the EPA.
• The Gay Rights Movement: Key Events and Figures.
• The Cuban Missile Crisis: An Analysis.
• The Immigration Act of 1965 and Its Impact on American Demographics.
• The War on Drugs: Causes and Consequences.
• The AIDS Epidemic and Its Impact on Public Health Policy.
• The Fall of the Berlin Wall and the End of the Cold War.
• The Role of the Internet in the Digital Age.

Final Thoughts

History research can be a challenging but rewarding endeavor. Remember, the best papers reflect your curiosity and passion for the topic. So, pick a topic that resonates with you, immerse yourself in the research, and enjoy the journey through time.

📎 Related Articles

1. Hot Topic History: A Journey Through Pivotal Moments 2. Pioneering Perspectives: Navigating Civil War Topics for Your Research Paper 3. Engaging 8th Grade Research Paper Topics for Budding Historians 4. Unraveling Threads of Time: Early American History Topics for Students 5. The Great Wall: An Essay Topic Examples

HIS 140: Early American History

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Early American History essay

The Puritan migration of the 1630s and the settlement in Virginians in the 1620s had different experiences with the native population. The area the Virginians settled had a much higher population density of Native Americans then did Massachusetts a decade later . As such, the native attacks on the civilized areas were greater in Virginia than in Massachusetts. In the beginning, the colonists of Virginia were much more aggressive toward the Native Americans then were the Puritans . The Indian relations of the Puritans were directly related to the population density of the Native American.

Their population had been virtually decimated by a small pox outbreak prior to the arrival of the Puritans. They accepted the low native population as Divine Grace, believing that God had used the epidemic to clear the land and pacify the Indians. The destruction of the tribes meant that the remaining natives would not be a military threat for decades. Indeed, it was not until the 1670s that the population density of the Native Americans would again become a serious threat to the well being of the colonists . In Contrast, the Natives were a direct and real threat to the colonists at Jamestown in Virginia.

The colonists could not effectively conceal the contempt they felt toward the Natives. The Natives worked hard to ensure that the colonists felt secure and safe. From 1618 to 1622, the Indians traded corn and other products with the colonists. The colonists, benefiting form this false facade of peace, willingly traded with the Indians. In 1622 the Native Americans attacked and killed nearly three hundred and fifty men, women, and children throughout the colony . HIST 108: EARLY AMERICAN HISTORY PAGE 2 OF 2 The natives were much better prepared to deal with the colonist in Virginia then they were the Puritans.

The Chief of the Powhatans, Opechancanough, had prepared his people for the attack since the beginning of the colonization in the late 1500s. He prepared his people and those of the Chickahominies to attack simultaneously. This was an attempt to free his people from what he considered as a yoke of oppression . The colonists of Virginia were more aggressive toward the Native Americans then were the Puritans. The Puritans were able to advance and colonize land area where the native population had been depleted by small pox. The Virginians had no such luxury.

Related essays:

• Importance of Puritan Religious Beliefs on Colonial America essay
• Native American/Colonial Relations essay
• The American writer Helen Hunt Jackson essay
• Your Name essay

The natives that were near the colonists of Virginia felt oppressed by the colonists and took revenge against them in mass. The revenge of the Virginians resulted in the burning of native crops and the killing of as many natives as possible. This aggression was prosecuted from 1622 until 1632, when the natives were forced out into the lands of the west . The Puritans would have no real conflict with the native population until the 1670s.

Bibliography

Bridenbaugh, Carl. Jamestown 1544-1699. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980. Breen, T. H. Puritans and Adventurers. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980.