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• How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates, and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
• Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models, and methods?
• Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

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To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

• Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

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How to write a literature review introduction (+ examples)

The introduction to a literature review serves as your reader’s guide through your academic work and thought process. Explore the significance of literature review introductions in review papers, academic papers, essays, theses, and dissertations. We delve into the purpose and necessity of these introductions, explore the essential components of literature review introductions, and provide step-by-step guidance on how to craft your own, along with examples.

Why you need an introduction for a literature review

In academic writing , the introduction for a literature review is an indispensable component. Effective academic writing requires proper paragraph structuring to guide your reader through your argumentation. This includes providing an introduction to your literature review.

It is imperative to remember that you should never start sharing your findings abruptly. Even if there isn’t a dedicated introduction section .

When you need an introduction for a literature review

There are three main scenarios in which you need an introduction for a literature review:

What to include in a literature review introduction

It is crucial to customize the content and depth of your literature review introduction according to the specific format of your academic work.

Academic literature review paper

The introduction of an academic literature review paper, which does not rely on empirical data, often necessitates a more extensive introduction than the brief literature review introductions typically found in empirical papers. It should encompass:

Regular literature review section in an academic article or essay

In a standard 8000-word journal article, the literature review section typically spans between 750 and 1250 words. The first few sentences or the first paragraph within this section often serve as an introduction. It should encompass:

Introduction to a literature review chapter in thesis or dissertation

Some students choose to incorporate a brief introductory section at the beginning of each chapter, including the literature review chapter. Alternatively, others opt to seamlessly integrate the introduction into the initial sentences of the literature review itself. Both approaches are acceptable, provided that you incorporate the following elements:

Examples of literature review introductions

Example 1: an effective introduction for an academic literature review paper.

To begin, let’s delve into the introduction of an academic literature review paper. We will examine the paper “How does culture influence innovation? A systematic literature review”, which was published in 2018 in the journal Management Decision.

Example 2: An effective introduction to a literature review section in an academic paper

The second example represents a typical academic paper, encompassing not only a literature review section but also empirical data, a case study, and other elements. We will closely examine the introduction to the literature review section in the paper “The environmentalism of the subalterns: a case study of environmental activism in Eastern Kurdistan/Rojhelat”, which was published in 2021 in the journal Local Environment.

Thus, the author successfully introduces the literature review, from which point onward it dives into the main concept (‘subalternity’) of the research, and reviews the literature on socio-economic justice and environmental degradation.

Examples 3-5: Effective introductions to literature review chapters

Numerous universities offer online repositories where you can access theses and dissertations from previous years, serving as valuable sources of reference. Many of these repositories, however, may require you to log in through your university account. Nevertheless, a few open-access repositories are accessible to anyone, such as the one by the University of Manchester . It’s important to note though that copyright restrictions apply to these resources, just as they would with published papers.

Master’s thesis literature review introduction

Phd thesis literature review chapter introduction, phd thesis literature review introduction.

The last example is the doctoral thesis Metacognitive strategies and beliefs: Child correlates and early experiences Chan, K. Y. M. (Author). 31 Dec 2020 . The author clearly conducted a systematic literature review, commencing the review section with a discussion of the methodology and approach employed in locating and analyzing the selected records.

Steps to write your own literature review introduction

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Chapter 2: What is a Literature Review?

Learning objectives.

At the conclusion of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Recognize how information is created and how it evolves over time.
• Identify how the information cycle impacts the reliability of the information.
• Select information sources appropriate to information need.

2.1 Overview of information

Because a literature review is a summary and analysis of the relevant publications on a topic, we first have to understand what is meant by ‘the literature’.  In this case, ‘the literature’ is a collection of all of the relevant written sources on a topic.  It will include both theoretical and empirical works.  Both types provide scope and depth to a literature review.

2.1.1 Disciplines of knowledge

When drawing boundaries around an idea, topic, or subject area, it helps to think about how and where the information for the field is produced. For this, you need to identify the disciplines of knowledge production in a subject area.

Information does not exist in the environment like some kind of raw material. It is produced by individuals working within a particular field of knowledge who use specific methods for generating new information. Disciplines are knowledge-producing and -disseminating systems which consume, produce and disseminate knowledge. Looking through a  course catalog of a post-secondary educational institution gives clues to the structure of a discipline structure. Fields such as political science, biology, history and mathematics are unique disciplines, as are education and nursing, with their own logic for how and where new knowledge is introduced and made accessible.

You will need to become comfortable with identifying the disciplines that might contribute information to any search strategy. When you do this, you will also learn how to decode the way how people talk about a topic within a discipline. This will be useful to you when you begin a  review of the literature in your area of study.

For example, think about the disciplines that might contribute information to a the topic such as  the role of sports in society. Try to anticipate the type of perspective each discipline might have on the topic. Consider the following types of questions as you examine what different disciplines might contribute:

• What is important about the topic to the people in that discipline?
• What is most likely to be the focus of their study about the topic?
• What perspective would they be likely to have on the topic?

In this example, we identify two disciplines that have something to say about the role of sports in society: allied health and education. What would each of these disciplines raise as key questions or issues related to that topic?

2.1.1.1 Nursing

• how sports affect individuals’ health and well-being
• assessing and treating sports injuries
• physical conditioning for athletes

2.1.1.2 Education

• how schools privilege or punish student athletes
• how young people are socialized into the ideal of team cooperation
• differences between boys’ and girls’ participation in organized sports

We see that a single topic can be approached from many different perspectives depending on how the disciplinary boundaries are drawn and how the topic is framed. This step of the research process requires you to make some decisions early on to focus the topic on a manageable and appropriate scope for the rest of the strategy. ( Hansen & Paul, 2015 ).

‘The literature’ consists of the published works that document a scholarly conversation in a field of study. You will find, in ‘the literature,’ documents that explain the background of your topic so the reader knows where you found loose ends in the established research of the field and what led you to your own project.  Although your own literature review will focus on primary, peer-reviewed resources, it will begin by first grounding yourself in background subject information generally found in secondary and tertiary sources such as books and encyclopedias.  Once you have that essential overview, you delve into the seminal literature of the field. As a result, while your literature review may consist of research articles tightly focused on your topic with secondary and tertiary sources used more sparingly, all three types of information (primary, secondary, tertiary) are critical to your research.

2.1.2 Definitions

• Theoretical – discusses a theory, conceptual model or framework for understanding a problem.
• Empirical – applies theory to a behavior or event and reports derived data to findings.
• Seminal – “A classic work of research literature that is more than 5 years old and is marked by its uniqueness and contribution to professional knowledge.” ( Houser, 4th ed., 2018, p. 112 ).
• Practical – “…accounts of how things are done” ( Wallace & Wray, 3rd ed., 2016, p. 20 ). Action research, in Education, refers to a wide variety of methods used to develop practical solutions. ( Great Schools Partnership, 2017 ).
• Policy – generally produced by policy-makers, such as government agencies.
• Primary – published results of original research studies .
• Secondary – interpret, discuss, summarize original sources
• Tertiary – synthesize or distill primary and secondary sources.  Examples include: encyclopedias, directories, dictionaries, handbooks, guides, classification, chronology, and other fact books.
• Grey literature – research and information released by non-commercial publishers, such as government agencies, policy organizations, and think-tanks.

‘The literature’ is published in books, journal articles, conference proceedings, theses and dissertations.  It can also be found in newspapers, encyclopedias, textbooks, as well as websites and reports written by government agencies and professional organizations. While these formats may contain what we define as ‘the literature’, not all of it will be appropriate for inclusion in your own literature review.

These sources are found through different tools that we will discuss later in this section. Although a discovery tool, such as a database or catalog, may link you to the ‘the literature’ not every tool is appropriate to every literature review.  No single source will have all of the information resources you should consult.  A comprehensive literature review should include searches in the following:

• Multiple subject and article databases
• Library and other book catalogs
• Grey literature sources

2.2 Information Cycle

To get a better idea of how the literature in a discipline develops, it’s useful to see how the information publication lifecycle works.  These distinct stages show how information is created, reviewed, and distributed over time.

The following chart can be used to guide you in searching literature existing at various stages of the scholarly communication process (freely accessible sources are linked, subscription or subscribed sources are listed but not linked):

2.3 Information Types

To continue our discussion of information sources, there are two ways published information in the field can be categorized:

• Articles by the type of periodical in which an article it is published, for example, magazine, trade, or scholarly publications .
• Where the material is located in the information cycle, as in primary, secondary, or tertiary information sources .

2.3.1 Popular, Trade, or Scholarly publications

2.3.1.1 types of periodicals.

Journals, trade publications, and magazines are all periodicals, and articles from these publications they can all look similar article by article when you are searching in the databases. It is good to review the differences and think about when to use information from each type of periodical.

2.3.1.2 Magazines

A magazine is a collection of articles and images about diverse topics of popular interest and current events.

Features of magazines:

• articles are usually written by journalists
• articles are written for the average adult
• articles tend to be short
• articles rarely provides a list of reference sources at the end of the article
• lots of color images and advertisements
• the decision about what goes into the magazine is made by an editor or publisher
• magazines can have broad appeal, like Time and Newsweek , or a narrow focus, like Sports Illustrated and Mother Earth News .

Popular magazines like Psychology Today , Sports Illustrated , and Rolling Stone can be good sources for articles on recent events or pop-culture topics, while Harpers , Scientific American , and The New Republic will offer more in-depth articles on a wider range of subjects. These articles are geared towards readers who, although not experts, are knowledgeable about the issues presented.

2.3.1.3 Trade Publications

Trade publications or trade journals are periodicals directed to members of a specific profession. They often have information about industry trends and practical information for people working in the field.

Features of trade publications:

• Authors are specialists in their fields
• Focused on members of a specific industry or profession
• No peer review process
• Include photographs, illustrations, charts, and graphs, often in color
• Technical vocabulary

Trade publications are geared towards professionals in a discipline. They report news and trends in a field, but not original research. They may provide product or service reviews, job listings, and advertisements.

2.3.1.4 Scholarly, Academic, and Scientific Publications

Scholarly, academic, and scientific publications are a collections of articles written by scholars in an academic or professional field. Most journals are peer-reviewed or refereed, which means a panel of scholars reviews articles to decide if they should be accepted into a specific publication. Journal articles are the main source of information for researchers and for literature reviews.

Features of journals:

• written by scholars and subject experts
• author’ credentials and institution will be identified
• written for other scholars
• dedicated to a specific discipline that it covers in depth
• often report on original or innovative research
• long articles, often 5-15 pages or more
• articles almost always include a list of sources at the end (Works Cited, References, Sources, or Bibliography) that point back to where the information was derived
• no or very few advertisements
• published by organizations or associations to advance their specialized body of knowledge

Scholarly journals provider articles of interest to experts or researchers in a discipline. An editorial board of respected scholars (peers) reviews all articles submitted to a journal. They decide if the article provides a noteworthy contribution to the field and should be published. There are typically few  little or no advertisements. Articles published in scholarly journals will include a list of references.

2.3.1.5 A word about open access journals

Increasingly, scholars are publishing findings and original research in open access journals .   Open access journals are scholarly and peer-reviewed and open access publishers provide unrestricted access and unrestricted use.  Open access is a means of disseminating scholarly research that breaks from the traditional subscription model of academic publishing. It is free of charge to readers and because it is online, it is available at anytime, anywhere in the world, to anyone with access to the internet.  The Directory of Open Access Journals ( DOAJ ) indexes and provides access to high-quality, peer-reviewed scholarly articles.

In summary, newspapers and other popular press publications are useful for getting general topic ideas. Trade publications are useful for practical application in a profession and may also be a good source of keywords for future searching. Scholarly journals are the conversation of the scholars who are doing research in a specific discipline and publishing their research findings.

2.3.1.6 Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources

Primary sources of information are those types of information that come first. Some examples of primary sources are:

• original research, like data from an experiment with plankton.
• diaries, journals, photographs
• data from the census bureau or a survey you have done
• original documents, like the constitution or a birth certificate
• newspapers are primary sources when they report current events or current opinion
• speeches, interviews, email, letters
• religious books
• personal memoirs and autobiographies
• pottery or weavings

There are different types of primary sources for different disciplines.  In the discipline of history, for example, a diary or transcript of a speech is a primary source.  In education and nursing, primary sources will generally be original research, including data sets.

Secondary sources are written about primary sources to interpret or analyze them. They are a step or more removed from the primary event or item. Some examples of secondary sources are:

• commentaries on speeches
• critiques of plays, journalism, or books
• a journal article that talks about a primary source such as an interpretation of Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath, or the flower symbolism of Monet’s water garden paintings
• textbooks (can also be considered tertiary)
• biographies
• encyclopedias

Tertiary sources are further removed from the original material and are a distillation and collection of primary and secondary sources. Some examples are:

• bibliography of critical works about an author
• textbooks (also considered secondary)

A comparison of information sources across disciplines:

2.4 Information Sources

In this section, we discuss how to find not only information, but the sources of information in your discipline or topic area.  As we see in the graphic and chart above, the information you need for your literature review will be located in multiple places.  How and where research and publication occurs drives how and where the information is located, which in turn determines how you will discover and retrieve it.  When we talk about information sources for a literature review in education or nursing, we generally mean these five areas: the internet, reference material and other books, empirical or evidence-based articles in scholarly, peer-reviewed journals, conference proceedings and papers, dissertations and theses, and grey literature.

The World Wide Web can be an excellent place to satisfy some initial research needs.

• It is a good resource for background information and for finding keywords for searching in the library catalog and databases.
• It is a good tool for locating professional organizations and searching for information and the names of experts in a given discipline.
• Google Scholar is a useful discovery tool for citations, especially if you are trying to get the lay of the land surrounding your topic or if you are having a problem with keywords in the databases. You can find some information to refine your search terms. It is NOT acceptable to depend on Google Scholar for finding articles because of the spotty coverage and lack of adequate search features.

2.4.2 Books and Reference Sources

Reference materials and books are available in both print and electronic formats. They provide gateway knowledge to a subject area and are useful at the beginning of the research process to:

• Get an overview of the topic, learn the scope, key definitions, significant figures who are involved, and important timelines
• Discover the foundations of a topic
• Learn essential definitions, vocabulary terms, and keywords you can use in your literature searching strategy

2.4.3 Scholarly Articles in Journals

Another major category of information sources is scholarly information produced by subject experts working in academic institutions, research centers and scholarly organizations. Scholars and researchers generate information that advances our knowledge and understanding of the world. The research they do creates new opportunities for inventions, practical applications, and new approaches to solving problems or understanding issues.

Academics, researchers and students at universities make their contributions to scholarly knowledge available in many forms:

• masters’ theses
• doctoral dissertations
• conference papers
• journal articles and books
• individual scholars’ web pages
• web pages developed by the researcher’s’ home institution (Hansen & Paul, 2015).

Scholars and researchers introduce their discoveries to the world in a formal system of information dissemination that has developed over centuries. Because scholarly research undergoes a process of “peer review” before being published (meaning that other experts review the work and pass judgment about whether it is worthy of publication), the information you find from scholarly sources meets preset standards for accuracy, credibility and validity in that field.

Likewise, scholarly journal articles are generally considered to be among the most reliable sources of information because they have gone through a peer-review process.

2.4.5 Conference Papers & Proceedings

Conferences are a major source of  emerging research where researchers present papers on their current research and obtain feedback from the audience.  The papers presented in the conference are then usually published in a volume called a conference proceeding.  Conference proceedings highlight current discussion in a discipline and can lead you to scholars who are interested in specific research areas.

A word about conference papers: several factors contribute to making these documents difficult to find.  It may be months before a paper is published as a journal article, or it may never be published.  Publishers and professional associations are inconsistent in how they publish proceedings.  For example, the papers from an annual conference may be published as individual, stand-alone titles, which may be indexed in a library catalog, or the conference proceedings may be treated more like a periodical or serial and, therefore, indexed in a journal database.

It is not unusual that papers delivered at professional conferences are not published in print or electronic form, although an abstract may be available.  In these cases, the full paper may only be available from the author or authors.

The most important thing to remember is that if you have any difficulty finding a conference proceeding or paper, ask a librarian for assistance.

2.4.6 Dissertations and Theses

Dissertations and theses can be rich sources of information and have extensive reference lists to scan for resources. They are considered gray literature, so are not “peer reviewed”. The accuracy and validity of the paper itself may depend on the school that awarded the doctoral or master’s  degree to the author.

2.5 Conclusion

In thinking about ‘the literature’ of your discipline, you are beginning the first step in writing your own literature review.  By understanding what the literature in your field is, as well as how and when it is generated, you begin to know what is available and where to look for it.

We briefly discussed seven types of (sometimes overlapping) information:

• information found on the web
• information found in reference books and monographs
• information found in scholarly journals
• information found in conference proceedings and papers
• information found in dissertations and theses
• information found in magazines and trade journals
• information that is primary, secondary, or tertiary.

By conceptualizing or scoping how and where the literature of your discipline or topic area is generated, you have started on your way to writing your own literature review.

Finally, remember:

“All information sources are not created equal. Sources can vary greatly in terms of how carefully they are researched, written, edited, and reviewed for accuracy. Common sense will help you identify obviously questionable sources, such as tabloids that feature tales of alien abductions, or personal websites with glaring typos. Sometimes, however, a source’s reliability—or lack of it—is not so obvious…You will consider criteria such as the type of source, its intended purpose and audience, the author’s (or authors’) qualifications, the publication’s reputation, any indications of bias or hidden agendas, how current the source is, and the overall quality of the writing, thinking, and design.”  ( Writing for Success, 2015, p. 448 ).

We will cover how to evaluate sources in more detail in Chapter 5.

For each of these information needs, indicate what resources would be the best fit to answer your question. There may be more than one source so don’t feel like you have to limit yourself to only one. See Answer Key for the correct response.

• You are to write a brief paper on a theory that you only vaguely understand. You need some basic information. Where would you look?
• If you heard something on the radio about a recent research involving an herbal intervention for weight loss where could you find the actual study?
• You are going to be doing an internship in a group home for young men. You have heard that one issue that comes up for them is anger. Where would you look for practical interventions to help you manage this problem if it came up?
• You have the opportunity to work on a research project through a grant proposal. You need to justify the research question and show that there is an interest and a need for this research. What resources would you cite in your application?
• You have been assigned a project to find primary sources about classroom discipline used in early 20th-century schools. What primary sources could you use and where would you find them?
• You have an idea for a great thesis but you are afraid that it has been done before. Since you would like to do something original, where could you find out if someone else has done the project?
• There was a post on Facebook that welfare recipients in Arizona were recently tested for drug use with only three in 140,000 having positive results. Where can I find out if this number is accurate?

Test Yourself

Question 1  match the type of periodical to its content.

Trade publication Scholarly journal Magazine

• Contains articles about a variety of topics of popular interest; also contains advertising.
• Has information about industry trends and practical information for professionals in a field.
• Contains articles written by scholars in an academic field and reviewed by experts in that field.

Question 2: Given what you know about information types and sources, put the following information sources in order from the least accurate and reliable  to the most accurate and reliable. (1 least accurate/4 most accurate)

• Books and encyclopedias
• News broadcasts and social media directly following an event.
• Analysis of an event in the news media or popular magazine weeks after an event.
• Articles written by scholars and published in a journal.

Question 3: What is information called that is either a diary, a speech, original research, data, artwork, or a religious book.

Question 4: to find the best information in the databases you need to use keywords that are used by the scholars. where do you find out what keywords to try.

• From websites
• In journal articles
• All of the above

Question 5: Which of the following is NOT true about scholarly journals?

• They contain the conversation of the scholars on a particular subject.
• They are of interest to the general public.
• The articles are followed by an extensive reference list.
• They contain reports of original research.

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• What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

Published on 22 February 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 7 June 2022.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research.

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarise sources – it analyses, synthesises, and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

Why write a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1: search for relevant literature, step 2: evaluate and select sources, step 3: identify themes, debates and gaps, step 4: outline your literature review’s structure, step 5: write your literature review, frequently asked questions about literature reviews, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a dissertation or thesis, you will have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your dissertation addresses a gap or contributes to a debate

You might also have to write a literature review as a stand-alone assignment. In this case, the purpose is to evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of scholarly debates around a topic.

The content will look slightly different in each case, but the process of conducting a literature review follows the same steps. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research objectives and questions .

If you are writing a literature review as a stand-alone assignment, you will have to choose a focus and develop a central question to direct your search. Unlike a dissertation research question, this question has to be answerable without collecting original data. You should be able to answer it based only on a review of existing publications.

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research topic. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list if you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can use boolean operators to help narrow down your search:

Read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

To identify the most important publications on your topic, take note of recurring citations. If the same authors, books or articles keep appearing in your reading, make sure to seek them out.

You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on the topic – you’ll have to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your questions.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• How does the publication contribute to your understanding of the topic? What are its key insights and arguments?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google Scholar – a high citation count means the article has been influential in the field, and should certainly be included in your literature review.

The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline: in the sciences you usually only review recent literature, but in the humanities you might take a long historical perspective (for example, to trace how a concept has changed in meaning over time).

Remember that you can use our template to summarise and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using!

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It’s important to keep track of your sources with references to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography, where you compile full reference information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

You can use our free APA Reference Generator for quick, correct, consistent citations.

To begin organising your literature review’s argument and structure, you need to understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly-visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat – this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organising the body of a literature review. You should have a rough idea of your strategy before you start writing.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarising sources in order.

Try to analyse patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organise your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

If you are writing the literature review as part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate your central problem or research question and give a brief summary of the scholarly context. You can emphasise the timeliness of the topic (“many recent studies have focused on the problem of x”) or highlight a gap in the literature (“while there has been much research on x, few researchers have taken y into consideration”).

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, make sure to follow these tips:

• Summarise and synthesise: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole.
• Analyse and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole.
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources.
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transitions and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts.

In the conclusion, you should summarise the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasise their significance.

If the literature review is part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate how your research addresses gaps and contributes new knowledge, or discuss how you have drawn on existing theories and methods to build a framework for your research. This can lead directly into your methodology section.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a dissertation , thesis, research paper , or proposal .

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarise yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your  dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

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How To Write An A-Grade Literature Review

3 straightforward steps (with examples) + free template.

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | October 2019

Quality research is about building onto the existing work of others , “standing on the shoulders of giants”, as Newton put it. The literature review chapter of your dissertation, thesis or research project is where you synthesise this prior work and lay the theoretical foundation for your own research.

Long story short, this chapter is a pretty big deal, which is why you want to make sure you get it right . In this post, I’ll show you exactly how to write a literature review in three straightforward steps, so you can conquer this vital chapter (the smart way).

Overview: The Literature Review Process

• Understanding the “ why “
• Finding the relevant literature
• Cataloguing and synthesising the information
• Outlining & writing up your literature review
• Example of a literature review

But first, the “why”…

Before we unpack how to write the literature review chapter, we’ve got to look at the why . To put it bluntly, if you don’t understand the function and purpose of the literature review process, there’s no way you can pull it off well. So, what exactly is the purpose of the literature review?

Well, there are (at least) four core functions:

• For you to gain an understanding (and demonstrate this understanding) of where the research is at currently, what the key arguments and disagreements are.
• For you to identify the gap(s) in the literature and then use this as justification for your own research topic.
• To help you build a conceptual framework for empirical testing (if applicable to your research topic).
• To inform your methodological choices and help you source tried and tested questionnaires (for interviews ) and measurement instruments (for surveys ).

Most students understand the first point but don’t give any thought to the rest. To get the most from the literature review process, you must keep all four points front of mind as you review the literature (more on this shortly), or you’ll land up with a wonky foundation.

Okay – with the why out the way, let’s move on to the how . As mentioned above, writing your literature review is a process, which I’ll break down into three steps:

• Finding the most suitable literature
• Understanding , distilling and organising the literature
• Planning and writing up your literature review chapter

Importantly, you must complete steps one and two before you start writing up your chapter. I know it’s very tempting, but don’t try to kill two birds with one stone and write as you read. You’ll invariably end up wasting huge amounts of time re-writing and re-shaping, or you’ll just land up with a disjointed, hard-to-digest mess . Instead, you need to read first and distil the information, then plan and execute the writing.

Step 1: Find the relevant literature

Naturally, the first step in the literature review journey is to hunt down the existing research that’s relevant to your topic. While you probably already have a decent base of this from your research proposal , you need to expand on this substantially in the dissertation or thesis itself.

Essentially, you need to be looking for any existing literature that potentially helps you answer your research question (or develop it, if that’s not yet pinned down). There are numerous ways to find relevant literature, but I’ll cover my top four tactics here. I’d suggest combining all four methods to ensure that nothing slips past you:

Method 1 – Google Scholar Scrubbing

Google’s academic search engine, Google Scholar , is a great starting point as it provides a good high-level view of the relevant journal articles for whatever keyword you throw at it. Most valuably, it tells you how many times each article has been cited, which gives you an idea of how credible (or at least, popular) it is. Some articles will be free to access, while others will require an account, which brings us to the next method.

Method 2 – University Database Scrounging

Generally, universities provide students with access to an online library, which provides access to many (but not all) of the major journals.

So, if you find an article using Google Scholar that requires paid access (which is quite likely), search for that article in your university’s database – if it’s listed there, you’ll have access. Note that, generally, the search engine capabilities of these databases are poor, so make sure you search for the exact article name, or you might not find it.

Method 3 – Journal Article Snowballing

At the end of every academic journal article, you’ll find a list of references. As with any academic writing, these references are the building blocks of the article, so if the article is relevant to your topic, there’s a good chance a portion of the referenced works will be too. Do a quick scan of the titles and see what seems relevant, then search for the relevant ones in your university’s database.

Method 4 – Dissertation Scavenging

Similar to Method 3 above, you can leverage other students’ dissertations. All you have to do is skim through literature review chapters of existing dissertations related to your topic and you’ll find a gold mine of potential literature. Usually, your university will provide you with access to previous students’ dissertations, but you can also find a much larger selection in the following databases:

• Open Access Theses & Dissertations
• Stanford SearchWorks

Keep in mind that dissertations and theses are not as academically sound as published, peer-reviewed journal articles (because they’re written by students, not professionals), so be sure to check the credibility of any sources you find using this method. You can do this by assessing the citation count of any given article in Google Scholar. If you need help with assessing the credibility of any article, or with finding relevant research in general, you can chat with one of our Research Specialists .

Alright – with a good base of literature firmly under your belt, it’s time to move onto the next step.

Need a helping hand?

Step 2: Log, catalogue and synthesise

Once you’ve built a little treasure trove of articles, it’s time to get reading and start digesting the information – what does it all mean?

While I present steps one and two (hunting and digesting) as sequential, in reality, it’s more of a back-and-forth tango – you’ll read a little , then have an idea, spot a new citation, or a new potential variable, and then go back to searching for articles. This is perfectly natural – through the reading process, your thoughts will develop , new avenues might crop up, and directional adjustments might arise. This is, after all, one of the main purposes of the literature review process (i.e. to familiarise yourself with the current state of research in your field).

As you’re working through your treasure chest, it’s essential that you simultaneously start organising the information. There are three aspects to this:

• Logging reference information
• Building an organised catalogue
• Distilling and synthesising the information

I’ll discuss each of these below:

2.1 – Log the reference information

As you read each article, you should add it to your reference management software. I usually recommend Mendeley for this purpose (see the Mendeley 101 video below), but you can use whichever software you’re comfortable with. Most importantly, make sure you load EVERY article you read into your reference manager, even if it doesn’t seem very relevant at the time.

2.2 – Build an organised catalogue

In the beginning, you might feel confident that you can remember who said what, where, and what their main arguments were. Trust me, you won’t. If you do a thorough review of the relevant literature (as you must!), you’re going to read many, many articles, and it’s simply impossible to remember who said what, when, and in what context . Also, without the bird’s eye view that a catalogue provides, you’ll miss connections between various articles, and have no view of how the research developed over time. Simply put, it’s essential to build your own catalogue of the literature.

I would suggest using Excel to build your catalogue, as it allows you to run filters, colour code and sort – all very useful when your list grows large (which it will). How you lay your spreadsheet out is up to you, but I’d suggest you have the following columns (at minimum):

• Author, date, title – Start with three columns containing this core information. This will make it easy for you to search for titles with certain words, order research by date, or group by author.
• Categories or keywords – You can either create multiple columns, one for each category/theme and then tick the relevant categories, or you can have one column with keywords.
• Key arguments/points – Use this column to succinctly convey the essence of the article, the key arguments and implications thereof for your research.
• Context – Note the socioeconomic context in which the research was undertaken. For example, US-based, respondents aged 25-35, lower- income, etc. This will be useful for making an argument about gaps in the research.
• Methodology – Note which methodology was used and why. Also, note any issues you feel arise due to the methodology. Again, you can use this to make an argument about gaps in the research.
• Quotations – Note down any quoteworthy lines you feel might be useful later.
• Notes – Make notes about anything not already covered. For example, linkages to or disagreements with other theories, questions raised but unanswered, shortcomings or limitations, and so forth.

If you’d like, you can try out our free catalog template here (see screenshot below).

2.3 – Digest and synthesise

Most importantly, as you work through the literature and build your catalogue, you need to synthesise all the information in your own mind – how does it all fit together? Look for links between the various articles and try to develop a bigger picture view of the state of the research. Some important questions to ask yourself are:

• What answers does the existing research provide to my own research questions ?
• Which points do the researchers agree (and disagree) on?
• How has the research developed over time?
• Where do the gaps in the current research lie?

To help you develop a big-picture view and synthesise all the information, you might find mind mapping software such as Freemind useful. Alternatively, if you’re a fan of physical note-taking, investing in a large whiteboard might work for you.

Step 3: Outline and write it up!

Once you’re satisfied that you have digested and distilled all the relevant literature in your mind, it’s time to put pen to paper (or rather, fingers to keyboard). There are two steps here – outlining and writing:

3.1 – Draw up your outline

Having spent so much time reading, it might be tempting to just start writing up without a clear structure in mind. However, it’s critically important to decide on your structure and develop a detailed outline before you write anything. Your literature review chapter needs to present a clear, logical and an easy to follow narrative – and that requires some planning. Don’t try to wing it!

Naturally, you won’t always follow the plan to the letter, but without a detailed outline, you’re more than likely going to end up with a disjointed pile of waffle , and then you’re going to spend a far greater amount of time re-writing, hacking and patching. The adage, “measure twice, cut once” is very suitable here.

In terms of structure, the first decision you’ll have to make is whether you’ll lay out your review thematically (into themes) or chronologically (by date/period). The right choice depends on your topic, research objectives and research questions, which we discuss in this article .

Once that’s decided, you need to draw up an outline of your entire chapter in bullet point format. Try to get as detailed as possible, so that you know exactly what you’ll cover where, how each section will connect to the next, and how your entire argument will develop throughout the chapter. Also, at this stage, it’s a good idea to allocate rough word count limits for each section, so that you can identify word count problems before you’ve spent weeks or months writing!

PS – check out our free literature review chapter template…

3.2 – Get writing

With a detailed outline at your side, it’s time to start writing up (finally!). At this stage, it’s common to feel a bit of writer’s block and find yourself procrastinating under the pressure of finally having to put something on paper. To help with this, remember that the objective of the first draft is not perfection – it’s simply to get your thoughts out of your head and onto paper, after which you can refine them. The structure might change a little, the word count allocations might shift and shuffle, and you might add or remove a section – that’s all okay. Don’t worry about all this on your first draft – just get your thoughts down on paper.

Once you’ve got a full first draft (however rough it may be), step away from it for a day or two (longer if you can) and then come back at it with fresh eyes. Pay particular attention to the flow and narrative – does it fall fit together and flow from one section to another smoothly? Now’s the time to try to improve the linkage from each section to the next, tighten up the writing to be more concise, trim down word count and sand it down into a more digestible read.

Once you’ve done that, give your writing to a friend or colleague who is not a subject matter expert and ask them if they understand the overall discussion. The best way to assess this is to ask them to explain the chapter back to you. This technique will give you a strong indication of which points were clearly communicated and which weren’t. If you’re working with Grad Coach, this is a good time to have your Research Specialist review your chapter.

Finally, tighten it up and send it off to your supervisor for comment. Some might argue that you should be sending your work to your supervisor sooner than this (indeed your university might formally require this), but in my experience, supervisors are extremely short on time (and often patience), so, the more refined your chapter is, the less time they’ll waste on addressing basic issues (which you know about already) and the more time they’ll spend on valuable feedback that will increase your mark-earning potential.

Literature Review Example

In the video below, we unpack an actual literature review so that you can see how all the core components come together in reality.

Let’s Recap

In this post, we’ve covered how to research and write up a high-quality literature review chapter. Let’s do a quick recap of the key takeaways:

• It is essential to understand the WHY of the literature review before you read or write anything. Make sure you understand the 4 core functions of the process.
• The first step is to hunt down the relevant literature . You can do this using Google Scholar, your university database, the snowballing technique and by reviewing other dissertations and theses.
• Next, you need to log all the articles in your reference manager , build your own catalogue of literature and synthesise all the research.
• Following that, you need to develop a detailed outline of your entire chapter – the more detail the better. Don’t start writing without a clear outline (on paper, not in your head!)
• Write up your first draft in rough form – don’t aim for perfection. Remember, done beats perfect.
• Refine your second draft and get a layman’s perspective on it . Then tighten it up and submit it to your supervisor.

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling short course, Literature Review Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

38 Comments

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You’re welcome, Yinka. Thank you for the kind words. All the best writing your literature review.

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What is a Literature Review? How to Write It (with Examples)

A literature review is a critical analysis and synthesis of existing research on a particular topic. It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge, identifies gaps, and highlights key findings in the literature. 1 The purpose of a literature review is to situate your own research within the context of existing scholarship, demonstrating your understanding of the topic and showing how your work contributes to the ongoing conversation in the field. Learning how to write a literature review is a critical tool for successful research. Your ability to summarize and synthesize prior research pertaining to a certain topic demonstrates your grasp on the topic of study, and assists in the learning process. 

Table of Contents

• What is the purpose of literature review? 
• a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction: 
• b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes: 
• c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs: 
• d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts: 

How to write a good literature review 

• Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question: 
• Decide on the Scope of Your Review: 
• Select Databases for Searches: 
• Conduct Searches and Keep Track: 
• Review the Literature: 
• Organize and Write Your Literature Review: 
• How to write a literature review faster with Paperpal? 
• Frequently asked questions 

What is a literature review?

A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with the existing literature, establishes the context for their own research, and contributes to scholarly conversations on the topic. One of the purposes of a literature review is also to help researchers avoid duplicating previous work and ensure that their research is informed by and builds upon the existing body of knowledge.

What is the purpose of literature review?

A literature review serves several important purposes within academic and research contexts. Here are some key objectives and functions of a literature review: 2  

1. Contextualizing the Research Problem: The literature review provides a background and context for the research problem under investigation. It helps to situate the study within the existing body of knowledge. 

2. Identifying Gaps in Knowledge: By identifying gaps, contradictions, or areas requiring further research, the researcher can shape the research question and justify the significance of the study. This is crucial for ensuring that the new research contributes something novel to the field. 

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3. Understanding Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks: Literature reviews help researchers gain an understanding of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks used in previous studies. This aids in the development of a theoretical framework for the current research. 

4. Providing Methodological Insights: Another purpose of literature reviews is that it allows researchers to learn about the methodologies employed in previous studies. This can help in choosing appropriate research methods for the current study and avoiding pitfalls that others may have encountered. 

5. Establishing Credibility: A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with existing scholarship, establishing their credibility and expertise in the field. It also helps in building a solid foundation for the new research. 

6. Informing Hypotheses or Research Questions: The literature review guides the formulation of hypotheses or research questions by highlighting relevant findings and areas of uncertainty in existing literature. 

Literature review example

Let’s delve deeper with a literature review example: Let’s say your literature review is about the impact of climate change on biodiversity. You might format your literature review into sections such as the effects of climate change on habitat loss and species extinction, phenological changes, and marine biodiversity. Each section would then summarize and analyze relevant studies in those areas, highlighting key findings and identifying gaps in the research. The review would conclude by emphasizing the need for further research on specific aspects of the relationship between climate change and biodiversity. The following literature review template provides a glimpse into the recommended literature review structure and content, demonstrating how research findings are organized around specific themes within a broader topic. 

Literature Review on Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity:

Climate change is a global phenomenon with far-reaching consequences, including significant impacts on biodiversity. This literature review synthesizes key findings from various studies: 

a. Habitat Loss and Species Extinction:

Climate change-induced alterations in temperature and precipitation patterns contribute to habitat loss, affecting numerous species (Thomas et al., 2004). The review discusses how these changes increase the risk of extinction, particularly for species with specific habitat requirements. 

b. Range Shifts and Phenological Changes:

Observations of range shifts and changes in the timing of biological events (phenology) are documented in response to changing climatic conditions (Parmesan & Yohe, 2003). These shifts affect ecosystems and may lead to mismatches between species and their resources. 

c. Ocean Acidification and Coral Reefs:

The review explores the impact of climate change on marine biodiversity, emphasizing ocean acidification’s threat to coral reefs (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007). Changes in pH levels negatively affect coral calcification, disrupting the delicate balance of marine ecosystems. 

d. Adaptive Strategies and Conservation Efforts:

Recognizing the urgency of the situation, the literature review discusses various adaptive strategies adopted by species and conservation efforts aimed at mitigating the impacts of climate change on biodiversity (Hannah et al., 2007). It emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary approaches for effective conservation planning. 

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Writing a literature review involves summarizing and synthesizing existing research on a particular topic. A good literature review format should include the following elements. 

Introduction: The introduction sets the stage for your literature review, providing context and introducing the main focus of your review. 

• Opening Statement: Begin with a general statement about the broader topic and its significance in the field. 
• Scope and Purpose: Clearly define the scope of your literature review. Explain the specific research question or objective you aim to address. 
• Organizational Framework: Briefly outline the structure of your literature review, indicating how you will categorize and discuss the existing research. 
• Significance of the Study: Highlight why your literature review is important and how it contributes to the understanding of the chosen topic. 
• Thesis Statement: Conclude the introduction with a concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or perspective you will develop in the body of the literature review. 

Body: The body of the literature review is where you provide a comprehensive analysis of existing literature, grouping studies based on themes, methodologies, or other relevant criteria. 

• Organize by Theme or Concept: Group studies that share common themes, concepts, or methodologies. Discuss each theme or concept in detail, summarizing key findings and identifying gaps or areas of disagreement. 
• Critical Analysis: Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each study. Discuss the methodologies used, the quality of evidence, and the overall contribution of each work to the understanding of the topic. 
• Synthesis of Findings: Synthesize the information from different studies to highlight trends, patterns, or areas of consensus in the literature. 
• Identification of Gaps: Discuss any gaps or limitations in the existing research and explain how your review contributes to filling these gaps. 
• Transition between Sections: Provide smooth transitions between different themes or concepts to maintain the flow of your literature review. 

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Conclusion: The conclusion of your literature review should summarize the main findings, highlight the contributions of the review, and suggest avenues for future research. 

• Summary of Key Findings: Recap the main findings from the literature and restate how they contribute to your research question or objective. 
• Contributions to the Field: Discuss the overall contribution of your literature review to the existing knowledge in the field. 
• Implications and Applications: Explore the practical implications of the findings and suggest how they might impact future research or practice. 
• Recommendations for Future Research: Identify areas that require further investigation and propose potential directions for future research in the field. 
• Final Thoughts: Conclude with a final reflection on the importance of your literature review and its relevance to the broader academic community. 

Conducting a literature review

Conducting a literature review is an essential step in research that involves reviewing and analyzing existing literature on a specific topic. It’s important to know how to do a literature review effectively, so here are the steps to follow: 1  

Choose a Topic and Define the Research Question:

• Select a topic that is relevant to your field of study. 
• Clearly define your research question or objective. Determine what specific aspect of the topic do you want to explore? 

Decide on the Scope of Your Review:

• Determine the timeframe for your literature review. Are you focusing on recent developments, or do you want a historical overview? 
• Consider the geographical scope. Is your review global, or are you focusing on a specific region? 
• Define the inclusion and exclusion criteria. What types of sources will you include? Are there specific types of studies or publications you will exclude? 

Select Databases for Searches:

• Identify relevant databases for your field. Examples include PubMed, IEEE Xplore, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. 
• Consider searching in library catalogs, institutional repositories, and specialized databases related to your topic. 

Conduct Searches and Keep Track:

• Develop a systematic search strategy using keywords, Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT), and other search techniques. 
• Record and document your search strategy for transparency and replicability. 
• Keep track of the articles, including publication details, abstracts, and links. Use citation management tools like EndNote, Zotero, or Mendeley to organize your references. 

Review the Literature:

• Evaluate the relevance and quality of each source. Consider the methodology, sample size, and results of studies. 
• Organize the literature by themes or key concepts. Identify patterns, trends, and gaps in the existing research. 
• Summarize key findings and arguments from each source. Compare and contrast different perspectives. 
• Identify areas where there is a consensus in the literature and where there are conflicting opinions. 
• Provide critical analysis and synthesis of the literature. What are the strengths and weaknesses of existing research? 

Organize and Write Your Literature Review:

• Literature review outline should be based on themes, chronological order, or methodological approaches. 
• Write a clear and coherent narrative that synthesizes the information gathered. 
• Use proper citations for each source and ensure consistency in your citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.). 
• Conclude your literature review by summarizing key findings, identifying gaps, and suggesting areas for future research. 

Whether you’re exploring a new research field or finding new angles to develop an existing topic, sifting through hundreds of papers can take more time than you have to spare. But what if you could find science-backed insights with verified citations in seconds? That’s the power of Paperpal’s new Research feature!  

How to write a literature review faster with Paperpal?

Paperpal, an AI writing assistant, integrates powerful academic search capabilities within its writing platform. With the Research feature, you get 100% factual insights, with citations backed by 250M+ verified research articles, directly within your writing interface with the option to save relevant references in your Citation Library. By eliminating the need to switch tabs to find answers to all your research questions, Paperpal saves time and helps you stay focused on your writing.   

Here’s how to use the Research feature:  

• Ask a question: Get started with a new document on paperpal.com. Click on the “Research” feature and type your question in plain English. Paperpal will scour over 250 million research articles, including conference papers and preprints, to provide you with accurate insights and citations. 
• Review and Save: Paperpal summarizes the information, while citing sources and listing relevant reads. You can quickly scan the results to identify relevant references and save these directly to your built-in citations library for later access. 
• Cite with Confidence: Paperpal makes it easy to incorporate relevant citations and references into your writing, ensuring your arguments are well-supported by credible sources. This translates to a polished, well-researched literature review. 

The literature review sample and detailed advice on writing and conducting a review will help you produce a well-structured report. But remember that a good literature review is an ongoing process, and it may be necessary to revisit and update it as your research progresses. By combining effortless research with an easy citation process, Paperpal Research streamlines the literature review process and empowers you to write faster and with more confidence. Try Paperpal Research now and see for yourself.  

Frequently asked questions

A literature review is a critical and comprehensive analysis of existing literature (published and unpublished works) on a specific topic or research question and provides a synthesis of the current state of knowledge in a particular field. A well-conducted literature review is crucial for researchers to build upon existing knowledge, avoid duplication of efforts, and contribute to the advancement of their field. It also helps researchers situate their work within a broader context and facilitates the development of a sound theoretical and conceptual framework for their studies.

Literature review is a crucial component of research writing, providing a solid background for a research paper’s investigation. The aim is to keep professionals up to date by providing an understanding of ongoing developments within a specific field, including research methods, and experimental techniques used in that field, and present that knowledge in the form of a written report. Also, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the scholar in his or her field.  

Before writing a literature review, it’s essential to undertake several preparatory steps to ensure that your review is well-researched, organized, and focused. This includes choosing a topic of general interest to you and doing exploratory research on that topic, writing an annotated bibliography, and noting major points, especially those that relate to the position you have taken on the topic. 

Literature reviews and academic research papers are essential components of scholarly work but serve different purposes within the academic realm. 3 A literature review aims to provide a foundation for understanding the current state of research on a particular topic, identify gaps or controversies, and lay the groundwork for future research. Therefore, it draws heavily from existing academic sources, including books, journal articles, and other scholarly publications. In contrast, an academic research paper aims to present new knowledge, contribute to the academic discourse, and advance the understanding of a specific research question. Therefore, it involves a mix of existing literature (in the introduction and literature review sections) and original data or findings obtained through research methods. 

Literature reviews are essential components of academic and research papers, and various strategies can be employed to conduct them effectively. If you want to know how to write a literature review for a research paper, here are four common approaches that are often used by researchers.  Chronological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the chronological order of publication. It helps to trace the development of a topic over time, showing how ideas, theories, and research have evolved.  Thematic Review: Thematic reviews focus on identifying and analyzing themes or topics that cut across different studies. Instead of organizing the literature chronologically, it is grouped by key themes or concepts, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of various aspects of the topic.  Methodological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the research methods employed in different studies. It helps to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of various methodologies and allows the reader to evaluate the reliability and validity of the research findings.  Theoretical Review: A theoretical review examines the literature based on the theoretical frameworks used in different studies. This approach helps to identify the key theories that have been applied to the topic and assess their contributions to the understanding of the subject.  It’s important to note that these strategies are not mutually exclusive, and a literature review may combine elements of more than one approach. The choice of strategy depends on the research question, the nature of the literature available, and the goals of the review. Additionally, other strategies, such as integrative reviews or systematic reviews, may be employed depending on the specific requirements of the research.

The literature review format can vary depending on the specific publication guidelines. However, there are some common elements and structures that are often followed. Here is a general guideline for the format of a literature review:  Introduction:   Provide an overview of the topic.  Define the scope and purpose of the literature review.  State the research question or objective.  Body:   Organize the literature by themes, concepts, or chronology.  Critically analyze and evaluate each source.  Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the studies.  Highlight any methodological limitations or biases.  Identify patterns, connections, or contradictions in the existing research.  Conclusion:   Summarize the key points discussed in the literature review.  Highlight the research gap.  Address the research question or objective stated in the introduction.  Highlight the contributions of the review and suggest directions for future research.

Both annotated bibliographies and literature reviews involve the examination of scholarly sources. While annotated bibliographies focus on individual sources with brief annotations, literature reviews provide a more in-depth, integrated, and comprehensive analysis of existing literature on a specific topic. The key differences are as follows: 

References 

• Denney, A. S., & Tewksbury, R. (2013). How to write a literature review.  Journal of criminal justice education ,  24 (2), 218-234. 
• Pan, M. L. (2016).  Preparing literature reviews: Qualitative and quantitative approaches . Taylor & Francis. 
• Cantero, C. (2019). How to write a literature review.  San José State University Writing Center . 

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Writing a Literature Review

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A literature review is a document or section of a document that collects key sources on a topic and discusses those sources in conversation with each other (also called synthesis ). The lit review is an important genre in many disciplines, not just literature (i.e., the study of works of literature such as novels and plays). When we say “literature review” or refer to “the literature,” we are talking about the research ( scholarship ) in a given field. You will often see the terms “the research,” “the scholarship,” and “the literature” used mostly interchangeably.

Where, when, and why would I write a lit review?

There are a number of different situations where you might write a literature review, each with slightly different expectations; different disciplines, too, have field-specific expectations for what a literature review is and does. For instance, in the humanities, authors might include more overt argumentation and interpretation of source material in their literature reviews, whereas in the sciences, authors are more likely to report study designs and results in their literature reviews; these differences reflect these disciplines’ purposes and conventions in scholarship. You should always look at examples from your own discipline and talk to professors or mentors in your field to be sure you understand your discipline’s conventions, for literature reviews as well as for any other genre.

A literature review can be a part of a research paper or scholarly article, usually falling after the introduction and before the research methods sections. In these cases, the lit review just needs to cover scholarship that is important to the issue you are writing about; sometimes it will also cover key sources that informed your research methodology.

Lit reviews can also be standalone pieces, either as assignments in a class or as publications. In a class, a lit review may be assigned to help students familiarize themselves with a topic and with scholarship in their field, get an idea of the other researchers working on the topic they’re interested in, find gaps in existing research in order to propose new projects, and/or develop a theoretical framework and methodology for later research. As a publication, a lit review usually is meant to help make other scholars’ lives easier by collecting and summarizing, synthesizing, and analyzing existing research on a topic. This can be especially helpful for students or scholars getting into a new research area, or for directing an entire community of scholars toward questions that have not yet been answered.

What are the parts of a lit review?

Most lit reviews use a basic introduction-body-conclusion structure; if your lit review is part of a larger paper, the introduction and conclusion pieces may be just a few sentences while you focus most of your attention on the body. If your lit review is a standalone piece, the introduction and conclusion take up more space and give you a place to discuss your goals, research methods, and conclusions separately from where you discuss the literature itself.

Introduction:

• An introductory paragraph that explains what your working topic and thesis is
• A forecast of key topics or texts that will appear in the review
• Potentially, a description of how you found sources and how you analyzed them for inclusion and discussion in the review (more often found in published, standalone literature reviews than in lit review sections in an article or research paper)
• Summarize and synthesize: Give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: Don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically Evaluate: Mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: Use transition words and topic sentence to draw connections, comparisons, and contrasts.

Conclusion:

• Summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance
• Connect it back to your primary research question

How should I organize my lit review?

Lit reviews can take many different organizational patterns depending on what you are trying to accomplish with the review. Here are some examples:

• Chronological : The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time, which helps familiarize the audience with the topic (for instance if you are introducing something that is not commonly known in your field). If you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze the patterns, turning points, and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred (as mentioned previously, this may not be appropriate in your discipline — check with a teacher or mentor if you’re unsure).
• Thematic : If you have found some recurring central themes that you will continue working with throughout your piece, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, if you are reviewing literature about women and religion, key themes can include the role of women in churches and the religious attitude towards women.
• Qualitative versus quantitative research
• Empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the research by sociological, historical, or cultural sources
• Theoretical : In many humanities articles, the literature review is the foundation for the theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts. You can argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach or combine various theorical concepts to create a framework for your research.

What are some strategies or tips I can use while writing my lit review?

Any lit review is only as good as the research it discusses; make sure your sources are well-chosen and your research is thorough. Don’t be afraid to do more research if you discover a new thread as you’re writing. More info on the research process is available in our "Conducting Research" resources .

As you’re doing your research, create an annotated bibliography ( see our page on the this type of document ). Much of the information used in an annotated bibliography can be used also in a literature review, so you’ll be not only partially drafting your lit review as you research, but also developing your sense of the larger conversation going on among scholars, professionals, and any other stakeholders in your topic.

Usually you will need to synthesize research rather than just summarizing it. This means drawing connections between sources to create a picture of the scholarly conversation on a topic over time. Many student writers struggle to synthesize because they feel they don’t have anything to add to the scholars they are citing; here are some strategies to help you:

• It often helps to remember that the point of these kinds of syntheses is to show your readers how you understand your research, to help them read the rest of your paper.
• Writing teachers often say synthesis is like hosting a dinner party: imagine all your sources are together in a room, discussing your topic. What are they saying to each other?
• Look at the in-text citations in each paragraph. Are you citing just one source for each paragraph? This usually indicates summary only. When you have multiple sources cited in a paragraph, you are more likely to be synthesizing them (not always, but often
• Read more about synthesis here.

The most interesting literature reviews are often written as arguments (again, as mentioned at the beginning of the page, this is discipline-specific and doesn’t work for all situations). Often, the literature review is where you can establish your research as filling a particular gap or as relevant in a particular way. You have some chance to do this in your introduction in an article, but the literature review section gives a more extended opportunity to establish the conversation in the way you would like your readers to see it. You can choose the intellectual lineage you would like to be part of and whose definitions matter most to your thinking (mostly humanities-specific, but this goes for sciences as well). In addressing these points, you argue for your place in the conversation, which tends to make the lit review more compelling than a simple reporting of other sources.

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What D oes Synthesis and Analysis Mean?

Synthesis: the combination of ideas to

• show commonalities or patterns

Analysis: a detailed examination

• of elements, ideas, or the structure of something
• can be a basis for discussion or interpretation

Synthesis and Analysis: combine and examine ideas to

• show how commonalities, patterns, and elements fit together
• form a unified point for a theory, discussion, or interpretation
• develop an informed evaluation of the idea by presenting several different viewpoints and/or ideas
• Article Spreadsheet Example (Article Organization Matrix) Use this spreadsheet to help you organize your articles as you research your topic.

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How to write a literature review for a dissertation, published by steve tippins on july 5, 2019 july 5, 2019.

Last Updated on: 22nd May 2024, 04:06 am

Chapter 2 of your dissertation, your literature review, may be the longest chapter. It is not uncommon to see lit reviews in the 40- to 60-page range. That may seem daunting, but I contend that the literature review could be the easiest part of your dissertation.

It is also foundational. To be able to select an appropriate research topic and craft expert research questions, you’ll need to know what has already been discovered and what mysteries remain. 

Remember, your degree is meant to indicate your achieving the highest level of expertise in your area of study. The lit review for your dissertation could very well form the foundation for your entire career.

In this article, I’ll give you detailed instructions for how to write the literature review of your dissertation without stress. I’ll also provide a sample outline.

When to Write the Literature Review for your Dissertation

Though technically Chapter 2 of your dissertation, many students write their literature review first. Why? Because having a solid foundation in the research informs the way you write Chapter 1.

Also, when writing Chapter 1, you’ll need to become familiar with the literature anyway. It only makes sense to write down what you learn to form the start of your lit review.

Some institutions even encourage students to write Chapter 2 first. But it’s important to talk with your Chair to see what he or she recommends.

How Long Should a Literature Review Be?

There is no set length for a literature review. The length largely depends on your area of study. However, I have found that most literature reviews are between 40-60 pages.

If your literature review is significantly shorter than that, ask yourself (a) if there is other relevant research that you have not explored, or (b) if you have provided enough of a discussion about the information you did explore.

Preparing to Write the Literature Review for your Dissertation

Step 1. Search Using Key Terms

Most people start their lit review searching appropriate databases using key terms. For example, if you’re researching the impact of social media on adult learning, some key terms you would use at the start of your search would be adult learning, androgogy, social media, and “learning and social media” together. 

If your topic was the impact of natural disasters on stock prices, then you would need to explore all types of natural disasters, other market factors that impact stock prices, and the methodologies used. 

You can save time by skimming the abstracts first; if the article is not what you thought it might be you can move on quickly.

Once you start finding articles using key terms, two different things will usually happen: you will find new key terms to search, and the articles will lead you directly to other articles related to what you are studying. It becomes like a snowball rolling downhill. 

Note that the vast majority of your sources should be articles from peer-reviewed journals. 

Step 2. Immerse Yourself in the Literature

When people ask what they should do first for their dissertation the most common answer is “immerse yourself in the literature.” What exactly does this mean?

Think of this stage as a trip into the quiet heart of the forest. Your questions are at the center of this journey, and you’ll need to help your reader understand which trees — which particular theories, studies, and lines of reasoning — got you there. 

There are lots of trees in this particular forest, but there are particular trees that mark your path.  What makes them unique? What about J’s methodology made you choose that study over Y’s? How did B’s argument triumph over A’s, thus leading you to C’s theory? 

You are showing your reader that you’ve fully explored the forest of your topic and chosen this particular path, leading to these particular questions (your research questions), for these particular reasons.

Step 3. Consider Gaps in the Research

The gaps in the research are where current knowledge ends and your study begins. In order to build a case for doing your study, you must demonstrate that it:

• Is worthy of doctoral-level research, and
• Has not already been studied

Defining the gaps in the literature should help accomplish both aims. Identifying studies on related topics helps make the case that your study is relevant, since other researchers have conducted related studies.

And showing where they fall short will help make the case that your study is the appropriate next step. Pay special attention to the recommendations for further research that the authors of studies make.

Step 4. Organize What You Find

As you find articles, you will have to come up with methods to organize what you find. 

Whether you find a computer-based system (three popular systems are Zotero, endNote, and Mendeley) or some sort of manual system such as index cards, you need to devise a method where you can easily group your references by subject and methodology and find what you are looking for when you need it. It is very frustrating to know you have found an article that supports a point that you are trying to make, but you can’t find the article!

One way to save time and keep things organized is to cut and paste relevant quotations (and their references) under topic headings. You’ll be able to rearrange and do some paraphrasing later, but if you’ve got the quotations and the citations that are important to you already embedded in your text, you’ll have an easier time of it.  

If you choose this method, be sure to list the whole reference on the reference/bibliography page so you don’t have to do this page separately later. Some students use Scrivener for this purpose, as it offers a clear way to view and easily navigate to all sections of a written document.

Need help with your literature review? Take a look at my dissertation coaching and dissertation editing services.

How to Write the Literature Review for your Dissertation

Once you have gathered a sufficient number of pertinent references, you’ll need to string them together in a way that tells your story. Explain what previous researchers have done by telling the story of how knowledge on this topic has evolved. Here, you are laying the support for your topic and showing that your research questions need to be answered. Let’s dive into how to actually write your dissertation’s literature review.

Step 1. Create an Outline

If you’ve created a system for keeping track of the sources you’ve found, you likely already have the bones of an outline. Even if not, it may be relatively easy to see how to organize it all. The main thing to remember is, keep it simple and don’t overthink it. There are several ways to organize your dissertation’s literature review, and I’ll discuss some of the most common below:

• By topic. This is by far the most common approach, and it’s the one I recommend unless there’s a clear reason to do otherwise. Topics are things like servant leadership, transformational leadership, employee retention, organizational knowledge, etc. Organizing by topic is fairly simple and it makes sense to the reader.
• Chronologically. In some cases, it makes sense to tell the story of how knowledge and thought on a given subject have evolved. In this case, sub-sections may indicate important advances or contributions. 
• By methodology. Some students organize their literature review by the methodology of the studies. This makes sense when conducting a mixed-methods study, and in cases where methodology is at the forefront.

Step 2. Write the Paragraphs 

I said earlier that I thought the lit review was the easiest part to write, and here is why. When you write about the findings of others, you can do it in small, discrete time periods. You go down the path awhile, then you rest. 

Once you have many small pieces written, you can then piece them together. You can write each piece without worrying about the flow of the chapter; that can all be done at the end when you put the jigsaw puzzle of references together.

Step 3. Analyze

The literature review is a demonstration of your ability to think critically about existing research and build meaningfully on it in your study. Avoid simply stating what other researchers said. Find the relationships between studies, note where researchers agree and disagree, and– especiallyy–relate it to your own study. 

Pay special attention to controversial issues, and don’t be afraid to give space to researchers who you disagree with. Including differing opinions will only strengthen the credibility of your study, as it demonstrates that you’re willing to consider all sides.

Step 4. Justify the Methodology

In addition to discussing studies related to your topic, include some background on the methodology you will be using. This is especially important if you are using a new or little-used methodology, as it may help get committee members onboard. 

I have seen several students get slowed down in the process trying to get committees to buy into the planned methodology. Providing references and samples of where the planned methodology has been used makes the job of the committee easier, and it will also help your reader trust the outcomes.

Advice for Writing Your Dissertation’s Literature Review

• Remember to relate each section back to your study (your Problem and Purpose statements).
• Discuss conflicting findings or theoretical positions. Avoid the temptation to only include research that you agree with.
• Sections should flow together, the way sections of a chapter in a nonfiction book do. They should relate to each other and relate back to the purpose of your study. Avoid making each section an island.
• Discuss how each study or theory relates to the others in that section.
• Avoid relying on direct quotes–you should demonstrate that you understand the study and can describe it accurately.

Sample Outline of a Literature Review (Dissertation Chapter 2)

Here is a sample outline, with some brief instructions. Note that your institution probably has specific requirements for the structure of your dissertation’s literature review. But to give you a general idea, I’ve provided a sample outline of a dissertation ’s literature review here.

• Introduction
• State the problem and the purpose of the study
• Give a brief synopsis of literature that establishes the relevance of the problem
• Very briefly summarize the major sections of your chapter

Documentation of Literature Search Strategy

• Include the library databases and search engines you used
• List the key terms you used
• Describe the scope (qualitative) or iterative process (quantitative). Explain why and based on what criteria you selected the articles you did.

Literature Review (this is the meat of the chapter)

• Sub-topic a
• Sub-topic b
• Sub-topic c

See below for an example of what this outline might look like.

How to Write a Literature Review for a Dissertation: An Example 

Let’s take an example that will make the organization, and the outline, a little bit more clear. Below, I’ll fill out the example outline based on the topics discussed.

If your questions have to do with the impact of the servant leadership style of management on employee retention, you may want to saunter down the path of servant leadership first, learning of its origins , its principles , its values , and its methods . 

You’ll note the different ways the style is employed based on different practitioners’ perspectives or circumstances and how studies have evaluated these differences. Researchers will draw conclusions that you’ll want to note, and these conclusions will lead you to your next questions. 

Next, you’ll want to wander into the territory of management styles to discover their impact on employee retention in general. Does management style really make a difference in employee retention, and if so, what factors, exactly, make this impact?

Employee retention is its own path, and you’ll discover factors, internal and external, that encourage people to stick with their jobs.

You’ll likely find paradoxes and contradictions in here that just bring up more questions. How do internal and external factors mix and match? How can employers influence both psychology and context ? Is it of benefit to try and do so?

At first, these three paths seem somewhat remote from one another, but your interest is where the three converge. Taking the lit review section by section like this before tying it all together will not only make it more manageable to write but will help you lead your reader down the same path you traveled, thereby increasing clarity. 

Example Outline

So the main sections of your literature review might look something like this:

• Literature Search Strategy
• Conceptual Framework or Theoretical Foundation
• Literature that supports your methodology
• Origins, principles, values
• Seminal research
• Current research
• Management Styles’ Impact on employee retention
• Internal Factors
• External Factors
• Influencing psychology and context
• Summary and Conclusion

Final Thoughts on Writing Your Dissertation’s Chapter 2

The lit review provides the foundation for your study and perhaps for your career. Spend time reading and getting lost in the literature. The “aha” moments will come where you see how everything fits together. 

At that point, it will just be a matter of clearly recording and tracing your path, keeping your references organized, and conveying clearly how your research questions are a natural evolution of previous work that has been done.

PS. If you’re struggling with your literature review, I can help. I offer dissertation coaching and editing services.

Steve Tippins

Steve Tippins, PhD, has thrived in academia for over thirty years. He continues to love teaching in addition to coaching recent PhD graduates as well as students writing their dissertations. Learn more about his dissertation coaching and career coaching services. Book a Free Consultation with Steve Tippins

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Common Assignments: Literature Reviews

Basics of literature reviews.

A literature review is a written approach to examining published information on a particular topic or field. Authors use this review of literature to create a foundation and justification for their research or to demonstrate knowledge on the current state of a field. This review can take the form of a course assignment or a section of a longer capstone project. Read on for more information about writing a strong literature review!

Students often misinterpret the term "literature review" to mean merely a collection of source summaries, similar to annotations or article abstracts. Although summarizing is an element of a literature review, the purpose is to create a comprehensive representation of your understanding of a topic or area of research, such as what has already been done or what has been found. Then, also using these sources, you can demonstrate the need for future research, specifically, your future research.

There is usually no required format or template for a literature review. However, there are some actions to keep in mind when constructing a literature review:

• Include an introduction and conclusion . Even if the literature review will be part of a longer document, introductory and concluding paragraphs can act as bookends to your material. Provide background information for your reader, such as including references to the pioneers in the field in the beginning and offering closure in the end by discussing the implications of future research to the field.
• Avoid direct quotations . Just like in an annotated bibliography, you will want to paraphrase all of the material you present in a literature review. This assignment is a chance for you to demonstrate your knowledge on a topic, and putting ideas into your own words will ensure that you are interpreting the found material for your reader. Paraphrasing will also ensure your review of literature is in your authorial voice.
• Organize by topic or theme rather than by author. When compiling multiple sources, a tendency can be to summarize each source and then compare and contrast the sources at the end. Instead, organize your source information by your identified themes and patterns. This organization helps demonstrate your synthesis of the material and inhibits you from creating a series of book reports.
•  Use headings . APA encourages the use of headings within longer pieces of text to display a shift in topic and create a visual break for the reader. Headings in a literature review can also help you as the writer organize your material by theme and note any layers, or subtopics, within the field.
• Show relationships and consider the flow of ideas. A literature review can be lengthy and dense, so you will want to make your text appealing to your reader. Transitions and comparison terms will allow you to demonstrate where authors agree or disagree on a topic and highlight your interpretation of the literature.

Related Multimedia, Social Media, and Other Resources

Randolph, J. J. (2009). A guide to writing the dissertation literature review. Practical Assessment, Research and Evaluation , 14 (13), 1–13. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1219&context=pare

Didn't find what you need? Email us at [email protected] .

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Chapter 2: The Importance of Theory and Literature

There is nothing more practical than a good theory.

— Kurt Lewin, 1951, p. 169

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, students should be able to do the following:

• Outline the main assumptions of positivist, interpretive, critical, and pragmatic paradigms.
• Explain why decolonization is necessary for learning about Indigenous knowledges.
• Define and differentiate between theoretical frameworks and theories.
• Distinguish between deductive and inductive reasoning and explain how the role of theory differs in qualitative and quantitative research.
• Formulate social research questions.
• Explain the importance of a literature review.
• Locate appropriate literature and evaluate sources of information found on the internet.

INTRODUCTION

In chapter 1, you were introduced to scientific reasoning as a desirable alternative to learning about the social world through tradition, common sense, authority, and personal experience. In addition, you learned to distinguish between basic and applied research and that research methods are used to collect data for a variety of purposes (e.g., to explore, describe, explain, or evaluate some phenomenon). In this chapter, you will learn about paradigms that shape our views of social research and alternative worldviews in the form of Indigenous knowledges. You will learn about theoretical frameworks and the importance of theory and prior research for informing the development of new research. Finally, this chapter helps you locate and evaluate sources of information you find in the library and on the internet.

INQUIRY PARADIGMS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

At the most general level, a paradigm is a set of “basic beliefs” or a “worldview” that helps us make sense of the world, including our own place in it (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). Earl Babbie and Jason Edgerton (2024) define a paradigm as “a theoretical perspective including a set of assumptions about reality that guide research questions” (Some Social Science Paradigms section). As a broad framework, a paradigm includes assumptions about the nature of knowledge (a branch of philosophy called epistemology), assumptions about the nature of reality or the way things are (a branch of philosophy called ontology), and assumptions about how we go about solving problems and gathering information (a system of principles or practices collectively known as methodology). The assumptions are interrelated in the sense that how one views the nature of reality (an ontological stance) influences beliefs about one’s relationship to that reality (an epistemological stance) and how one would go about examining that reality (a methodological stance) (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). This will become clearer as we compare the assumptions of four distinct and competing inquiry paradigms.

Positivist Paradigm

French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857) first used the term social physics (later called sociology ) to describe a positivist science of society that could teach us about the social world through research and theorizing (Ritzer & Stepnisky, 2021) . The positivist paradigm is a belief system aimed at discovering universal laws based on the assumption that a singular reality exists independent of individuals and their role in it. Positivism rests on a worldview like that of the natural sciences, which stresses objectivity and truth as discovered through direct empirical methods. In its most extreme form, positivism will accept as knowledge-only events that can verified through sensory experience (Bell et al., 2022). The goal of positivism is to explain events and relationships via a search for antecedent causes that produce outcomes. Within a positivist paradigm, the search for empirical truth begins with what is already known about an area. From that starting point, probable causes are “deduced” using logical reasoning, and then theories are tested for accuracy. Systematic observation and experimental methods are commonly employed modes of inquiry and the data obtained is quantifiable.

Interpretive Paradigm

The interpretive paradigm (also called constructivism) arose in part as a critique of positivism for its failure to recognize the importance of subjectivity in human-centred approaches. The interpretive paradigm worldview rests on the assumption that reality is socially constructed in the form of mental representations created and recreated by people through their experiences and interactions in social contexts (Lincoln et al., 2024). As such, “multiple realities exist” for any given individual (Guba, 1996), and these individual realities are largely “self-created” (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). The focus of the interpretive paradigm is on understanding individuals’ perceptions of reality, including how events and interactions come to have meaning for them, rather than identifying objective phenomena or social facts that exist outside of individuals and relationships. This generally necessitates a qualitative research strategy, such as ethnography, which brings the researcher into close contact with those being studied for prolonged periods of time; as a result, relationships develop and insight is gained from within those relationships. As Palys and Atchison (2014) put it, “good theory is not imposed; rather, it emerges from direct observation and contact with people in context” (p. 23).

Critical Paradigm

Another worldview that emphasizes interpretation and understanding is the critical paradigm . The critical paradigm rests on an assumption that “human nature operates in a world that is based on a struggle for power” (Lincoln et al., 2024, p. 81). The critical paradigm focuses specifically on determining the role power plays in the creation of knowledge, frequently using qualitative strategies. The critical approach is more of a critique concerning how and why particular views become the dominant ones and how privilege and oppression interact, often as the result of defining characteristics such as gender, race and ethnicity, and social class (Lincoln et al., 2024). Beyond examining inequality, there is also an emphasis on “praxis,” whereby scholars provide knowledge that can help to end powerlessness (Symbaluk & Bereska, 2022). To the extent that research can identify ways in which groups are disadvantaged and identify the causes of subordination, it can also be used to help resolve the inequities. Various theoretical perspectives and theories stem from a critical-interpretative stance including feminist inquiry, critical race theory, critical disabilities studies, and queer theory. [1]

Pragmatic Paradigm

Finally, in contrast to the dichotomy between the objectivity of positivism and the subjectivity of interpretive approaches, an impartial outlook is offered by a more recent paradigm called the pragmatic paradigm . The pragmatic view “arises out of actions, situations, and consequences rather than antecedent conditions” and is concerned with “applications—what works—and solutions to problems” (Creswell & Creswell, 2023, p. 11). This problem-centred worldview is not based in any philosophy, nor does it necessitate the use of a certain form of reasoning or research technique. It does, however, emphasize the importance of methodology for solving problems and advocates for the use of combined qualitative and quantitative approaches for a more complete understanding. Historically, combining qualitative and quantitative approaches has proven problematic given the opposing assumptions upon which each approach is based. The pragmatic paradigm offers a solution to the dichotomy. As John W. Creswell and J. David Creswell (2023) note, “pragmatists do not see the world as an absolute unity. In a similar way, mixed methods researchers look to many approaches for collecting and analyzing data rather than subscribing to any one way (e.g., quantitative or qualitative)” (p. 12). Thus, the starting point is the issue or research problem, which itself suggests the most applicable means for further research exploration. Mixed method approaches to research that are grounded in a pragmatic paradigm are discussed in more detail in chapter 11.

Test Yourself

• Which paradigm seeks to discover universal laws?
• Which paradigm is most concerned with objective reality?
• Which paradigm is problem-centred?
• Which paradigm rests on the assumption that reality is socially constructed?

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGES AND RESEARCH PARADIGMS

It is important to note that the paradigms discussed thus far have philosophical and research underpinnings based on dominant Euro-Western modes of thought. Indigenous scholars highlight the value of reclaiming alternative worldviews stemming from the silenced cultural perspectives of groups that are marginalized, underprivileged, and/or have suffered European colonization (e.g., see Battiste, 2000; Belanger & Hanrahan, 2022; Quinless, 2022; Smith, 2021; Warrior, 1995). “ Indigenous knowledges are diverse learning processes that come from living intimately with the land, working with the resources surrounding the land base, and the relationships that it has fostered over time and place. These are physical, social, and spiritual relationships that continue to be the foundations of its world views and ways of knowing that define their relationships with each other and others” (Battiste, 2013, p. 33). These Indigenous, sometimes called “traditional,” knowledges contain a wealth of pragmatic lessons in diverse areas from environmental conservation to cultural protocols and familial relationships.

The loss of language stemming from forced assimilation via structural mechanisms such as residential schools and Eurocentric educational systems poses challenges for the maintenance of Indigenous knowledges, though elders continue to play a vital role in the verification and transmission of Indigenous cultures. Note that researchers and their methods used to research Indigenous knowledges have historically been mainly non-Indigenous, and hence even the discourse of the colonized is shaped “through imperial eyes” (Smith, 2021). By employing decolonized methods, involving Indigenous researchers, including Indigenous peoples as active participants in research processes, listening to the teachings of elders, and recognizing the role that non-Indigenous researchers and Western methodologies have played in shaping the discourse on colonized Others, we can begin to remove the Eurocentric lens. The term colonized Other is used here to refer to Indigenous peoples in Canada who have experienced European colonization, but it can also be used more collectively to include those who are “disenfranchised” and “dispossessed” elsewhere in the world (e.g., those living in marginalized communities in underdeveloped countries) as described by Chilisa (2020, p. 9).

Decolonization is not one type of methodology but rather is “a process of conducting research in such a way that the worldviews of those who have suffered a long history of oppression and marginalization are given space to communicate from their frames of reference” (Chilisa, 2020, p. 11). For example, instead of asking volunteers to complete a questionnaire worded by the researcher to learn about participants’ views and experiences as prescribed by traditional social science methods, a former student of one of the authors named Reith Charlesworth (2016) spent several months developing relationships and establishing trust with program attendees before participating in a sharing circle she co-facilitated with an Indigenous social worker. The sharing circle included a feast and provided the opportunity for women to tell stories that ultimately helped Reith better understand social and structural barriers experienced by young Indigenous mothers in a parenting program at iHuman Youth Society in Edmonton, Alberta. [2]

Since Indigenous knowledge structures encompass a dynamic array of beliefs and lived experiences held by various individuals identifying with vastly different tribal groups in many different locations, it is difficult to identify common features. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization defines local and Indigenous knowledge as the

understandings, skills and philosophies developed by societies with long histories of interaction with their natural surroundings. For rural and Indigenous Peoples, local knowledge informs decision-making about fundamental aspects of day-to-day life. This knowledge is integral to a cultural complex that also encompasses language, systems of classification, resource use practices, social interactions, ritual and spirituality.” (UNESCO, 2024)

In her book on Indigenous methodologies, Margaret Kovach (2021) explains:

The scope and basis of an Indigenous epistemology encompasses: multiple sources of knowledge, more commonly recognized as holism (scope); a tangible and intangible animate world that is process oriented and cyclical, such as that expressed in verb-oriented language (e.g., with ing endings), which comprise many Indigenous languages (basis); and a web of interdependent, contextual, relationships over time, such as with place, family and community (basis)(p. 68).

Whereas the aim of a positivist paradigm is to discover universal laws, an Indigenous research paradigm seeks to challenge colonized ways of thinking and to employ decolonized research methods that enable a respectful reclaiming of Indigenous cultures and knowledges. Because Indigenous knowledges are largely maintained through oral transmission and cultural practices, Indigenous methodologies also include ceremonies and formal protocols, and they are amenable to narrative inquiry as in the case of sharing circles and storytelling (Kovach, 2021). When it comes to employing Indigenous research methods, the fundamental point to remember is that the research process and the resulting data and knowledge stemming from it are integrally based on “relational actions”—that is, the personal relationships and connections that are formed with Indigenous communities based on trust (Kovach, 2021).

• What are Indigenous knowledges?
• In research, what does decolonization mean?

Activity: Understanding Research Paradigms

Theoretical frameworks and theories.

Positivist, interpretive, critical, and pragmatic paradigms all offer a broad worldview from which theoretical frameworks emerge. Theoretical frameworks are perspectives based on core assumptions that provide a foundation for examining the social world at different levels. Theoretical frameworks that operate at the macro level tend to focus on “larger social forces,” while those dealing with the micro level are aimed at understanding “individual experiences” (Symbaluk & Bereska, 2022, p. 4).

Within the discipline of sociology, the functionalist, conflict, interactionist, feminist, and postmodern frameworks provide different lenses from which we can view society. The functionalist framework is a macro-level perspective that views society as being made up of certain structures—such as the family, education, and religion—that are essential for maintaining social order and stability. For example, a primary function of the family is to provide for the social, emotional, and economic well-being of its members and to serve as a key agent of socialization. The functionalist framework is rooted in positivism in its focus on observables in the form of social facts and universal truths. The conflict framework is also a macro-level perspective, but it is rooted in the critical paradigm in its examination of power and its emphasis on the prevalence of inequality in society as groups compete for scarce resources. Karl Marx (1818–1883), considered a key founder of this perspective, emphasized the central role of the economy in the creation of conflict and explained how workers in society are exploited and alienated under systems of capitalism (Ritzer & Stepnisky, 2021).

The symbolic interactionist framework is a micro-level perspective attributed to the early work of sociologists George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) and Herbert Blumer (1900–1987). The symbolic interactionist framework depicts society as consisting of individuals engaged in a variety of communications based on shared understandings (Symbaluk & Bereska, 2022). The emphasis here is on how individuals create meaning using symbols and language. Note how this framework emerges from interpretivism, with its emphasis on the importance of subjective meaning for individuals that is constructed and interpreted within interactions. For example, although two siblings in a familial union understand and relate to each other based on common features, such as a shared language and upbringing, they also each experience and recall events somewhat differently, based on their unique perspectives and relations toward one another. The symbolic interactionist perspective often guides qualitative researchers as they design strategies for uncovering meaning in groups and contexts.

With roots in the critical paradigm, the feminist framework [3]   rests on the premise that men and women should be treated equal in all facets of social life (e.g., family, employment, law, and policy). The feminist framework includes a diverse range of perspectives (e.g., radical, socialist, post-colonial), operates at both the micro and macro levels, and is especially helpful in demonstrating ways in which society is structured by gender and how gender roles differentially impact males and females. For example, feminist scholars are quick to point out that women in relationships with men continue to adhere to traditional gender role expectations, doing more than their share of housework and experiencing less free time compared to their partners (e.g., Bianchi, 2011; Guppy & Luongo, 2015). Even in egalitarian relationships (based on equality in principle) where both partners are Canadian academics working outside of the home, women assume more of the caregiving and household obligations at the expense of work-life balance (Wilton & Ross, 2017). COVID-19 exacerbated  gender inequalities with Canadian women spending close to 50 hours per week more than men on childcare during the pandemic (Johnston et al., 2020).

Finally, emerging post-World War II, the postmodern framework emphasizes the ways in which society has changed dramatically, particularly in relation to technological advances. The postmodern framework speaks out against singular monolithic structures and forces. It traces the intersectional features of inequality, including race, class, and gender, and focuses specifically on the effects of the digital age. This framework complicates dualistic boundaries between the micro and macro (arguing that they are one and the same) and calls into question the singular truths of earlier frameworks such as Marxism and functionalism. Postmodern perspectives are especially helping in guiding research in areas of media literacy, globalization, and environmental studies.

Drilling down another layer, within broader theoretical perspectives, we can locate particular theories . Within the functionalist framework, for example, we find Robert Merton’s (1938) strain theory of deviance, which explains how people adapt when there is a discrepancy between societal goals (what we are supposed to aspire to) and the legitimate means for obtaining them. Or, within the symbolic interactionist perspective, we can locate Edwin Lemert’s (1951) labelling theory of deviance, which explains a process whereby people may come to view themselves as lifelong deviants. Theories are discussed in more detail in the next section.

THE ROLE OF THEORY IN RESEARCH

A theory “is a set of propositions intended to explain a fact or a phenomenon” (Symbaluk & Bereska, 2022, p. 9). The propositions are usually expressed as statements that reflect the main assumptions of the theory. For example, Edwin Sutherland’s (1947) differential association theory is a theory about crime, and it is explained in nine propositions. To give you a sense of the theory, the first proposition is that “criminal behaviour is learned”; the second is that “criminal behaviour is learned in interactions with other persons in a process of communication” (p. 6). Taken together, the propositions in differential association theory explain how crime is learned through interactions with others in much the same way as non-criminal behaviour is learned. That is, members of small groups with whom we spend time and who we feel are important may teach us the techniques and motives needed to develop criminal tendencies.

Deductive Forms of Reasoning

Theory doesn’t happen in isolation from research; it can both inform the research process and develop from it. Theory that informs the research process is known as deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is a “theory-driven approach that typically concludes with [empirical] generalizations based on research findings” (Symbaluk & Bereska, 2022, p. 26). A deductive approach to social research is often a “top-down” linear one that begins with a research idea that is grounded in theory. A hypothesis or “testable research statement that includes at least two variables” is derived from the theory and this sets the stage for data collection (Symbaluk & Bereska, 2022, p. 29). A variable is a “categorical concept for properties of people or entities that can differ and change” (Symbaluk & Bereska, 2022, pp. 25–26; as discussed in more detail in chapter 4). In a study on crime, criminal behaviour (e.g., the presence or absence of it) or a certain type of crime is likely to be a main variable of interest, along with another variable regularly associated with crime, such as age, sex, or race. For example, based on a theory of aggression, a hypothesis could be that men are more likely than women to commit physical assaults.

Activity: Deductive Research Process

Testing hypotheses derived from theories.

Based on the tenets of Sutherland’s (1947) differential association theory, Reiss and Rhodes (1964) “deduced” that delinquent boys are likely to engage in the same acts of deviance as their closest friends, since these are the people from whom they learn the techniques, motives, and definitions favourable to committing crimes. Specifically, they tested a hypothesis that the probability of an individual committing a delinquent act (e.g., auto theft, an assault, and vandalism) would be dependent upon his two closest friends also committing that act. The researchers looked at six different delinquent acts among 299 triads (i.e., groups of three), wherein each boy reported on his delinquency and indicated whether he committed the act alone or in the presence of others. In support of the theory, Reiss and Rhodes (1964) found that boys who committed delinquent acts were more likely to have close friends that committed the same acts. Figure 2.2 summarizes the logic of a typical research process based on deductive reasoning.

Inductive Forms of Reasoning

An inductive reasoning approach is more “bottom-up,” beginning with observations and ending with the discovery of patterns and themes that are usually informed by theory or help establish and thereby “induce” new theory (see figure 2.3).

For example, Lowe and McClement (2011) examined the experience of spousal bereavement through interviews with young Canadian women whose husbands passed away. Over the course of data collection, the researchers identified various common themes including “elements of losses” such as the loss of companionship and the loss of hopes and dreams for the future. They also identified a notion of “who am I?” as the widows relayed their attempts to redefine themselves as single, in relation to other men, with their friends, and as single parents. Although the lived experience of young Canadian widows as a specific group of interest had not been previously explored, the researchers interpreted their findings within the context of previous studies and theoretical frameworks, such as Bowman’s (1997) earlier research on facing the loss of dreams and Shaffer’s (1993) dissertation research on rebuilding identity following the loss of a spouse. Lowe and McClement (2011) also identified the importance of making connections through memories as a means of adapting, suggesting a direction for additional research and the potential for an eventual theory on the development of relationships following the loss of a spouse.

The Role of Theory in Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Note that the role and use of theory differs depending on whether the study is quantitative (i.e., based on deductive reasoning) or qualitative (i.e., based on inductive reasoning). Recall from chapter 1 that qualitative research often seeks to provide an in-depth understanding of a research issue from the perspective of those who are affected first-hand. The research process begins with an interest in an area such as cannabis use and a research question (e.g., What do parents perceive their role to be in the education of cannabis use?). Data collection is often undertaken through a technique such as qualitative interviews, where researchers ask open-ended questions to learn as much as possible from interviewees. For example, Haines-Saah et al. (2018) asked parents of adolescent drug users what their experiences were like talking to their children about drug use. Theory is usually brought into an analysis to help make sense of the responses collected. In some cases, new theory develops out of the research findings. The “discovery of theory from data systematically obtained from social research” is better known as grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 2007, p. 2) since it is intricately linked to the data and context within which it developed. In most instances of qualitative research, theory plays a central role at various stages (e.g., in the formulation of the research question, in the initial stages of data coding, and especially toward the end of the data-analysis process). Findings from the cannabis study were interpreted in theoretical frameworks of risk and responsibility, as parents discussed cannabis use largely from a health narrative of drugs negatively impacting a developing brain or a blame narrative where parents viewed themselves as the primary agents of prevention (Haines-Saah et al., 2018).

In contrast, theory is the starting point for most quantitative studies. On one hand, a theory provides a set of interrelated ideas that organize the existing knowledge in a meaningful way and help to explain it (Cozby et al., 2020). For example, demographic transition theory helps to identify universal stages of population change as countries progress from pre-industrial societies through to post-industrial economies (Landry, 1934; Notestein, 1945). In countries characterized by the more advanced industrial stage of development, birth rates are low, corresponding to people having fewer children due to various considerations (e.g., birth control, female participation in the workforce, reliance on exported manufactured goods, greater emphasis on higher educational attainment). Despite the specificity of economic and social issues that vary from one country to the next, we can still identify broader commonalities such a declining birth rate coupled with an already low death rate in all countries that have reached the industrial stage of development, including Canada. Hence, this early theory is still useful today for explaining differences between countries in early industrial, industrial, and post-industrial stages of development.

In addition, a theory provides a focal point that draws our attention to issues and events in a manner that helps to generate new interest and knowledge (Cozby et al., 2020). For example, conflict theorists showed us how capitalism and its focus on economic productivity is linked to major environmental issues, including the high extraction of natural resources and the high accumulation of waste (Schnaiberg, 1980). Schnaiberg’s early framing of capitalism as a “treadmill of production” spawned additional interest in the study of modern industry, highlighting ways in which environmental issues are constructed as “proeconomic” measures in part because of alliances formed between capitalists, workers, and the state (Gould et al., 2008). Conflict theorists also direct our attention to the capitalist “treadmill of accumulation,” which, in its reliance on ever-increasing amounts of expansion and exploitation, renders attempts at sustainable capitalism largely unattainable from an environmental standpoint (Foster et al., 2010). With ongoing concerns about carbon emissions, conflict theorists are now asking the question: How much is enough? suggesting we need to aim for carbon minimalism through efforts at simplicity and sufficiency if we hope to tackle the climate crisis (Alter, 2024).

On the other hand, using theory as a starting point necessitates the development of specific propositions and the prior classifications of key concepts and assumptions before data collection begins. As Mathew David and Carole D. Sutton (2011) explain,

there are advantages and disadvantages here. Those who seek to classify their qualities prior to data collection can be accused of imposing their own priorities, while those who seek to allow classifications to emerge during the research process are thereby unable to use the data collection period to test their subsequent theories. They too can then be accused of imposing their own priorities because it is hard to confirm or disprove their interpretations as no ‘testing’ has been done. (p. 92)

You will learn more about the criteria used to evaluate research in chapter 4. For now, consider that both approaches, while different, have equal merit and drawbacks. Inductive and deductive approaches are probably best viewed as different components of the same research cycle, with some researchers beginning with theories and ending with observations, and others doing the reverse (Wallace, 1971).

Research on the Net

Classical Social  Theory Course

Classical social theory remains highly relevant today, guiding and informing the research of social scientists around the world. Professors at the University of Amsterdam have developed a free online course on Classical Social Theory for anyone interested in learning more about the works of influential social science theorists from the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, including Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Emile Durkheim.

• What is theory?
• What does a hypothesis contain?
• In what ways is a research process based on deductive reasoning different from one based on inductive reasoning?
• How do the role and use of theory differ in a qualitative versus quantitative study?
• What is grounded theory?

FORMULATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Although most of this chapter has focused on the role of theory for guiding the development of research and helping to inform research outcomes, research begins even before this, with a general area of interest. Every research study begins with a topic of interest. As a general worldview can be narrowed into a specific theory, a general area of interest can be shaped into a specific research question. Think about the last time you were asked to write an essay on a topic of interest or if you are considering continuing your studies into graduate school, what a general area of interest might entail. For a student in sociology, a broad area of interest could be the family, gender and sexualities, deviance, globalization, or social inequality. A student in psychology is more likely to consider the areas of developmental psychology, cognition, neuropsychology, or clinical testing, to name a few. Someone in anthropology may have a starting interest that lends itself more to archaeology, physical anthropology, cultural anthropology, or linguistics.

Locating a Topic of Interest

Within a broad area of interest, there are topics or issues that are focus points for research. For example, a sociologist specializing in social inequality might wish to learn more about the distribution of poverty in Canada or the barriers to housing experienced by those who are homeless. A developmental psychologist may be studying the intellectual, emotional, or perceptual development of children. Someone in anthropological linguistics might be interested in the evolution of language dialects or the loss of a mother tongue over time. Regardless of the topic you choose, your research interest is likely to centre on social groups (e.g., homeless people, children with developmental delays, Indigenous peoples who speak an endangered language) or social structures, policies, and processes that affect groups (e.g., barriers to housing, definitions of poverty, cannabis legislation, health benefit coverage).

Framing an Interest into a Social Research Question

Recall from chapter 1 that a social research question is designed to explore, describe, explain, or critically evaluate a topic of interest. This means as you develop your topic of interest, you need to consider how the wording of the question suggests the most appropriate course of action for answering it. A social research question is “a question about the social world that one seeks to answer through the collection and analysis of firsthand, verifiable, empirical data” (Schutt, 2022, p. 33). A question beginning with “What is it like to …” often implies an exploratory purpose, inductive reasoning, and a qualitative research method. A question beginning with “Why” may presuppose a search for causes, and this is generally undertaken for an explanatory purpose based on deductive reasoning and a quantitative method, such as an experiment. Alternatively, “Why” might also imply inductive reasoning that is designed to get the essence of a first-hand experience using a qualitative approach. Research questions that are designed to evaluate a program or service are likely to be formulated along the lines of “Is this working?” Program evaluations are often based on qualitative methods, but the approaches and methods vary considerably and may include mixed methods, depending on the nature of the program or policy. Descriptive studies, often resting on a research question such as “What are its main features?” tend to be heavily represented in the quantitative realm (especially when the data are gathered through surveys). However, like evaluation research, descriptive studies are amenable to qualitative methods, especially in the case of field observation, which can produce highly descriptive forms of data.

Framing an interest is not a process that occurs instantly; rather it is one that you develop over time, eventually shaping your interest into a manageable research question that will direct a study that contributes to the existing body of knowledge. You will need to start with a general area, select a topic, issue, or focus within that area, and then look at the literature before refining your topic into a central social research question. Figure 2.4 provides two examples of the progression from a general area to a more specific question.

• What does a research study begin with?
• What is a social research question?

THE IMPORTANCE OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

If you plan to conduct research, you will need to be familiar with what is already known about your research interest before you finalize your research question. It is important that you at least examine the literature relevant to your topic of interest before you commit to a specific research question. You are likely to modify your research question once you learn more about the topic from a literature review.

A literature review is essential for these reasons:

• First, a literature review tells you how much has already been done in this area. For example, if you are interested in carrying out a study on the portrayal of gender stereotypes in the media, it is important for you to know that you are going to be delving into an area that has been heavily researched for decades. There are literally millions of previous studies on the gender stereotypes in movies, on television, in magazines, and on the internet. In this case, your research question would not be exploratory in nature. One of your next steps with this topic would be to narrow your focus (e.g., perhaps you are more interested in male stereotypes portrayed in magazine advertisements).
• Second, a literature review helps familiarize you with what is already known in the area. Continuing with an interest in stereotyped depictions of males, the literature can help you learn more about the construction of masculinity and how the male body is depicted in advertising. For example, Mishkind, Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore (1986) note that advertising has increasingly come to celebrate a young, lean, and highly muscular body. This helps you choose an area that most interests you and that you can build upon with your own research (or that you can identify for an area of future research).
• Third, a literature review helps you understand the debates and main points of interest within an area of study. Existing literature can inform you about how the portrayal of gender stereotypes in the media can lead people to become dissatisfied with their body image or engage in extreme practices and measures designed to obtain an ideal body image (e.g., dieting, fitness, cosmetic surgery). The literature can also help you understand similarities and differences in the ways in which men and women are portrayed, or how depictions of men have changed over time. These considerations may further shape the direction you elect to take with a current or future research project.
• Fourth, a literature review highlights what still needs to be done in an area of interest. By examining previous research, you can find out researchers’ suggestions for additional studies, where replications would be helpful, or areas that still need to be addressed. The discussion section at the end of most academic articles typically includes a few sentences that explicitly address how the current study could have been improved upon and/or point out a direction for future research. This is where you will obtain a sense of how you could design a study that builds on the existing literature but also contributes something new.
• Lastly, a literature review can help you define important theories and concepts as well as establish guidelines for how you will need to carry out your own study . For example, if you wish to clarify how male bodies are shown in magazine advertisements, it would be practical to locate examples by other researchers that have already established standard ways to describe and code the body of a central character in an advertisement appearing in magazines.

Research is a conversation

As the following video illustrates, when you are tasked with coming up with a research question, it is important to remember that you are entering into a discussion with other academics who have come before you.

Research is a Conversation by UNLV University Libraries is licensed under CC BY-NC . [Video transcript –  See Appendix D 2.1 ]

In what ways is a literature review essential in the development of a research question?

LOCATING RELEVANT LITERATURE

Resist the temptation to simply search the public internet with your preferred browser for any available resources you can find on your topic of interest. Search engines like Google prioritize links that are from paid sponsors, so the resources that appear first are likely not the most relevant or even appropriate references for your area of interest. Meanwhile, many of the research articles you find using a search engine like Google are behind a paywall requiring that you pay to read more relevant content published by academic publishers. In addition to commercial interests, the public internet also suffers from a lack of quality control; the information you glean from web pages you find on the internet can be obsolete, and worse, fraught with errors.

The best sources of information for a literature review include periodicals, books, and book chapters located in or accessed through a library in a post-secondary institution. You can probably browse an online catalogue system for your post-secondary institution’s library from any computer, if you can access the internet and you are officially registered as a student.

Searching for Books

Books are especially useful when researching specific theories, research methodologies, and the historic context of a topic. Sometimes edited volumes of books contain short research papers written by different authors, which can also be useful when conducting academic research. The search engine on your library’s home page is where you can find books (including eBooks). If you know the title of the book you are looking for, simply type the title into the search box. Putting the title in quotes (e.g., “The Sociology of Childhood and Youth in Canada”) will locate that exact title in the results if it is available. If you instead want to explore what is out there on your topic, enter some relevant keywords. In library databases you will want to put an AND  between each different keyword that you search for. For example, if you try searching for a book using the combined keywords male AND stereotypes , you will probably locate a list of starting resources. If there are more than 50 books on this topic, you might try male AND stereotypes AND media to narrow your search a bit further. You can also search for words with similar meanings by putting an OR  between the terms that you use in brackets, for instance, (male OR masculine OR masculinity) AND stereotypes AND media . After doing a search, most library catalogues will give you options to the left of your results to limit to just books or eBooks, as well as limiting by publication date and to books on general subject areas.

Searching for Periodicals

Periodicals (including magazines, newspapers, and scholarly journals) are publications that contain articles written by different authors. Periodicals are released  periodically at regular intervals such as daily, weekly, monthly, semi-annually, or annually. Popular press periodicals (e.g., Maclean’s, Reader’s Digest , newspapers, and news websites) contain articles that are less scientific and more general-interest focused than scholarly articles published in peer-reviewed periodicals. Scholarly journals published by academic and professional organizations (e.g., universities) are the form of periodical most often cited by your instructors as credible sources for you to use in writing essays and research reports. Scholarly journals contain articles on basic research authored by academics and researchers with expertise in their respective areas. Articles found in scholarly journals have undergone considerable scrutiny in a competitive selection process that rests on peer review and evaluation prior to publication. This helps to ensure that only up-to-date, high-quality research based on sound practices makes it to the publication stage. Examples of Canadian sociological periodicals include the Canadian Journal of Sociology and the Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology . Note that there are hundreds of periodicals spanning a range of related disciplines (e.g., Canadian Journal of Criminology , Canadian Journal of Economics , Canadian Journal of Political Science , and Canadian Psychology ) and more specialized topics (e.g., Sex Roles , Child Abuse and Neglect , Contemporary Drug Problems , Educational Gerontology ).

Similar to books, in many cases, you can access journals online using the search box on a university library’s homepage or through a database available on a library’s website. If an article is available in “full text,” you can usually download the entire article onto a storage device, so you can later retrieve it for further reading. Comprehensive databases for locating articles on research in the social sciences include Social Sciences Citation Index (part of Web of Science), Academic Search Complete, PsychINFO, SocINDEX, Sociological Abstracts, Criminal Justice Abstracts, and Anthropology Plus. For example, Academic Search Complete is dubbed one of the most comprehensive multidiscipline full-text databases, containing 5,812 full-text journals and magazines on a range of subjects, including psychology, religion, and philosophy (EBSCO Information Services, 2024).

Searching for Government Information

Depending on your research topic, you may find it helpful to reference research findings and statistics provided by governments. Governments at all levels hire researchers to conduct research on a range of topics to help inform public policy and address societal issues. This is one case where you will have to search for information that is available publicly on the internet. Websites like Statistics Canada and Government of Canada Publications contain a lot of content, however, and can be difficult to search. One strategy that can help with this is to perform a site search using Google. Simply enter site:  into Google followed by the domain of the website you would like to search along with relevant keywords to locate information on that site containing those words. For instance, site:statcan.gc.ca affordable housing  will locate statistics and analysis on housing needs available through Statistics Canada.

Research in Action

Fact Checking and Source Evaluation 

It is not enough to simply locate sources of information on an area of interest and assume that you have appropriate materials for learning about the area of interest. While academic journals undergo a peer-review process that helps to provide a check on the quality, accuracy, and currency of the published materials, the internet has little or no quality control. If you use the internet to find sources of information, such as webpages with links to various articles and other resources, it is important to evaluate that information before using it to inform your research.

SIFT & PICK 

Librarians at MacEwan University Library (2023) suggest you assess the quality of information you find through this SIFT and PICK strategy:

Review the Library’s SIFT and PICK handout [PDF] to learn more.

AFP Fact Check is a department within a larger news agency called Agence France-Press (AFP) dedicated to verifying and providing accurate news coverage. Here, you can find trending stories and search for topics such as “vaccination” to locate the most recent forms of misinformation about the Covid-19 vaccine reported as news.  Visit AFP Canada for exclusively Canadian coverage.

• What are the best sources of information for a literature review?

CHAPTER SUMMARY

• Outline the main assumptions of positivist, interpretative, critical, and pragmatic paradigms. The positivist paradigm emphasizes objectivity and the importance of discovering truth using empirical methods. The interpretive paradigm stresses the importance of subjective understanding and discovering meaning as it exists for the people experiencing it. The critical paradigm focuses on the role of power in the creation of knowledge. The pragmatic paradigm begins with a research problem and determines a course of action for studying it based on what seems most appropriate given that research problem.
• Explain why decolonization is necessary for learning about Indigenous knowledges. For Indigenous knowledges to be derived from Indigenous sources in an authentic and respectful manner, those who have suffered colonization need to be given the space to communicate on their own terms from their frames of reference, as opposed to trying to obtain information via research methods that are based on Euro-Western influences.
• Define and differentiate between theoretical frameworks and theories. Theoretical frameworks are perspectives based on core assumptions that provide a foundation for examining the social world at different levels. For example, theoretical frameworks at the macro level tend to focus on broader social forces, while those at the micro level emphasize individual experiences. Theories develop from theoretical perspectives, and they include propositions that are intended to explain a fact or phenomenon of interest.
• Distinguish between deductive and inductive reasoning and explain how the role of theory differs in qualitative and quantitative research. Deductive reasoning is a top-down, theory-driven approach that concludes with generalizations based on research findings. Inductive reasoning is a bottom-up approach that begins with observations and typically ends with theory construction. Inductive approaches to reasoning guide qualitative research processes, while deductive approaches guide the stages of quantitative research. Theory tends to be the starting point for quantitative research, while it is interspersed throughout and emphasized more in the later stages of qualitative research.
• Formulate social research questions. Based on a broad area of interest and a careful literature review, a researcher eventually shapes a research interest into a social research question, which is a question about the social world that is answered through the collection and analysis of data. For example, a researcher might begin with an interest in gender that develops into an examination of the effects of body size on income for male and female workers, as demonstrated earlier in the chapter.
• Explain the importance of a literature review. A literature review is the starting point for formulating social research questions. A literature review helps to identify what is already known about and still needs to be done in an area of interest. A literature review also points out debates and issues in an area of interest, along with the most relevant concepts and means for going about studying the issue in more depth.
• Locate appropriate literature and evaluate sources of information found on the internet. Appropriate literature sources include periodicals, books, and government documents, most of which can be accessed online through the library at post-secondary institutions. You should evaluate the quality of information gleaned from websites prior to using that information as a primary source in a literature review. Evaluating information on the internet generally takes the form of asking questions that centre on the source, timeliness, accuracy, and relevance of the site. For example, in assessing accuracy, you can ask “Is the information free of spelling, grammatical, and technical errors?” and “Where did the information come from?”

RESEARCH REFLECTION

• Read Margaret Kovach’s (2018) chapter titled Doing Indigenous methodologies: A letter to a research class in N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (5th ed., pp. 108–150). Sage. Based on your reading, explain why the author claims it is not possible to do Indigenous methodologies. Also note the ways in which Indigenous methodologies are relational in nature.
• Identify a general area of interest to you. Within that area of interest, develop two social research questions—one that implies an exploratory purpose and one that implies an explanatory purpose. Which paradigm introduced at the beginning of the chapter do you think best represents the research questions you developed? Explain why this is the case.
• In what ways is an article found in a scholarly journal likely to be more appropriate as a reference source for a research topic than one located using a search engine such as Bing or Google?

LEARNING THROUGH PRACTICE

Objective: To assess information on the internet

Directions:

• Use Google to locate a website that contains relevant information on a topic of interest.
• Who created the site and what are their credentials?
• What are the qualifications of authors associated with the site?
• Is it possible to verify the accuracy of any of the claims made on this site?
• Is an educational purpose for this site evident?
• Is the site objective (or free from bias)?
• Is the site free of advertisements?
• Can you tell when the site was created?
• Was the site updated recently?
• Are there properly cited references on the site?
• Are there any errors on site (e.g., spelling, grammatical)?
• What rating would you give this site out of 100, if 100 percent is “perfect” and 0 stands for “without any merit.” Explain why you think the site deserves this rating based on the questions listed above.

RESEARCH RESOURCES

• To learn more about social theorists and the underpinnings of social theory, refer to Ritzer, G., and Stepnisky, J. (2021). S ociological theory (11th ed.). Sage.
• For an introduction to Indigenous ways of knowing, as well as historical and contemporary issues involving Canada’s First Peoples, refer to Belanger, Y. D. and Hanrahan, M. (2022). Ways of knowing: An introduction to Indigenous studies in Canada (4th ed.). Top Hat.
• To learn about decolonizing strategies and the potential for Indigenizing education, read Cote-Meek, S., and Moeke-Pickering, T. (2020). Decolonizing and Indigenizing education in Canada . Canadian Scholars Press.
• To learn how Indigenous knowledge structures inform research conducted by Indigenous scholars, see Kovach, M. (2021). Indigenous methodologies: Characteristics, conversations and contexts . University of Toronto Press.
• For more information on feminist inquiry, critical race theory, critical disabilities studies, and queer theory , refer to The Sage handbook of qualitative research (6th ed.) (2024), edited by Norman K. Denzin, Yvonna S. Lincoln, Michael D. Giardina, and Gaile S. Cannella. ↵
• The sharing circle was part of a larger community-based project carried out by Reith Charlesworth during the winter of 2016, under the supervision of Brianna Olson, an Anishnaabe (First Nations) Métis woman/social worker who was iHuman’s program manager, and Dr. Alissa Overend, Reith’s research mentor at MacEwan University. Dr. Diane Symbaluk taught the foundational research methods course for this project in the fall of 2015 and set up/oversaw student placements as the faculty coordinator for the 2015–2016 calendar year. ↵
• An in-depth discussion of feminist perspectives is beyond the scope of this book. To learn about feminist standpoints and their relationships to research methodology, I recommend The handbook of feminist research: Theory and praxis (2nd ed.), edited by Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber (2012). For insight into conceptions of power, refer to The Power of Feminist Theory: Domination, Resistance, Solidarity , by Amy Allen (1999). ↵

A theoretical perspective including a set of assumptions about reality that guide research questions.

A worldview that upholds the importance of discovering truth through direct experience using empirical methods.

A worldview that rests on the assumption that reality is socially constructed and must be understood from the perspective of those experiencing it.

A worldview that is critical of paradigms that fail to acknowledge the role of power in the creation of knowledge and that is aimed at bringing about empowering change.

A worldview that rests on the assumption that reality is best understood in terms of the practical consequences of actions undertaken to solve problems.

Diverse learning processes that come from living intimately with the land and working with the resources surrounding the land base and the relationships that it has fostered over time and place.

A process of conducting research in such a way that the worldview of those who have suffered a long history of oppression and marginalization are given space to communicate from their frames of reference.

A perspective based on core assumptions.

The level of broader social forces.

The level of individual experiences and choices.

A set of propositions intended to explain a fact or phenomenon.

A theory-driven approach that typically concludes with empirical generalizations based on research findings.

A testable statement that contains at least two variables.

A categorical concept for properties of people or events that can differ and change.

A bottom-up approach beginning with observations and ending with the discovery of patterns and themes informed by theory.

Theory discovered from the systematic observation and analysis of data.

A question about the social world that is answered through the collection and analysis of first-hand, verifiable, empirical data.

Publications that contain articles written by different authors and are released at regular intervals.

Research Methods: Exploring the Social World in Canadian Context Copyright © 2024 by Diane Symbaluk & Robyn Hall is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Chapter 10 Objectives

Barry Mauer and John Venecek

Much of this chapter deals with constructing cohesive arguments. In “Research as an Inferential and Critical Process,” we discuss how inferences allow us to move from one thought to another; they are the pathways by which thinking occurs.

In “Relating the Conceptual and the Concrete,” we return to our analogy between argumentative writing and law by focusing on how to use deductive logic to make your case. A good detective or lawyer alternates between the conceptual and concrete, just as you should in your research project. Deductive logic uses syllogisms, which are three-part structures that tell us what to think about a specific case (person, place, thing, group, event, etc.).

Our first task for this chapter is to select a type of literature review. We will be learning about the different kinds and why you might choose one over another. The second task is to create a literature review by synthesizing the materials we collected earlier using library and Google Scholar searches, and for which we produced an annotated bibliography.

Learning Objectives

Keep the detective analogy in mind as you work through this chapter. Much like a detective, researchers use deductive, inductive, and abductive logic to make sense of their material. The most important lessons you will learn are to:

• ask critical questions.
• note claims that follow from a given proposition (or statement of facts).
• Synthesize your research into a literature review.

Chapter 10 Objectives Copyright © 2021 by Barry Mauer and John Venecek is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Big Data Analytics in Management Reporting: A Systematic Literature Review

• Conference paper
• First Online: 04 July 2024
• Cite this conference paper

• Simon Luca Kropf 3  

Part of the book series: Springer Proceedings in Business and Economics ((SPBE))

Included in the following conference series:

• International Conference on Applied Economics

Data are sometimes referred to as the new oil (Humby & Palmer, 2006 ) since it is assumed to have similar characteristics. Its value is particularly connected to its refinement as, otherwise, data cannot be used effectively. In principle, this is like crude oil, a commodity that must be refined into gas, chemicals, plastic, or similar outputs of higher value. Data must similarly be broken down and transferred to create a valuable output as well (Palmer M, Data is the new oil. ANA Marketing Maestros. https://ana.blogs.com/maestros/2006/11/data_is_the_new.html , 2006). The reference of data to oil is also mentioned in practice in the context of its overall value in the economy, whereby digital data are characterized as the most valuable resource (Economist, The world’s most valuable resource is no longer oil, but data. The Economist. https://www.economist.com/leaders/2017/05/06/the-worlds-most-valuable-resource-is-no-longer-oil-but-data , 2017). Also, the availability of data for analysis is expected to show strong growth in the future, thanks to advances in technology and data-gathering techniques, which are applied across a diverse range of industries. This development is particularly driven by the large growth of data segments, especially in connection to social media as well as to data from applications in the realm of the Internet of Things. Currently, data growth is expected to exceed the growth in data storage capacity, as stated by the International Data Corporation or IDC (Hariri RH, Fredericks EM, Bowers KM, J Big Data 6(44):1–16, 2019; IDC, Data creation and replication will grow at a faster rate than installed storage capacity. According to the IDC Global DataSphere and StorageSphere Forecasts. https://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS47560321 , 2021). Given the increase in the availability of large amounts of data, the data analytics market revenue is also projected to show strong growth in the near future as well (Statista, Big data analytics market global revenue 2025. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/947745/worldwide-total-data-market-revenue/ , 2020). As a result of advancing digitization, a very large basic spectrum for data-driven decisions of all kinds has been created. In addition, the storage of data has become very cost-effective with the current state of the art. Coupled with today’s vast amount of data, there is enormous potential for companies to transform data into information to generate significant competitive advantages and build valuable knowledge that can support companies. This implies that data management and decision support systems are of great importance to corporate management and corporate management reporting, and this importance can be expected to grow in future (Seufert A, Treitz R, von Dacke M, Control Mag 07/08:48–53, 2017).

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Quotation marks have not been applied uniformly with JSTOR as this has shown to narrow the results too much for the purpose of the review in the case of the term big data analytics . However, quotation marks have been used for “machine learning,” “artificial intelligence,” “data mining,” and “predictive analytics.”

Akerkar, R. (2019). Artificial intelligence for business . Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97436-1

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The JOJOLands Chapter 17 Review: “That Girl's Bags Groove, Part 2” Takes Aim & Hits Its Target

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The following contains spoilers for JoJo’s Bizarre Adventure: The JOJOLands, Chapter 17, "That Girl's Bags Groove, Part 2," by Hirohiko Araki from Shueisha's Ultra Jump. Hirohiko Araki’s JoJo’s Bizarre Adventure has found continued success through its chameleonic ability to mix things up with each new major story saga. Part 9, The JOJOLands is deep in the middle of a chaotic crime caper that’s taken advantage of an eclectic roster of Stands to pull off complex heists and avoid apprehension. After a major breakthrough in their mission to fleece the HOWLER company, Jodio and his gang have been subjected to internal Stand attacks that continue to tear them apart from the inside out.

“The Girl’s Bags Groove, Part 2” continues to chronicle their pursuit to exorcise Usagi’s Stand-based demons and minimize their casualties. However, their mission becomes considerably more complicated now that Bobby Jean and Lulu have been given the greenlight to take out their targets by the HOWLER company’s shadowy leader. “The Girls, Bags Groove, Part 2” is a JOJOLands chapter that’s deeply invested in its villains, their powers, and their interests , which becomes a winning strategy for this increasingly suspenseful story arc.

JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: Everything We Know About The JOJOLands

The JOJOLands will be Part 9 of JoJo's Bizarre Adventure. Here's what you can expect.

The HOWLER Company’s Head Honcho Makes His Antagonistic Introduction

Acca howler has all the elements of a great jojo villain.

The JOJOLands Chapter 16 Review: “That Girl's Bags Groove, Part 1” Reveals A New Villain

The JOJOLands Chapter 16 intensifies the heroes' internal Stand attack as a new, villainous Stand user steps into the spotlight.

Hirohiko Araki understands how to create tension, bolster expectations, and follow through with a satisfying introduction. The spectre of the HOWLER company has hung over The JOJOLands for a while now and "The Girl's Bags Groove, Part 2" finally brings the company's unscrupulous owner, Acca Howler, into the fray. Acca Howler operates on a whole other level here and his arrogance and boy language is reminiscent of President Funny Valentine from Steel Ball Run . That being said, Howler actually looks like a Frankenstein's Monster creation that combines Giorno Giovanna and the rest of Team Bucciarati's members from Golden Wind . Araki hasn't held back with the swagger or flair of any of The JOJOLands characters, but Acca Howler is particularly opulent. He has a heightened look that's fitting for someone who just casually wants to buy all of Hokkaido so that he has an island-sized bachelor pad for his dashi-popping dalliances. "The Girl's Bags Groove, Part 2" doesn't have Howler meet Jodio and his gang yet, but he still asserts himself as a major threat to the heroes.

The most interesting detail about Howler at this point is that he's fully aware of the Lava Rock and its transference powers and he seems to have had history with it when he was a child. Howler is dumbfounded to learn that all his money -- and potentially all his land -- is about to be seized and this billionaire is suddenly facing bankruptcy. Howler takes this information in stride and his priorities shift to the acquisition of the Lava Rock rather than any bureaucratic bookkeeping. There will surely be more details about Acca Howler that come in The JOJOLands ' following chapters, but it wouldn't come as a surprise if the entire HOWLER company fortune was initially amassed through Acca coming in contact with a Lava Rock during his youth. The JOJOLands has already had a lot to say on the prospect of luck and karma, with the Lava Rock being the catalyst in these discussions, and it's compelling material that feels like signature JoJo , through and through.

This chapter also provides the first glimpse of Howler's Stand (because, of course, he's a Stand user) and it even looks vaguely Rock Human-esque in nature. The Stand's power and even its name have yet to be revealed, but there's surely a subsequent showdown on the horizon, especially now that he's heading back to the HOWLER company's head office and suspicious of Jodio's gang. It's still rather early in The JOJOLands , which provides some doubt as to whether Acca Howler is Part 9's main antagonist or merely a means to an end before someone even more extravagant comes around. Regardless, he's a worthy addition to the series and someone who seems strong and important enough to be pulling the strings with Bobby Jean and Lulu.

Bobby Jean & Lulu Carry Out Their Orders & Reveal A Bulletproof New Stand

Bobby jean’s glory days doesn’t miss the mark.

Every Joestar In JoJo's Bizarre Adventure, Ranked By Strength

The Joestar family is pretty tough, but which one of them is the strongest? Let's find out.

Bobby Jean and Lulu were welcome additions to The JOJOLands ’ heightened crime shenanigans in the start of this story arc. They’re given a little more to do in this chapter, which helps both of these characters shine a little brighter. There’s still captivating chemistry that’s accomplished by Lulu’s petulant temper tantrums and Bobby Jean’s desire to appease this young girl and calm her down. It also doesn’t hurt to get a glimpse of how intelligent these two are and that they’re more than just hired hands. THE MATTEKUDASAI’s comprehensive disguises for Jodio and company still aren’t enough to trick Lulu and she’s able to connect the dots here so that Bobby Jean eliminates the right targets instead of a random group of hospital visitors. Bobby Jean’s Stand, Glory Days , appears to help him control the speed and movement of bullets that he fires from his gun. For one, it’s just wild to see a gunslinger pop off some rounds in a crowded hospital. However, this also results in some gorgeous splash panels where Jodio and company are inundated with Bobby Jean’s unpredictable projectiles. The chapter concludes with everyone battle-worn and bullet-ridden, which is the perfect cliffhanger to go out on.

JoJo's Bizarre Adventure has previously had a lot of fun with gun-based Stands, most notably with Mista's Sex Pistols and Hol Horse's Emperor. It's just such an appealing premise for a Stand, so it's hard to begrudge Araki for returning to this idea for Bobby Jean's Glory Days. If anything, it's exciting -- not frustrating -- to get another bullet Stand in the mix. It even makes a lot of sense in a story like The JOJOLands that's indebted to the heist genre. Bobby Jean and Lulu may both use long-range Stands, but they're completely different in their execution and these two powers make for a deadly combination. It's an exciting dynamic that makes this odd couple even more interesting and already on par with some of JoJo's Bizarre Adventure 's best villain duos . Bobby Jean and Lulu work well together as a team and the former clearly takes the latter's interests to heart. A curious complication is reached when Acca Howler's call to Bobby Jean and Lulu introduces a rift in their unity. Howler is quite adamant that he wants Lulu to recover the Lava Rock, not Bobby Jean , which adds a fascinating layer to their relationship. Howler clearly wants Lulu to be the one that obtains the Lava Rock because of how its transferral properties will uniquely affect her, but keeping this a secret from Bobby Jean is an interesting choice. Bobby Jean seems to be the stronger of the duo at this point, but "The Girl's Bags Groove, Part 2" may already be setting up his defeat and Lulu rising as Howler's top agent.

Jodio & His Gang Devise A Smart Stand Strategy To Stay Afloat

The mattekudasai's mri proves to be a-ok..

The JOJOLands Chapter 15 Review: “Bigmouth Strikes Again” Takes A Fantastic Voyage Into The Human Body

The JOJOLands Chapter 15 reveals Charming Man's creative Stand, Bigmouth Strikes Again, as a microscopic battle plays out in Usagi.

"The Girl's Bags Groove, Part 2" spends a lot of time with the HOWLER company's evil minions, but there are still some exciting developments when it comes to Jodio and company's accelerating health crisis. The key to Usagi's survival from Bags Groove relies upon their ability to get their teammate into an MRI so that they can locate the lesions on his brain and then use Smooth Operators and Charming Man to surgically remove the enemy Stand that's wreaking havoc on his body. This may be a solid plan, but the MRI's inaccessibility prompts a clever strategy where the group suggests that THE MATTEKUDASAI becomes its own MRI , since Usagi has seen how the machine works. THE MATTEKUDASAI continues to prove itself as one of The JOJOLands ' most versatile Stands and, if anything, it's almost overpowered in what it can accomplish. There are some doubts on the effectiveness of this Stand simulation, but it's still their best option. "The Girl's Bags Groove, Part 2" also creates more morbid sequences where The JOJOLands juxtaposes gruesome body horror with broad comedy and puns. One of the chapter's highlights is when Usagi's string of acronym gags gets interrupted by blood spewing out of his ears. Don't ever change, JoJo .

“The Girl’s Bags Groove, Part 2's” opening page teases the question, “Who will be the last ones standing?” and this bleak query is palpable as the latest JOJOLands chapter reaches its end. It’d be extremely unlikely for Bobby Jean to take out Jodio’s entire team in this bloody display. That being said, The JOJOLands is reaching a point in its narrative where certain characters are destined to become casualties. The introduction of new villains and intensified motivations makes “The Girl’s Bags Groove, Part 2” a thrilling continuation of the manga’s current story arc. Hirohiko Araki has tapped into electric, breakneck pacing that results in a thrilling ride that only makes the month-long wait between chapters even more excruciating.

The JOJOLands Chapter 17, "That Girl's Bags Groove, Part 2"

The story of the Joestar family, who are possessed with intense psychic strength, and the adventures each member encounters throughout their lives.

• Acca Howler is a formidable villain who is worth the wait and carries a compelling mystery.
• Bobby Jean?s Glory Days Stan makes a strong first impression and ends the chapter on a captivating note.
• The grander puzzle that surrounds the Lava Rock continues to creatively develop.
• A villain-centric chapter doesn?t give Jodio and his team much to do.
• Jojo's Bizarre Adventure

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What Is Project 2025, and Why Is Trump Disavowing It?

The Biden campaign has attacked Donald J. Trump’s ties to the conservative policy plan that would amass power in the executive branch, though it is not his official platform.

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By Simon J. Levien

Donald J. Trump has gone to great lengths to distance himself from Project 2025, a set of conservative policy proposals for a future Republican administration that has outraged Democrats. He has claimed he knows nothing about it or the people involved in creating it.

Mr. Trump himself was not behind the project. But some of his allies were.

The document, its origins and the interplay between it and the Trump campaign have made for one of the most hotly debated questions of the 2024 race.

Here is what to know about Project 2025, and who is behind it.

What is Project 2025?

Project 2025 was spearheaded by the Heritage Foundation and like-minded conservative groups before Mr. Trump officially entered the 2024 race. The Heritage Foundation is a think tank that has shaped the personnel and policies of Republican administrations since the Reagan presidency.

The project was intended as a buffet of options for the Trump administration or any other Republican presidency. It’s the latest installment in the Heritage Foundation’s Mandate for Leadership series, which has compiled conservative policy proposals every few years since 1981. But no previous study has been as sweeping in its recommendations — or as widely discussed.

Kevin Roberts, the head of the Heritage Foundation, which began putting together the latest document in 2022, said he thought the American government would embrace a more conservative era, one that he hoped Republicans would usher in.

“We are in the process of the second American Revolution,” Mr. Roberts said on Real America’s Voice, a right-wing cable channel, in early July, adding pointedly that the revolt “will remain bloodless if the left allows it to be.”

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