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Association for Media Literacy , AML. Canadian nonprofit organization, since 1978, of professionals, parents, and media members who develop a critical understanding of the nature of media, their techniques, and their impact.

Australian Media Literacy Alliance , AMLA, c/o ALIA House, 9-11 Napier Close, Deakin, ACT 2600 [email protected]

Center for Media and Social Impact , CMSI. Research center and lab that creates, studies and showcases media for social impact; at the School of Communication of American University.

Common Sense . US nonprofit organization providing lesson plans, research and articles about media.

Critical Media Project . CMP ( University of Southern California). Free media literacy web resources for educators and students with many video clips from popular media about age, class, disability, gender, LGBTQ, race & ethnicity, and religion.

International Council for Media Literacy , IC4ML. Bridges scholarship with action through The Journal of Media Literacy ; formerly known as the National Telemedia Council.

Mass Media Literacy . Massachusetts website with resources to teach critical media literacy.

Media Education Foundation , MEF. Produces and distributes documentary films and other educational resources to inspire critical thinking about the social, political, and cultural impact of American mass media. In Resources , see downloadable Discussion Guides, Lessons & Ideas, full transcripts of each film, and more.

Media Education Lab  ( University of Rhode Island ). Resources, lesson plans, and events that bolster interdisciplinary approaches to research and practice relating to communication, media studies, and education.

MediaSmarts , Canada's Centre for Digital and Media Literacy. Developer of digital and media literacy programs and resources for Canadian homes, schools and communities since 1996; formerly known as Media Awareness Network.

National Association for Media Literacy Education , NAMLE. Largest nonprofit membership organization dedicated to advancing media literacy education in US.

Project Look Sharp  ( Ithaca College ). Offers free teaching units, lesson plans, and resources for teaching media literacy.

UCLA Center for Critical Internet Inquiry , C2i2 ( University of California, Los Angeles ). Center for interdisciplinary, intersectional research. Committed to reimagining technology; championing social, racial, and economic justice; and, strengthening democracy with culture-making and public policy work.

Code of Best Practices in Fair Use for Media Literacy Education (American University School of Communication, Center for Social Media)

US Center for Media Literacy , US based website with resources and archive of articles and lessons for teaching media literacy.

Research Guide Attribution

Dr. Jeff Share   teaches critical media literacy to undergraduate and teacher education students. To learn more about Dr. Share, click here or contact him via email ( [email protected] ).

Dr. Andrea Gambino  earned her Ph.D. in Education from UCLA. Her research focuses on K-16 teachers' journeys to and practices of critical media literacy. Connect with her via email ( [email protected] ).

Fran Marineo  provides research assistance in Education at UCLA, including CML. Please contact Fran Marineo, UCLA Liaison to Education, via email ( [email protected] ).

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Source: Media Edge .

Defining Critical Media Literacy

This definition was written collaboratively by the  steering committee  of the Critical Media Literacy Conference of the Americas, 2021. Members of the steering committee include: Neil Andersen, Allison Butler, Renee Childs, Andrea Gambino, Noah Golden, Nolan Higdon, Michael Hoechsmann, Amina Humphrey, Raúl Alberto Mora, Reina Robinson, Jeff Share, James P. Stancil II, Alison Trope, Alicia Olguín, Yolanda Gayol, Mary Grueser.

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Posters in English for free download

Publications of All Kinds

• Building Social Justice Starting in the Classroom (Teaching for Change)
• By Any Media Necessary: Mapping Youth & Participatory Politics (Henry Jenkins, Sangita Shresthova, Liana Gamber-Thompson, Neta Kligler-Vilenchik, Arely Zimmerman, NYU Press, 2016)
• Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood (Commercial Free Childhood)
• Civic Media Project. Case studies around the world.
• Creative Commons
• Critical Commons
• Educational Video Center in New York Over 30 years guiding youth to make socially conscious documentaries.
• eMedia Education Lab (Europe)
• European Framework for The Digital Competence of Educators (DigCompEdu)
• Evaluating Information: The Cornerstone of Civic Online Reasoning (Sam Wineburg, Sarah McGrew, Joel Breakstone, & Teresa Ortega, Stanford Digital Repository, 2016)
• Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR, Extra!, CounterSpin)
• The Global Critical Media Literacy Project (GCMLP)
• Grandparents of Media Literacy
• A Guide to CRAP Detection Resources
• How Civic Engagement Helps Students See Their Capacity to Make Change (Mindshift, KQED, Oct 17, 2016)
• KQED & PBS Media Literacy course & certificate
• Lesson Plan on Storytelling (StoryCorps)
• Media and Information Literacy curriculum UNESCO (2011) Curriculum for teaching teachers media literacy.
• Media Inequality & Change Center (MIC) (Univ. of Pennsylvania’s Annenberg School & Rutgers Univ. School of Communication and Information). Explores the intersections between media, democracy, technology, policy, and social justice.
• Media Literacy Clearinghouse (Frank Baker)
• Media Literacy for Citizenship (European Association for Viewers Interests, Brussels [EAVI]).
• Media Literacy Lesson Plans (Teaching Tolerance)
• Media Literacy Resources (California Department of Education)
• Media Matters for America
• Media Smarts (Canada's Centre for Digital and Media Literacy)
• PBS: Media Literacy for Kids Teaching children to learn about media literacy.
• Pedagogies of Media & Information Literacies UNESCO (2012)
• Center for Communication & Civic Engagement Culture Jamming and Meme-Based Communication
• Smart Media Education for the 21st Century (ACME)
• Teaching A People's History (Zinn Education Project)

Library Catalogs

UC Library Search Catalog of library items, online and in print, in all 10 UC Libraries. After search, select:   Online at UCLA EXAMPLE SEARCHES Subject Critical pedagogy Educational technology Fake news — United States Information literacy Internet and youth Internet in education — Social aspects Mass media — Study and teaching Mass media and education Mass media and youth Mass media criticism Mass media in education Media literacy Media literacy — Political aspects — United States Media literacy — Study and teaching Minorities in mass media Popular culture — Study and teaching Racism in mass media Social media Visual literacy —Study and teaching

Keywords critical media

​ Catalog of books. periodicals, recordings, and other items held in libraries worldwide. Current students and faculty of UCLA may use the Interlibrary Loan Service at the UCLA Library to request sources found in WorldCAT libraries (or any non-UCLA Library).  Subject headings above may be used when searching WorldCAT.

• Next: Research Topics in Critical Media Literacy >>

Learn more about the  Critical Media Literacy Conference of the Americas 2023   (Oct. 27-29). 

Selected Journals and Magazines

Book Series: Routledge Research in Media Literacy and Education (Series Editors: Pete Bennett and Julian McDougall)

Comunicar: Media Education Research Journal . Quarterly international media education research journal, available in Spanish and English, with archives dating back to 1993.

The Journal of Media Literacy   (JML). Began as Better Broadcasts News in 1953, evolved into  Telemedium , and then into  The Journal of Media Literacy  in the 1980s, when the organization changed from the National Telemedia Council and now to the International Council for Media Literacy . 

Journal of Media Literacy Education . Peer-reviewed, interdisciplinary journal supporting media literacy education research, scholarship and pedagogy; open access, 2009-present, 3x/yr. Official journal of the  National Association for Media Literacy Education.

Research in the Teaching of English (RTE) Annual Annotated Bibliographies ( National Council of Teachers of English ). Since 2003, the RTE has published annotated bibliographies of the most current research on Media Literacy and other aspects of literacy.

Collections: Blogs, Courses, Lessons, Podcasts, Reports, Videos

• International Council for Media Literacy (IC4ML). 

Global Citizenship Education (GCED) online campus (UNESCO - APCEIU):

Critical Media Literacy : Free 3-week self-paced course of theoretical and practical understandings of media, information literacy and ethical issues/actions with media to promote global citizenship. 

Global Citizenship Education Online :   E-learning platform with free online courses, lessons, and resources to support educators interested in global citizenship education. 

Teaching Media Information Literacy (MIL) in Class to Prevent Hate Speech : Free professional development course for teachers interested in using MIL with students to deconstruct and challenge stereotypes and prejudice reproduced in the news, social media, and the Internet.

25 Introductory Media Literacy Lessons (2007). The Center for Media Literacy.

Action Coalition for Media Education and Project Censored.  The Global Critical Media Literacy Educators' Resource Guide .

Association for Media Literacy: Lessons & Ideas. Free lessons and resources from media literacy experts in Canada . Check out these by Neil Andersen on Children's Picture Books  and  What is Your Emoji Name?

Media and Information Literacy Curriculum for Teachers  ( UNESCO , 2011, available for free download in 11 languages)

Media Literacy Resources ( California Department of Education). Resources compiled by the California School Library Association and station KQED to fulfill  Senate Bill 830 (2018) .

Project Look Sharp (Ithaca College). Free lessons and resources .   

Resources for Teaching Media Literacy (Frank W. Baker, Media Literacy Clearinghouse

Soundbreaking (PBS, 2018) Digital Storytelling Through Sound: Lesson Plans  include clips from the Soundbreaking series and media activities.

Padlet Media Literacy Resources (assortment of lessons and resources by the media literacy community)

Along the Line ( The Media Freedom Foundation ). Weekly podcast from  Project Censored  provides analyses on critical issues and current topics.

CodeSw!tch ( NPR ). Podcast series challenging the notion of a post-racial society through the lenses of human experiences at the cross-section of race, ethnicity, and culture. 

Counterspin .  FAIR's  weekly radio show by Janine Jackson provides a critical analysis of news stories and mainstream media. 

Mediacy: voiceED Radio Canada . Neil Andersen and Carol Arcus (Association for Media Literacy) analyze culture and current events from a media literacy perspective. 

On the Media ( WNYC Studios ). Weekly investigative podcast with Brooke Gladstone and Bob Garfield discussing how the media influences our world views. 

Reveal . First investigative public radio show and podcast in the USA. Al Letson discusses a range of topics to challenge contemporary social issues. 

Your Undivided Attention (co-hosts Tristan Harris and Aza Raskin discuss the power of technolog y)

Citations Needed (podcast about the intersection of media, PR, and power hosted by Nima Shirazi and Adam Johnson)

Commission on Information Disorder Interim Report ( Aspen Institute , July 13, 2021)

Digital Nation Australia, 2021 ( Good Things Foundation , Australia)

Equity and Impact in Media Literacy Practice: Mapping the Field in the United States (A report for NAMLE, 2021)

Evaluating Information: The Cornerstone of Civic Online Reasoning . (2016, Stanford University, Stanford History Education Group)

ITU 2020 Youth Engagement Survey - Data & Interpretation,  website  &  Google slide presentation  ( International Telecommunication Union, specialized agency of the United Nations)

Lyiscott, J., Mirra, N., & Garcia, A. (2021). Critical Media Literacy and Popular Culture in ELA Classrooms .  James R. Squire Office of the National Council of Teachers of English .

Resolution on English Education for Critical Media Literacy in Politics and Media  (2019).  National Council of Teachers of English.

Snapshot 2019: The State of Media Literacy Education in the U.S.  National Association for Media Literacy Education.

U.S. Media Literacy Policy Report 2020 . State-by-state survey of the status of media literacy education laws for K-12 schools.  Media Literacy Now.

Media Education in English Language Arts ( National Council of Teachers of English, April 12, 2022)

Center for Scholars and Storytellers Research Reports on media representations (Centered on adolescents to bridge the gap between academia and media makers, Director Yalda Uhls)

NCTE Report of the Task Force on Critical Media Literacy (National Council of Teachers of Education, 2021)

LAUSD Webinars about critical media literacy with students and teachers (May 2021) Student Panel & Teacher Panel.

Civic Media Literacy (short videos from Civic Engagement Research Group, UC Riverside)

The Critical Media Literacy Conference of the Americas 2021 , videos of the presentations and keynotes. Learn more about CMLCA, here . 

The Critical Media Literacy Conference of the Americas 2020 , videos of the presentations and keynote.

Democracy Demands Media Literacy (Brian Stelter, CNN, 4:46 mins.)

Frontline PBS Videos on Media Literacy . Collection of videos and sources for teachers on media literacy.

Media Literacy ( BrainPop, Aug 24, 2017, 6:05 mins.) 

Media Literacy Part 1 ( Feminist Frequency, Dec 11, 2018, 9:04 mins.)

Media Literacy Part 2 ( Feminist Frequency, Dec 20, 2018, 10:36 mins.) 

Media Smarts: Kids Learn How to Navigate the Multimedia World (July 13, 2005, Edutopia, 7:36 mins.)

Education 4 Liberation (History Class with Michael)

Key Databases with Films, Articles, News

Online videos, documentaries, films.

Internet Archive, aka The Wayback Machine . Non-profit library of millions of free archived books, movies, software, music, websites, and more.

Streaming Video Collections: Internet and Open Access . Video collections open to all (via non-subscription sources).

Streaming Video Databases: Narrative, Documentary, and Performance . UCLA Library subscription video databases.

Articles and eBook Databases

Gender studies databases.

Provides access to citations for a wide range of topics in the study of women and gender, 1972-present.

Independent Newspapers

Corporate newspapers.

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Comm/soc 20n: critical media literacy.

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Article contents

Critical media literacy in teacher education, theory, and practice.

• Jeff Share , Jeff Share University of California Los Angeles
• Tatevik Mamikonyan Tatevik Mamikonyan School of Education, University of California Los Angeles
•  and  Eduardo Lopez Eduardo Lopez University of California Los Angeles
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.1404
• Published online: 30 September 2019
• This version: 20 September 2023
• Previous version

Democracy in the digital networked age of “fake news” and “alternative facts” requires new literacy skills and critical awareness to read, write, and use media and technology to empower civic participation and social transformation. Unfortunately, not many educators have been prepared to teach students how to think critically with and about the media and technology that engulf us. Across the globe there is a growing movement to develop media and information literacy curriculum (UNESCO) and train teachers in media education (e-Media Education Lab), but these attempts are limited and in danger of co-optation by the faster growing, better financed, and less critical education and information technology corporations. It is essential to develop a critical response to the new information communication technologies, artificial intelligence, and algorithms that are embedded in all aspects of society. The possibilities and limitations are vast for teaching educators to enter K-12 classrooms and teach their students to use various media, critically question all types of texts, challenge problematic representations, and create alternative messages. Through applying a critical media literacy framework that has evolved from cultural studies and critical pedagogy, students at all grade levels can learn to critically analyze the messages and create their own alternative media. The voices of teachers engaging in this work can provide pragmatic insight into the potential and challenges of putting the theory into practice in K-12 public schools.

• critical literacy
• critical pedagogy
• media education
• media literacy
• critical media literacy
• social justice
• politics of representation
• cultural studies
• teacher education

Updated in this version

The authors made minor revisions to this text to reflect more recent scholarship. The reference list and further readings have similarly been updated.

Introduction

It is a formidable challenge to prepare critical educators to work inside a system in which every brick in the wall has been laid to transmit the information, skills, and ideas necessary to reproduce the social norms, inequities, ideologies, and alienation that are undermining the quality and sustainability of life on this planet. However, education can be a powerful tool to challenge these problems and create opportunities for students to work in solidarity with others to create a more socially and environmentally just world. To support these changes, we need teachers ready to engage students in critical inquiry by posing questions about systemic and structural issues of power, hierarchies of oppression, and social injustice. In the current media and information age, information communication technologies (ICTs) are available to either continue the control and degradation or to deconstruct the systems of oppression and reconstruct a more just and sustainable society.

Digital technology is opening opportunities for individual participation and alternative points of view, while at the same time a handful of enormous media and technology corporations have become the dominant storytellers, often repeating the same story at the expense of countless different perspectives and creative ways of thinking. Many of these storytellers are actually story-sellers, more interested in peddling ideas and products than informing, enlightening, inspiring, or challenging. While young people are using more media, they are also being used more by media companies. Giant transnational corporations are targeting youth as one of the most valuable markets for building brand loyalty and selling to advertisers. Researchers found 8- to 18-year-olds in the United States spend well over 10 hours a day interacting with various forms of media, such as music, computers, video games, television, film, and print ( Rideout et al., 2011 ). Another investigation discovered that 95% of American 13- to 17-year-olds have access to a smartphone and 97% say they are online daily and 46% use it constantly ( Vogels et al., 2022 ).

Not only is the amount of time with media increasing but the quality of that engagement is also changing by becoming more commercial and rarely critical. Researchers at Stanford University administered six tasks to 3,466 high schools across 14 states in the US to judge their ability to assess online information. In one task, students were asked to evaluate the credibility of a website that claimed to “disseminate factual reports” and 96% failed to learn about the site’s ties to the fossil fuel industry. In a different task, over half of students believed an anonymously posted video purporting to show voter fraud in the US was real, even though it was filmed in Russia ( Breakstone et al., 2021 ). In another study, Vosoughi et al. (2018) examined approximately 126,000 stories tweeted over 4.5 million times between 2006 and 2017 . The researchers were interested in understanding what accounted for the differential diffusion of verified true and false news stories. They found that false news stories spread “farther, faster, deeper, and more broadly than the truth because humans, not robots, are more likely to spread it” (p. 5). In analyzing the tweets, the authors concluded, false stories were 70% more likely to be retweeted because people found them not only more novel but the stories also inspired emotional responses of fear, disgust, or surprise.

The concern about “fake news” has encouraged many people to recognize the need for critical readers and writers of media. Some have suggested that we simply need better cognitive skills to determine truth from lies. However, making sense of the media and our information society is far more complicated than a reductionist idea of simply finding the truth. Rather than judging information as either true or false, students need to learn to search for multiple sources, different perspectives, and various types of evidence to triangulate and evaluate findings. In order to best evaluate and understand the information, they also need to question the influence of media in shaping the message and positioning the audience. Since all knowledge is an interpretation ( Kincheloe, 2007 ), interpreting the meaning of a message is a complex process that requires skills to probe empirical evidence, evaluate subjective biases, analyze the medium and construction of the text, and explore the social contexts.

This is an opportunity for educators to guide their students to think critically with and about the ICTs and media that surround them. Morrell et al. (2013) argue that the technology itself will not bring about transformative educational change. “That change will only come through teachers who draw on critical frameworks to create learning communities where the use of these tools becomes an empowering enterprise” (p. 14). Therefore, the changes in media, technology, and society require critical media literacy (CML) that can support teachers and students to question and create with and about the very tools that can empower or oppress, entertain or distract, inform or mislead, and buy or sell everything from lifestyles to politicians. Now more than ever, teachers should encourage students to be reading, viewing, listening to, interacting with, and creating a multitude of texts, from digital podcasts to multimedia productions.

Teacher Education

Even though youth are immersed in a world in which media and technology have entered all aspects of their lives and society, few teacher education programs are preparing teachers to help their students to critically understand the potential and limitations of these changes. It is crucial that new teachers learn how to teach their K-12 students to critically read and write everything, from academic texts to social media.

This means that schools of education responsible for training the new wave of teachers must be up to date, not just with the latest technology, but more importantly, with critical media literacy (CML) theory and pedagogy in order to prepare teachers and students to think and act critically with and about media and technology. In Canada, where media literacy is mandatory in every grade from 1 to 12, most new teachers are not receiving media literacy training in their preservice programs ( Wilson & Duncan, 2009 ). Researchers investigating media education in the United Kingdom and the US have found that many teachers are unprepared to teach media education and that professional learning opportunities are limited ( Butler, 2020 ; Kirwan et al., 2003 ). The progress has been slow, especially considering that inclusion of media literacy in formal public education has a history dating back to the 1980s in Australia, Britain, and Canada. However, nonformal media education has been occurring in many parts of the world for decades ( Hart, 1998 ; Kaplún, 1998 ; Kubey, 1997 ; Pegurer Caprino & Martínez-Cerdá, 2016 ; Prinsloo & Criticos, 1991 ).

While it is difficult to know for sure who is and who is not teaching critically about media and technology ( Mihailidis, 2008 ), there seems to be an increased interest in media literacy in the United States. In 2022 , the National Council of Teachers of English published a position statement recommending implementation of media education in English Language Arts along with two special issue journal publications ( Lynch, 2021 ; Kist & Christel, 2022 ) devoted to critical media literacy, arguing that “media education must be an essential component of the professional identity of teachers” ( National Council of Teachers of English, 2022 ).

As technology and media continue to evolve and increasingly enter public and private spaces, more educators are recognizing the need for training new teachers about media literacy ( Domine, 2011 ; Goetze et al., 2005 ; Hobbs, 2007a ) and some are even addressing the need to teach about CML ( Flores-Koulish et al., 2011 ; Funk et al., 2016 ; Robertson & Hughes, 2011 ; Trust et al., 2022 ). Researchers Tiede et al. (2015) studied 64 universities or colleges of teacher education in Germany and 316 U.S. public educational institutions that provide teacher training and graduate studies, concluding that very few offer more than media didactics (basic educational technology that teaches with media, not about media). From their data in the United States, they report, “media education, with emphasis on the instructional practices associated with the critical evaluation of media, culture, and society, were scarce, representing only 2% of all study programs in teacher training programs” (pp. 540−541). In Germany, the percentage increases to 25%, but “media didactics tends to be emphasized to the disadvantage of media education in both countries” (p. 542).

In 2011 , the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) published a curriculum guide online in 11 languages for training teachers in media education ( Grizzle & Wilson, 2011 ), declaring that “teacher training in media and information literacy will be a major challenge for the global education system at least for the next decade” ( Pérez-Tornero & Tayie, 2012 , p. 11). 1 In Europe, Ranieri and Bruni (2018) analyzed the successes and challenges of training preservice and in-service teachers about media and digital literacy. An initiative called e-Media Educational Lab, funded by the European Commission, provided blended training to 279 preservice teachers and 81 in-service teachers in six countries. Based on surveys and fieldnotes, Ranieri and Bruni (2018) reported that the preservice and in-service teachers found critical media analysis and media production to be very important; they described their intent to transfer their media competency to their classrooms and expressed a desire to learn more practical ways to help their students develop media competencies.

UNESCO’s approach to media education combines media and information literacy (MIL) to include many competencies, from learning about and using information communication technologies to thinking critically about ethics and democracy. Carolyn Wilson (2012) explains, “MIL is both a content area and way of teaching and learning; it is not only about the acquisition of technical skills, but the development of a critical framework and approaches” (p. 16).

Combining information technology with media-cultural studies is essential, but still infrequent. Within the current wave of educational reform that prioritizes the newest technology and career readiness over civic engagement and critical inquiry, schools are more likely to adopt only information technology or information literacy and not critical media education. In the United States, few universities offer more than a single course in media literacy and most do not even offer that ( Goetze et al., 2005 ; Meehan et al., 2015 ).

Schwarz (2001) asserts that because of the power of emerging literacies, “teacher education needs media literacy as an essential tool and an essential topic in the new millennium” (pp. 111−112). She calls for integrating media literacy across all subject areas of teacher education, “from methods courses and educational psychology to foundational courses and student teaching” (p. 118). This interdisciplinary approach for media education could be easier now for K-12 teachers in the United States since the Common Core State Standards require literacy to be taught and technology to be used across the curriculum ( California Common Core State Standards, 2013 ; Moore & Bonilla, 2014 ; Trust et al., 2022 ).

Two studies with a total of 31 preservice teachers found a discrepancy between their positive attitudes for teaching media literacy and the lack of attention and support in their teacher education programs to prepare them to teach MIL ( Gretter & Yadav, 2018 ). Based on interviews with these preservice teachers, Gretter and Yadav (2018) report that they associated MIL with critical thinking skills and expressed concerns about not knowing how to teach MIL because their teacher preparation program encouraged “teaching with technology and not necessarily about technology” (p. 115). These preservice teachers complained about “a lack of preparation to help them transfer their knowledge of digital media to MIL pedagogies that would benefit students” (p. 111). This highlights the importance of preparing educators with the theory and conceptual understandings as well as the pedagogy and practical applications for how to teach their students to critically analyze and create media.

Teaching Teachers Critical Media Literacy

Transforming education to critically use media, technology, and popular culture for social and environmental justice is the overarching goal of a critical media literacy (CML) course in the teacher education program at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). The authors of this article have been involved in designing and teaching this course to in-service and preservice teachers. Through combining theory from cultural studies and critical pedagogy with practical classroom applications of digital media and technology, this course prepares K-12 educators to teach their students how to critically analyze and create all types of media. In 2011 , this four-unit course on CML was officially approved and became a required class for all students working on their teaching credential at UCLA.

The teacher education program at UCLA is primarily a two-year master’s and credential program that accepts about 130 candidates annually. The program is committed to developing social justice educators to work with and improve the schooling conditions of California’s ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse children. While most of the students go through the two-year program, additional pathways for earning a teaching credential and master’s degree have been offered, such as a master’s-only program for in-service teachers with two years or more of full-time teaching experience.

The CML class is taught in separate sections, usually divided by subjects, with 25−50 students per section. Most of the candidates taking the class are student teaching at the same time, except for the master’s-only candidates, who were teaching full-time while attending the class once a week in the evening. The class includes lectures, discussions, and activities interwoven into each session during the 10-week quarter.

Beginning with a theoretical overview, the course explores the development of media education that is defined less as a specific body of knowledge or set of skills and more as a framework of conceptual understandings ( Buckingham, 2003 ). Much of the theory behind CML has evolved from cultural studies, a field of critical inquiry that began in the 20th century in Europe and continues to grow with new critiques of media and society. From the 1930s through the 1960s, researchers at the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research used critical social theory to analyze how media culture and the new tools of communication technology induce ideology and social control. In the 1960s, researchers at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the University of Birmingham added to the earlier concerns of ideology with a more sophisticated understanding of the audience as active constructors of reality, not simply mirrors of an external reality. Kellner (1995) explains that cultural studies has continued to grow and incorporate concepts of semiotics, feminism, multiculturalism, and postmodernism. Incorporating a dialectical understanding of political economy, textual analysis, and audience theory, cultural studies critiques media culture as dynamic discourses that reproduce dominant ideologies as well as entertain, educate, and offer the possibilities for counter-hegemonic alternatives ( Hammer & Kellner, 2009 ).

Critical media literacy includes three dimensions ( Share & Gambino, 2022 ). The first involves the content students learn about systems, structures, and ideologies that reproduce hierarchies of power and knowledge concerning race, gender, class, sexuality and other forms of identity and environmental justice, as well as general understandings about how media and communication function. The second dimension engages the skills to critically think and question media representations and biases, to deconstruct and reconstruct media texts, and use a variety of media to access, analyze, evaluate, and create. The third involves developing a disposition for empathy, critical consciousness, and empowerment to take action to challenge and transform society to be more socially and environmentally just. This third dimension is based on Freire’s (2010) notion of conscientização , a revolutionary critical consciousness that involves perception as well as action against oppression. These three dimensions of critical media literacy pedagogy are supported through an inquiry-based democratic approach that follows ideas of transformative educators like John Dewey and Paulo Freire. We incorporate feminist theory and critical pedagogy to analyze relationships between media and audiences, information and power ( Carlson et al., 2013 ; Garcia et al., 2013 ). When we first began teaching the course, we used a simple framework with five core concepts and key questions from the Center for Media Literacy. 2 To emphasize the critical potential of these ideas, while providing an accessible tool for teachers to use in the classroom, the following critical media literacy framework was developed, with six conceptual understandings and questions, as shown in Table 1 ( Kellner & Share, 2019 ).

These six conceptual understandings and questions are referred to regularly and are addressed in all lesson plans. It is important for teachers to understand the concepts and questions because theory should inform practice for all three dimensions. However, it is better for K-12 students to learn to ask the questions rather than memorize the concepts, since the questions, with appropriate guidance, can lead students on a path of inquiry where they are more likely to make meaning themselves, related to the conceptual understandings.

The CML framework is designed to help teachers and their students question the role of power and ideology that socialize and control society through making some people and ideas seem “normal” and “natural” while the rest are “othered” and “marginalized” ( Hall, 2003 ). This critical framing supports teachers and students to deepen their explorations of racism, sexism, classism, homophobia, overconsumption, environmental exploitation, and other problematic representations in media. Candidates analyze and discuss current media examples, while also learning how to use various ICTs to create their own media with alternative counter-hegemonic representations. Using an inquiry process and democratic pedagogy, problems are posed to the students to collaboratively wrestle with, unpack, and respond to through media production.

Critical media literacy promotes an expansion of our understanding of literacy to include many types of texts, such as images, sounds, music, video games, social media, advertising, popular culture, and print, as well as a deepening of critical analysis to explore the connections between information and power. In our digital networked media age, it is not enough to teach students how to read and write just with print while their world has moved far beyond letters on a page. Literacy education in the 21st century requires breaking from traditional practices to include all the varied ways people communicate with media, technology, and any tool that facilitates the transfer of information or connects people. This calls for new skills and understandings to decode and analyze as well as to create and produce all types of texts. The California Teaching Performance Expectations also require teacher education programs to expand this view of literacy and integrate media and technology into coursework in order to “deepen teaching and learning to provide students with opportunities to participate in a digital society and economy” ( California Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2016 , p. 9).

Each class starts by reviewing and applying the conceptual understandings and questions. Since one goal of the course is for candidates to understand that literacy includes reading and writing all types of texts, we encourage students to analyze as well as produce media. A series of assignments requires candidates to work together to create various types of media projects such as visual posters, photographs, podcasts, memes, digital stories, and social media. The candidates are also expected to work collaboratively on a CML lesson plan and learning segment that they write up, present a summary of to the whole class, and when possible, also teach it. For a detailed description of this course, see Share (2015) and visit the UCLA Library Critical Media Literacy Research Guide for links to articles, videos, and websites used in the course. 3

Table 1. Critical Media Literacy Framework

From a desire to explore if and how former students are applying the skills and knowledge gained from the critical media literacy (CML) course into their teaching practice, we created an online survey for students who had taken the course. Through purposeful sampling, we sent out the survey to the 738 students who had taken the CML course and ended up with 185 usable responses (25% response rate), 153 preservice and 32 in-service teachers. Of the 185 respondents, 53 taught elementary school and 132 were secondary-level teachers. The breakdown of the middle school and high school teachers was: 38 science, 34 math, 33 social sciences, 28 English, and several reported teaching a combination of subjects as well as some who taught other areas such as music, visual arts, Spanish, English language development, or adult education. The span of experience was wide; some just started teaching and some had been teaching over seven years, yet most of the teachers (52%) had been teaching between two and three years.

The mixed method survey included 20 questions. The first eight sought to identify participants’ teaching background. The remaining 12 questions inquired about their experiences teaching CML skills and concepts to their K-12 students. Ten quantitative questions used a Likert scale with a choice of responses, including very frequently, frequently, occasionally, rarely, and never, as well as an option to choose not applicable. The final two qualitative questions were open-ended in which respondents could type their thoughts about any “memorable moment(s) teaching critical media literacy” and “any additional comments.” During the analysis phase, we found it helpful to combine the categories very frequently and frequently and refer to them as VF/F.

Voices From the Field

Using mixed methods of quantitative and qualitative data, we analyzed the survey responses to explore teachers’ ideas about what they had been doing with their students. The overall feedback suggested that the majority of the respondents had brought aspects of media literacy education into their K-12 classrooms, and sometimes even incorporated CML. One of the most recurring patterns we noticed was that these teachers had been expanding the traditional concept of literacy by engaging their students with various types of media.

Teaching With Media

In reply to the first question, most of the respondents reported having integrated media into their class activities: 64% VF/F, 30% occasionally, 6% rarely, and no one responded never ( N = 185). The responses to Question 1 were very similar for elementary and secondary teachers, with only a 1% to 5% difference. Where we saw greater variation was when comparing the subject matter of secondary teachers. The English and science teachers had the highest percentages (75% and 76%) of VF/F responses to Question 1 about integrating media into class activities. Math teachers, by contrast, reported the lowest percentage, with 44% reporting VF/F and 15% rarely integrating media into the curriculum (see Figure 1 ).

Figure 1. Responses from secondary teachers to Question 1 about how often they integrated media into class activities.

While these responses demonstrated an overall high amount of media integration, it was not clear how the teachers integrated media and what students were doing with the media. The responses from Question 5 (“my students have created the following media”) provided more information about the students’ interactions with media, showing that the vast majority of respondents (92%) had their students create some type of media (see Figure 2 for a list of the various media students created).

Since the question only asked teachers to check the box for the type of media their students created, we did not know how often this occurred or with what degree of analysis. Questions 1 and 5 indicated that teaching with media occurred with over 90% of the respondents.

Figure 2. Responses to Question 5 about the different types of media that all 185 respondents report their students have created. They were asked to choose all that apply.

Teaching About Media

The second question tried to find out more about those interactions with media by asking respondents to rate how often they had given their “students opportunities to engage in media analysis.” For Question 2, about one-third of all 185 respondents, 32%, reported VF/F, 43% occasionally, 21% rarely, and 4% never. When comparing responses from Questions 1 and 2, the respondents seemed to have been doing more teaching with media (Question 1) than teaching about media (Question 2) (see Figure 3 ). A similar finding was mentioned in the research conducted in Germany and the United States by Tiede et al. (2015) .

Figure 3. Comparing all responses from Question 1 about integrating media into class activities (teaching with media) with Question 2 about engaging in media analysis (teaching about media).

A more nuanced perspective of Question 2 is possible when comparing the responses about media analysis from different content area secondary teachers. In response to Question 2, the teachers who reported VF/F were the following: 63% of English teachers reported giving the most opportunities for their students to engage in media analysis, as compared to almost half as often by 32% of science teachers and about five times less often by 12% of math teachers (see Figure 4 ). Since literacy is a primary goal of English instruction, it is not surprising that English teachers reported the highest levels of media analysis ( Hobbs, 2007b ).

It is important to recognize that teaching about media can be a highly complex and multifaceted undertaking, especially when done through a CML lens. For example, the second conceptual understanding encourages students to analyze the codes and conventions of the media text and the medium through which they travel by asking how the text was constructed and delivered or accessed. This, in itself, can have many layers and yet is just one of six questions intended to help students think critically about media. Livingstone (2018) asserts, “media literacy is needed not only to engage with the media but to engage with society through the media .” As Luke and Freebody (1997) argue, it is not enough to only have a psychological approach to literacy, as if reading and writing is just an individual cognitive process. We need to also bring a sociological lens into the process of questioning the contexts, the dominant ideologies, and the systems that make some things seem “natural” or “normal.” The CML framework is a holistic tool for thinking about and questioning the dynamic role media play in our relationships with ourselves, each other, and society. Responses and comments to other questions in the survey provide more insight into how some teachers have engaged their students in various types of media analysis.

Figure 4. Comparing responses from different content areas about Question 2 regarding how often secondary teachers gave their students opportunities to engage in media analysis.

Evaluating Information and Advertising

In the qualitative responses to Questions 11 and 12, teachers mentioned embracing basic media literacy principles in the ways students were evaluating the credibility of information and advertising as well as creating different types of media. The popularity of the term “fake news” and the growing amount of disinformation have increased the challenge to distinguish misinformation and propaganda from journalism and scientifically researched facts ( Rogow, 2018 ). An elementary teacher who reported “frequently” integrating media into the classroom, asserted:

Though my students are younger and some of these concepts are more difficult to teach than others, I find it important to bring up especially in terms of making sure they don’t believe every YouYube video they watch. We’ve had many meaningful discussions about what can be created for a video shouldn’t just be accepted as the truth. For example, the ‘mermaid’ documentary that came out a few years ago had all of my students convinced that they had found a mermaid. It led to an interesting discussion on hoaxes and further reading about Bigfoo[t] and other such stories.

Since all media contain bias because they are created by subjective humans, it is important for teachers to help their students to recognize the bias and also be able to judge the credibility of information. A high school math teacher wrote:

It has not happened until this school year, when I began teaching Statistics. I introduced some pictographs for students to analyze and an article for students to read about how a website stated that if polls were unskewed, Trump would be leading the polls for election. I had students read and discuss about the validity and why/why not it is trustable.

Several respondents mentioned having their students study political advertising, and since all U.S. elections are now multimillion-dollar advertising campaigns (e.g., Barack Obama’s 2008 presidential campaign won the top prizes at the Cannes Lions International Advertising Awards), there is little distinction between selling products, ideas, and political candidates.

Analyzing advertising is an important aspect of media education because advertising is the motor that drives commercial media and has become so common in our lives that there are few spaces that are completely ad-free ( Jhally, 2003 ). Several respondents reported about their students investigating advertisements for false health messages, misleading packaging, political campaigns, tobacco, alcohol, and different perspectives. One secondary English teacher wrote, “My students took pictures of advertisements that surrounded their neighborhood and we analyzed them for patterns, themes, and purposes.” A high school science teacher reported, “I had many times this past year where students were able to reflect on marketing strategies and how they affect the viewer’s perspective of their life and themselves. Students made great connections.”

During the critical media literacy (CML) class, students scrutinize consumer culture and the role advertising plays in creating anxieties, shaping desires, and normalizing representations about all things, from consumption to gender, race, and class. Candidates in the CML class learn about these ideas through readings, by analyzing advertisements, and also by creating ads for different target audiences. When asked about the media their students had created, one third reported their students created advertisements.

Creating Different Types of Media

When students are taught print literacy, they are instructed how to decode letters on a page and how to write with those letters to construct words, sentences, and paragraphs. The same process of teaching reading and writing should be applied to visual images, movies, songs, video games, social media, and all the various multimedia texts that students are encountering daily. In responses from the survey, teachers reported about having their students write and create many different types of texts beyond print (see Figure 2 ).

One English teacher wrote that having students create media was “very successful. They loved being able to create memes, posters, Prezis, etc. to present their work.” An elementary teacher shared about students “creating podcasts/npr style news stories regarding UN sustainability goals.” Several respondents commented on their students designing commercials or challenging ads by producing spoofs that parody the ads. One middle school teacher shared, “students analyzed ads for nicotine and alcohol products, then used the practice with critical media skills to create ‘anti-ads’ with Google drawings.”

During the first year of teaching, a high school science teacher reported about a memorable moment when “creating a multi-lingual, easy-to-understand and scientifically supported pamphlet on the hazards in LA’s environment.” A high school Spanish teacher wrote about his students creating critical memes in Spanish, like the ones they created in the critical media literacy (CML) class. During the session exploring racism and media, candidates challenge racist representations through creating racial myth-busting memes. As a strategy to demonstrate the value of media production, the CML class has students create various media in almost every session, and these activities are often the favorite lessons mentioned in the end of course evaluations.

Increasing Engagement

While engagement is not a learning objective, all teaching benefits from students being engaged in their learning. One of the patterns that emerged from the responses was teachers’ observations that student engagement increased. An eighth-grade English teacher wrote that after incorporating media literacy, the students’ “entire attitude toward learning shifted. Especially the hard to reach students.” An elementary teacher reported, “Media literacy has made great contributions in my class with science research in the past. The simple act of using google images, google maps and finding credible sources has sparked learning and interest in my class.” Another elementary teacher shared about using critical media literacy (CML) to analyze food justice issues: “They were instantly engaged and students who had a difficult time writing and with critical thinking then did not.”

A secondary science teacher reported, “Students spent the entire class engaged in discussion when I intended for it to only be an introduction to the unit.” Another high school science teacher wrote, “When I did teach a class specifically geared towards media literacy, it was great because students were engaged. They were quick at analyzing images and creating their own.” A third science teacher wrote, “using critical media literacy made engaging my students in abstract chemistry concepts more meaningful and engaging.” Engagement tends to increase when students are genuinely interested and intrinsically motivated, something that often comes out of personal connection, a sense of meaningfulness, and an authentic belief in the value of the learning ( Dewey, 1963 ). These are all elements of good CML pedagogy. A high school science teacher described the feelings of students and their parents as they responded to their CML work: “My favorite moments are students exuding pride and passion over the work they are creating that speaks to their perspectives and experiences; parents proud of their students’ media creations.” Feelings of pride and passion are important for all students to experience; they help lower students’ affective filters for learning ( Krashen, 1995 ) and increase intrinsic motivation to want to learn.

Critical Media Literacy

As we analyzed teachers’ written responses, we saw a number of comments in which they were taking basic media literacy concepts to deeper levels of criticality. Several mentioned how useful the class was to understanding critical theory and be able to see how it can be enacted in their K-12 classroom. Similar findings were mentioned after Joanou (2017) analyzed data about a critical media literacy (CML) class taught to master’s-level practicing K-12 educators. Joanou (2017) reported, “critical media literacy helps bridge the gap between theory and practice” (p. 40). The use of media texts and popular culture can provide relevant examples for entry into abstract concepts that are often politically and emotionally charged, and sometimes too sensitive or too distant to begin discussing on a personal level.

Teaching about the connections between information and power reflects a key goal of CML ( Kellner & Share, 2007 ) and our respondents demonstrated this through their qualitative comments about recreating counter-narratives, analyzing the politics of representation, making critical connections between history and current events with media texts, and engaging in political, social, and environmental media activism. Questions 3 and 4 attempted to assess the frequency in which teachers were bringing critical aspects of media education to their students.

Question 3 asks teachers to rate how often: “My students have engaged in media analysis by exploring media representations of ideology, race, class, gender, sexuality, environmentalism, and/or other social justice issues.” Elementary and secondary teachers reported almost identical frequencies in response to Question 3: 22% in both groups reported VF/F while 42% (elementary) and 45% (secondary) stated occasionally. When asked Question 4 about making connections between information and power, the differences increased: 39% of the secondary teachers responded doing this VF/F while just 23% of the elementary teachers reported doing this VF/F.

In-service teachers reported higher frequencies for Question 3: 54% of in-service teachers reported VF/F while preservice teachers reported 14% VF/F. For Question 4: 56% of in-service teachers reported VF/F compared with 30% of preservice teachers who reported VF/F.

When comparing responses separated by subject matter with secondary teachers, 33% of English teachers and 30% of social science teachers reported VF/F for engaging in critical media analysis, as seen in Question 3 about exploring media representations. This is considerably higher than the 16% of science teachers and 9% of math teachers reporting VF/F. The math and science teachers reported the highest percentages for rarely or never having their students explore media representations of social justice issues (see Figure 5 ). The literature supports similar findings. Garii and Rule (2009) reported that student teachers had a difficult time integrating social justice into math and science content due to several factors. In their research with novice elementary teachers, Garii and Rule discovered that the candidates were not confident in their ability to teach math and science and had limited and unsophisticated knowledge of the content. They also viewed math and science “to be a set of routinized, algorithmic practices that lead to a single, correct answer and neither science nor mathematics are assumed to be closely connected to real-world issues and concerns” (p. 491). Given that they are struggling to learn and understand the content, math and science candidates turned to classroom textbooks to guide instructional practices. Incorporating nontraditional practices or making connections to students’ lives becomes a challenge because they disconnect social justice from their teaching and focus on teaching to the content ( Garii & Rule, 2009 ).

Figure 5. Responses to Question 3 from secondary teachers about how often they engaged their students in critical “media analysis by exploring media representations of ideology, race, class, gender, sexuality, environmentalism, and/or other social justice issues.”

One of the more significant findings of the study is the number of respondents reporting they “noticed that using critical media literacy encourages critical thinking among students” (Question 9). Of the preservice respondents, 61% reported VF/F, and for the in-service teachers, the percentages jump to 81% who reported VF/F. In both cases, the majority of respondents expressed their feelings that CML promotes critical thinking most of the time (see Figure 6 ). A middle school social science teacher wrote that after teaching CML, “students were deeper thinkers and our discussions were so much richer. Students were highly engaged and more invested in the classroom.” When comparing grade levels for Question 9, we see 78% of elementary teachers reported that using CML VF/F encourages critical thinking, and 61% of secondary teachers reported VF/F. This large percentage of elementary teachers reporting about CML encouraging critical thinking shows great promise for the potential of CML in the early grades.

Figure 6. Comparison of preservice and in-service teachers’ responses to Question 9 about how often they have noticed CML encourages critical thinking among their students.

Creating Counter Narratives and Supporting Students’ Voices

Many of the responses regarding transformative education centered on guiding students to create counternarratives and supporting student ideas and voices. Respondents mentioned activities that enabled their students to recreate media texts with a critical lens. These counternarratives included recreating superhero comic books, news, advertisements, digital storytelling, national holiday observances, and poems. A high school English teacher noted, “after analyzing recent and popular superhero comic books, my students used the comic medium to tell an autobiographical story wherein they exhibited power in the face of oppression.” A middle school English teacher reported:

The most memorable lesson I’ve taught involving critical media literacy was a unit based on perseverance and the power of the human spirit in regards to power structures and oppression. After analyzing multiple types of media, students created their own VoiceThread using spoken word in order to share their own messages of perseverance. It was incredibly powerful to hear their messages.

For most respondents, the notion of enabling their students to share personal stories using multimedia tools meant that they were integrating critical media pedagogy into their teaching practice. Traditionally, personal and experiential knowledge as a form of literacy is not often valued; thus, it is a critical pedagogical orientation to encourage students to recreate media texts that reflect their intersecting realities and challenge the pervasive dominant ideologies. Students’ personal histories become scholarly pursuits when digital storytelling encompasses media production skills taught through a critical media literacy (CML) framework. Vasquez (2017) asserts, “students learn best when what they are learning has importance in their lives, using the topics, issues, and questions that they raise should therefore be an important part of creating the classroom curriculum” (p. 8). A middle school math and technology teacher commented about incorporating CML into her master’s inquiry project:

The project we ultimately created was a digital storytelling project, in which students interviewed their parents or someone they admire and created some sort of media project around that story to tell counter-narratives to the dominant story told in media about people of color.

Guiding students to create counternarratives can be an empowering instructional strategy that nurtures their personal realities and supports their voice. Considering the context of urban education, it becomes particularly important for low-income students and students of color, who have been historically denied the power to be heard, to engage in their learning as empowered subjects through creating digital counter-narratives.

Politics of Representation

A major difference between critical media literacy (CML) and the more common media literacy practiced in the United States is the rigorous examination of the politics of representation; an analysis of how historically disenfranchised social groups are represented in media ( Funk et al., 2016 ). Many of the respondents discussed analyzing issues related to representations of different identities with their students. A high school visual arts teacher reported that through “using current events in the media, students created headline news with people of color perspective.” The majority of the responses highlighted engaging in discussions related to gender and a few responses about race. One elementary teacher noted:

My grade level did a Critical Media Literacy unit and after it was over, a week later, a student showed me a box of Chips Ahoy cookies and said that it was made to be sold to boys and girls. She compared it to a rainbow pop tarts box made for girls and a basketball cereal box made for boys that we had discussed during the CML unit.

A high school social science teacher reported:

My 11th and 12th grade Sociology class created representation boards. Each group was assigned an identity (‘white male,’ ‘Asian male,’ ‘black female,’ etc.). When each group was done, we compared the images and discussed the similarities between representations of race and gender. It really opened their eyes.

The politics of representation explores the complexities and intersections of identity markers, such as ethnicity, culture, gender, class, sexual orientation, religion, and ableism. Several candidates alluded to the intersectionality between race and gender in their responses, mostly engaging their students in discussions related to the unequal representation and socialization of gender roles. They also noted that discussing stereotypical gender roles challenged their students’ internalized notions of gender. Responses such as the following highlight the shift in their students’ perspectives about gender: An elementary teacher wrote, “We’ve had some successful discussions around gender stereotypes and I’ve heard the language change in the classroom and students be more thoughtful about others’ choices.” Another elementary teacher reported, “My students showed greater acceptance. After teaching a lesson invoking gender all my male students felt accepted to choose any color paper—the favorite was pink for the rest of the year.”

Making Critical Connections

In response to the open-ended questions, an array of items was mentioned that demonstrate critical engagement, from teaching about racism and whitewashing, to numerous examples of analyzing gender and sexism, as well as projects on environmental justice and climate change at all grade levels. Some respondents discussed their transformative practice through the way their students analyzed and created media to make critical connections between historical and current events.

A high school social science teacher stated, “I had students create videos explaining the situation in Ukraine and relating it to the Cold War. In United States history, I often had students look at political cartoons and think about current examples of imperialism and how they’re represented in media.” Similarly, another social science teacher described a memorable moment of teaching critical media literacy (CML) as: “When students could make the connection between yellow journalism in Spanish-American War and media sensationalism during the War on Terror.” An elementary school teacher wrote:

My students began to think critically about history after showing them the spoken word poem ‘History Textbooks,’ which talked about world history being American Propaganda. Through this poem, they began questioning: who gets to write history and whose stories are told? It was a really powerful lesson we returned to over and over again throughout my course.

Analyzing media texts by acknowledging their historical continuity is vital because marginalization and exploitation are historically bound. Discovering these historical connections helps teachers and students learn how dominance and ideology are perpetuated, transcending time and space. Bridging the gap between the past and the present enables students to identify the common thread of hegemony across various spheres of social life. This instructional approach of CML promotes critical thinking with a social justice emphasis.

Another topic on which respondents commented was using CML to teach about environmental issues, especially the climate crisis. This is an important area for CML, since so many media messages about climate change distort the scientific evidence and mislead the public ( Beach et al., 2017 ; Share & Beach, 2022 ). A high school science teacher reported, “My class analyzed the politics behind climate change denial and how climate change is represented in the media. It was very easy for my students to see the connection between the message and its creators.” Exploring the connection between media ownership and media messages, another high school science teacher commented that a memorable moment was having a “discussion with students about where they were getting their information about environmental issues, and talking about who owns and controls Univision.”

In addition to becoming more aware, being engaged in critical analysis and creating counternarratives, some respondents noted that their students had engaged in political, environmental, and social media activism. A high school science teacher mentioned:

My class was looking at environmental justice and one student took that information and used it for an English project she was working on and that project transformed into a petition to the city council to plant more trees as her contribution to offsetting pollution in the inner city.

Another science teacher reported about how his “students created social media campaigns to raise awareness about animals affected by climate change. Different groups created the ‘Puffin Dance’ and #peekatmypika to help their campaigns get going.” A kindergarten teacher wrote about her students creating a video with opinion posters for change they shared with their school community.

Activism can be enacted in multiple ways; some efforts are more explicit, like petitions and protests, while others are more subtle, such as creating alternative media. Teacher responses reflect their students’ activism related to social, environmental, and political issues materialized through local and issue-specific efforts.

In analyzing the responses, we found many encouraging and hopeful comments about how critical media literacy (CML) has helped teachers rethink their pedagogy and increase student engagement. However, the responses also highlight challenges for implementing CML, such as limited resources, support, and clarity about how to integrate it into the curriculum. An elementary teacher wrote about the scarcity of technology at the school and how that “makes it difficult to do anything around critical media.” From the answers to Question 7 (incorporating CML into my teaching is difficult), secondary teachers reported more difficulty teaching CML (35% VF/F) than elementary teachers (26% VF/F). This is another place where the potential for CML in the lower grades surfaced, since they seem to have less difficulty incorporating it than secondary teachers. The design of most elementary classrooms, which requires the same teacher to cover all subject matter to the same group of students throughout the day, opens the potential for integrating CML pedagogy through thematic teaching, project-based learning, or problem-posing pedagogy.

A first-year middle school social science teacher shared wanting to use more CML, but had little departmental and administrative support. An elementary teacher shared about an administrator who “is reluctant to have me teach how to be critical of all media.” Three responses focused on wanting more resources, instructional strategies, and school-appropriate material in order to be able to implement CML in their classrooms. These qualitative statements of lack of support can be seen in the quantitative responses to Question 10 in which respondents rated the statement: “I feel supported by people at my school when teaching critical media literacy”: 36% VF/F, 24% occasionally, 18% rarely, 6% never felt supported, and 17% not applicable.

The group that shared the most challenges for implementing CML consisted of five teachers who taught secondary math and science. Their qualitative responses broadly discussed the difficulty of integrating CML into their content and finding only limited application. One of these responses from a high school math teacher mentioned:

I remember how when I was in the [CML] class, it seemed all over the place. I was unable to fully find the purpose of the class and how we can use it in a math class. In a traditional math class, such as Pre-Calculus or Calculus, it was rather difficult to find ways to incorporate the idea of CML.

This same person also commented that once he began teaching statistics, he was able to find ways to integrate CML. Of the 34 math teachers who answered Question 7, 59% of them reported that incorporating CML into their teaching was difficult VF/F. This is about double the VF/F responses from the other subjects.

A high school math teacher saw the value in teaching students CML but limited its application to challenging students’ misinformation about math and who is or is not a mathematician:

Critical Media Literacy is pretty important for students, especially in an age where they’re exposed to various forms of media, a lot of which is very skewed in one way or the other, and usually takes a reductionist viewpoint of the issues it addresses. I try to use CML to help students understand the misinformation about mathematics, the nature of mathematics, and challenge stereotypes of who is or isn’t a mathematician (examples: Not all mathematicians are white or Asian, there are Latino and African/African American mathematicians, there are mathematicians from faith backgrounds, mathematics isn’t just about calculations, etc.).

Two additional respondents also acknowledged the benefits of CML but felt challenged by the additional work needed to integrate it into the curriculum. A high school science teacher shared:

When I took the Critical Media Literacy class, it felt like it was more geared towards the humanities and not necessarily for the sciences. While it would be great to come up with lessons that connect chemistry and critical media literacy, it is immensely time-consuming when I can’t find other people to brainstorm with.

Another secondary science teacher also felt CML was important but struggled to find ways to integrate it into the classroom:

It was a great shared learning space and I got a ton of inspiration from taking the class; however, it has been difficult to use CML when direct instruction does focus on the explanation of scientific concepts. That’s not to say it is impossible, it just does take one more step of planning and student buy in.

Researchers in Canada found that after teaching CML concepts and skills in a Language Arts methods course, their preservice teachers felt enthusiastic about teaching media literacy, but challenged when designing CML lessons ( Robertson & Hughes, 2011 , p. 51). Robertson and Hughes (2011) list five reasons why teaching CML was so challenging for their students: (1) when these preservice teachers were K-12 students, most did not experience CML lessons; (2) the majority of their mentor teachers did not teach CML or know much about it; (3) critical analysis practices are not easy; (4) few resources are available; and (5) some schools have little technology and technical support. These are many of the same challenges that our teachers reported.

Intent and Importance of Incorporating Critical Media Literacy

Numerous teachers wrote about how meaningful, vital, transformative, and important this class was for them. A high school science teacher shared that the critical media literacy (CML) class, “was transformative! I’m still working on ways to fully integrate what I learned, but I have had my students creating media ever since.” A middle school English teacher commented about how the CML class “gave us techniques, projects, lessons that we can incorporate in our classrooms. Teaching students how to be critical of information related through the media is highly important because student[s] gain that critical awareness necessary for a technology-based society!”

A desire to bring more CML into the classroom surfaced throughout many of the qualitative responses. When asked to indicate any additional comments, 16 out of 64 respondents (25%) expressed their intention to integrate concepts related to media literacy or CML. A high school math teacher who wrote about having students create ads to represent data in graphs stated, “I wish I could incorporate more. I’ll keep trying.” A kindergarten teacher commented, “I wish I had more time to engage my students in this topic. As I grow in experience and expertise, I incorporate it more and more. Teaching in urban areas is a challenge but I do find the ideas of the course to be valuable in the classroom.”

The data and voices of these teachers raise practical, theoretical, and policy implications for future work in supporting teachers in adopting a pedagogical approach that can ignite engagement, make learning relevant, and deepen critical thinking with media, technology, and all information. In order for this to happen, teacher education programs need to address some of the challenges and limitations highlighted in the study.

The teachers surveyed reported challenges for implementing critical media literacy (CML) such as limited access to resources, lack of support, and a struggle to understand how to integrate it into the curriculum. This was especially evident for the math and science teachers. CML courses need to help teachers in all content areas rethink the silo approach to separate subject matter instruction and recognize the ways literacy is used in all areas and how information is connected to students’ lives through issues of power, privilege, and pleasure. To help teachers integrate CML into the curriculum, it is important for them to see content and grade-level examples while also receiving ongoing support and resources.

One way to support teachers in various subject matter is to create groups or projects modeled after the Stanford History Education Group (SHEG) or the Center X professional development projects. 4 The SHEG is a research and development group that provides free online resources and lesson plans for history teachers to support students in developing historical thinking skills. In a similar way, the Center X projects provide resources, lesson ideas, and professional development to support working teachers and administrators, while also creating curriculum, providing trainings, and engaging in research. The creation of a CML project or research and development group could provide ongoing professional development for new and experienced teachers in order to sustain CML implementation and support the growth of CML as an important field of investigation.

In-service teachers in our survey reported higher rates of integration of CML, perhaps because experienced teachers have figured out issues of classroom management, lesson planning, and how to balance work and life expectations. As a result, they are better situated to build and expand their curricula and teaching practices to bring CML into their classrooms. While creating a site modeled after the SHEG or Center X projects will require a significant investment of time and money, a more immediate and economical way to provide support for preservice teachers could be through integrating CML across various teacher preparation courses, especially in methods classes. This integration would require working with teacher educators to explore the CML theoretical framework and co-construct new practices and curricula for integrating these ideas throughout different content areas.

Despite the challenges reported by our teachers, the data also suggest promising possibilities for CML. While we do not claim causality between their teaching and the CML course, the data provide a window into how our preservice and in-service teachers have supported critical engagement with the information, entertainment, and social media embedded in the lives of students.

The similarities between elementary and secondary teachers suggest that CML can be just as appropriate for lower grades as it is commonly assumed to be for older students. The work in critical literacy by Comber (2013) and Vasquez (2014) offers support for the notion that young children can engage deeply in critical thinking and social justice education. The elementary teachers in our study demonstrate these ideas through the work they have done to engage their young students with media analysis and critical media production from kindergarten on up. While some teachers reported deep levels of critical analysis more often than others, many expressed their belief in the importance of CML and their desire to teach about social justice. Vasquez (2017) reminds us that critical literacy should not be a topic to teach: “Instead it should be looked on as a lens, frame, or perspective for teaching throughout the day, across the curriculum, and perhaps beyond. What this means is that critical literacy involves having a critical perspective or way of being” (p. 8). Developing social justice educators who internalize a critical way of looking at the world and questioning systems of power is the project for which CML provides a pragmatic framework and pedagogy.

It is impressive to see the majority of teachers reporting that using CML encourages critical thinking, something more important than ever in the age of fake news and alternative facts. There is hope in the teachers’ voices as they describe the activities they have been doing with their students, the successes they have encountered, and the challenges they have struggled to overcome. The comments about their intentions to teach CML and the importance they attribute to teaching these concepts provide encouragement for teacher educators to embrace CML. More than anything, the data demonstrate the potential for teaching CML in elementary and secondary settings with preservice and in-service teachers and in all content areas, even though some are more challenging than others. The use of media and technology offers opportunities for teachers to build on students’ prior knowledge, create a bridge to connect the outside world with school learning, and provide the raw material to examine everyday experiences of power, marginalization, and resistance.

Simply integrating media into the curriculum is not enough to develop critical literacies given the changing and multiple literacies associated with new digital information and communication technologies and practices. In the contemporary moment, there is a pressing pedagogical need to navigate the increasingly consequential artificial intelligence (AI) systems that collect, collate, process, predict and disseminate information determined by algorithms. Data from the survey suggest that our teachers are teaching more with media than critically analyzing it. Further studies are needed in order to better understand how to develop teachers’ CML frameworks and support more implementation.

Preparing educators to teach CML is not easy, and unfortunately, few institutes of higher education are attempting the challenge. However, it is possible, and in fact, it can be highly rewarding. By listening to the voices of teachers who have taken a CML course, we see the potential. As one high school science teacher commented, “CML changed me, changed my teaching, continues to change my students.”

While information communication technologies are integrating into all aspects of our lives, we are also witnessing increasing divisions between the haves and have nots, out-of-control climate change, and the weaponization of information and media. In order to create a socially just democratic society and sustainable planet, we must have people who can critically read and write the word and the world ( Freire & Macedo, 1987 ). The need for CML has never been greater. A high school English teacher wrote, “there is no literacy without media literacy. There is not critical pedagogy without critical media literacy.” It is our hope that this article serves as a resource to continue exploring the potential that CML offers to transform students, schools, and society.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the following educators who helped us design and teach this critical media literacy course: Shani Byard, Peter Carlson, Steven Funk, Antero Garcia, Mark Gomez, Clifford Lee, Elexia Reyes-McGovern, and Martin Romero. We are grateful to Megan Franke for her guidance with the creation of the survey. We also appreciate the assistance of Jarod Kawasaki, Jose-Felipe Martinez, and Brandon McMillan with helping to organize the survey data.

Further Reading

• Funk, S. , Kellner, D. , & Share, J. (2016). Critical media literacy as transformative pedagogy. In M. N. Yildiz & J. Keengwe (Eds.), Handbook of research on media literacy in the digital age (pp. 1–30). IGI Global.
• Goodman, S. (2003). Teaching youth media: A critical guide to literacy, video production, and social change . Teachers College Press.
• Hammer, R. , & Kellner, D. (Eds.). (2009). Media/cultural studies: Critical approaches . Peter Lang.
• Kellner, D. , & Share, J. (2019). The critical media literacy guide: Engaging media and transforming education . Brill/Sense Publishers.
• López, A. (2021). Ecomedia literacy: Integrating ecology into media education . Routledge.
• Luke, A. , & Freebody, P. (1997). Shaping the social practices of reading. In S. Muspratt , A. Luke , & P. Freebody (Eds.), Constructing critical literacies: Teaching and learning textual practice (pp. 185–225). Allen & Unwin, Hampton Press.
• Morrell, E. , Dueñas, R. , Garcia, V. , & López, J. (2013). Critical media pedagogy: Teaching for achievement in city schools . Teachers College Press.
• Noble, S. U. (2018). Algorithms of oppression . New York University Press.
• O’Connor, A. (2006). Raymond Williams . Rowman & Littlefield.
• Share, J. (2015). Media literacy is elementary: Teaching youth to critically read and create media (2nd ed.). Peter Lang.
• Vasquez, V. (2014). Negotiating critical literacies with young children (10th anniversary ed.). Routledge.
• Beach, R. , Share, J. , & Webb, A. (2017). Teaching climate change to adolescents: Reading, writing, and making a difference . Routledge.
• Breakstone, J. , Smith, M. , Wineburg, S. , Rapaport, A. , Carle, J. , Garland, M. , & Saavedra, A. (2021). Students’ civic online reasoning: A national portrait . Educational Researcher , 50 (8), 505–515.
• Buckingham, D. (2003). Media education: Literacy, learning and contemporary culture . Polity Press.
• Butler, A. (2020). Educating media literacy: The need for teacher education in media literacy . Brill-Sense.
• California Commission on Teacher Credentialing . (2016). California teaching performance expectations .
• California Common Core State Standards . (2013). https://www.cde.ca.gov/be/st/ss/documents/finalelaccssstandards.pdf
• Carlson, P. , Share, J. , & Lee, C. (2013). Critical media literacy: Pedagogy for the digital age. Oregon English Journal , 35 (1), 50–55.
• Comber, B. (2013). Critical literacy in the early years: Emergence and sustenance in an age of accountability. In J. Larson & J. Marsh (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of early childhood literacy (pp. 587–601). SAGE.
• Dewey, J. (1963). Experience and education . Macmillan.
• Domine, V. (2011). Building 21st-century teachers: An intentional pedagogy of media literacy education. Action in Teacher Education , 33 (2), 194–205.
• Flores-Koulish, S. A. , Deal, D. , Losinger, J. , McCarthy, K. , & Rosebrugh, E. (2011). After the media literacy course: Three early childhood teachers look back. Action in Teacher Education , 33 , 127–143.
• Freire, P. (2010). Pedagogy of the oppressed ( M. B. Ramos, Trans.). The Continuum International Publishing Group.
• Freire, P. , & Macedo, D. (1987). Literacy: Reading the word & the world . Bergin & Garvey.
• Garcia, A. , Seglem, R. , & Share, J. (2013). Transforming teaching and learning through critical media literacy pedagogy. LEARNing Landscapes , 6 (2), 109–124.
• Garii, B. , & Rule, A. C. (2009). Integrating social justice with mathematics and science: An analysis of student teacher lessons. Teaching and Teacher Education: An International Journal of Research and Studies , 25 (3), 490–499.
• Gretter, S. , & Yadav, A. (2018). What do preservice teachers think about teaching media literacy? An exploratory study using the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Media Literacy Education , 10 (1), 104–123.
• Grizzle, A. , & Wilson, C. (Eds.). (2011). Media and information literacy: Curriculum for teachers . United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
• Hall, S. (2003). The whites of their eyes: Racist ideologies and the media. In G. Dines & J. M. Humez (Eds.), Gender, race, and class in media: A text reader (2nd ed., pp. 89–93). SAGE.
• Hart, A. (Ed.). (1998). Teaching the media: International perspectives . Erlbaum.
• Hobbs, R. (2007a). Approaches to instruction and teacher education in media literacy (Research paper commissioned within the United Nations Literacy Decade). UNESCO Regional Conferences in Support of Global Literacy.
• Hobbs, R. (2007b). Reading the media: Media literacy in high school English . Teachers College Press.
• Hobbs, R. , Moen, M. , Tang, R. , & Steager, P. (2022). Measuring the implementation of media literacy instructional practices in schools: Community stakeholder perspectives . Learning, Media and Technology .
• Jhally, S. (2003). Image-based culture: Advertising and popular culture. In G. Dines & J. M. Humez (Eds.), Gender, race, and class in media: A text-reader (2nd ed.). SAGE.
• Joanou, J. P. (2017). Examining the world around us: Critical media literacy in teacher education. Multicultural Perspectives , 19 (1), 40–46.
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• Kellner, D. (1995). Media culture: Cultural studies, identity and politics between the modern and the postmodern . Routledge.
• Kellner, D. , & Share, J. (2007). Critical media literacy, democracy, and the reconstruction of education . In D. Macedo & S. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Media literacy: A reader (pp. 3–23). Peter Lang.
• Kincheloe, J. (2007). Critical pedagogy: Primer . Peter Lang.
• Kirwan, T. , Learmonth, J. , Sayer, M. , & Williams, R. (2003). Mapping media literacy: Media education 11–16 years in the United Kingdom . British Film Institute, Broadcasting Standards Commission, Independent Television Commission.
• Kist, W. , & Christel, M. T. (Eds.). (2022). Special issues: Critical media literacy: Bringing critical media literacy into ELA Classrooms, 2 . National Council of Teachers of English.
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• Livingstone, S. (2018, May 8). Media literacy—everyone’s favourite solution to the problems of regulation [Web log post].
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• Meehan, J. , Ray, B. , Walker, A. , Wells, S. , & Schwarz, G. (2015). Media literacy in teacher education: A good fit across the curriculum. Journal of Media Literacy Education , 7 (2), 81–86.
• Mihailidis, P. (2008). Are we speaking the same language? Assessing the state of media literacy in U.S. higher education. Studies in Media & Information Literacy Education , 8 (4), 1–14.
• Moore, D. C. , & Bonilla, E. (2014). Media literacy education & the common core state standards: NAMLE an educator’s guide . National Association for Media Literacy Education.
• National Council of Teachers of English . (2022, April 9). Media Education in English Language Arts .
• Pegurer Caprino, M. , & Martínez-Cerdá, J. (2016). Media literacy in Brazil: Experiences and models of non-formal education. Comunicar , 24 (49), 39–48.
• Pérez-Tornero, J. M. , & Tayie, S. (2012). Introduction. Teacher training in media education: Curriculum and international experiences . Comunicar , 20 (39), 10–14.
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• Ranieri, M. , & Bruni, I. (2018). Promoting digital and media competencies of pre- and in-service teachers: Research findings of a project from six European countries. Journal of e-Learning and Knowledge Society , 14 (2), 111–125.
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• Robertson, L. , & Hughes, J. M. (2011). Investigating pre-service teachers’ understandings of critical media literacy. Language & Literacy , 13 (2), 37–53.
• Rogow, F. (2018, August 1). How to adjust your “brights” to see through the fog of “fake” news [Web log post]
• Schwarz, G. (2001). Literacy expanded: The role of media literacy in teacher education. Teacher Education Quarterly , 28 (2), 111–119.
• Share, J. , & Beach, R. (2022). Critical media literacy analysis and production for systems thinking about climate change . The Journal of Media Literacy: Research Symposium Issue.
• Share, J. , & Gambino, A. (2022). A framework, disposition, and pedagogy for teaching critical media literacy. In W. Kist & M. T. Christel (Eds.), special issues: Critical media literacy, volume 2 : Bringing critical media literacy into ELA classrooms (pp. 11–17). National Council of Teachers of English.
• Tiede, J. , Grafe, S. , & Hobbs, R. (2015). Pedagogical media competencies of preservice teachers in Germany and the United States: A comparative analysis of theory and practice. Peabody Journal of Education , 90 (4), 533–545.
• Trust, T. , Maloy, R. , Butler, A. & Goodman, L. (2022). Critical media literacy in teacher education: Discerning truth amidst a crisis of misinformation and disinformation. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education , 30 (2), 167–176.
• Vasquez, V. M. (2017). Curriculum and pedagogy, educational purposes and ideals, education theories and philosophies . In G. W. Noblit (Ed.), Oxford research encyclopedia of education . Oxford University Press.
• Vogels, E. , Gelles-Watnick, R. , & Massarat, N. (2022). Teens, social media & technology 2018 . Pew Research Center.
• Vosoughi, S. , Roy, D. , & Aral, S. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science , 359 (6380), 1146–1151.
• Wilson, C. (2012). Media and information literacy: Pedagogy and possibilities . Comunicar , 20 (39), 15–22.
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1. The UNESCO Media and Information Literacy Curriculum can be found at the following location.

2. These can be found at the Center for Media Literacy website .

3. See The UCLA Library Critical Media Literacy Research Guide .

4. The Stanford History Education Group (SHEG) and the Center X site is at UCLA CENTER X PREPARES & SUPPORTS EDUCATORS .

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Critical Media Literacy: Commercial Advertising

• Resources & Preparation
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Studying the influence of mass media on our lives allows students to view advertising in a new light. This lesson provides students with the opportunity to look at mass media in a critical way. Students become aware of the tremendous amount of advertising that they are exposed to on a daily basis. By looking at advertising critically, students begin to understand how the media oppresses certain groups, convinces people to purchase certain products, and influences culture.

Featured Resources

PBS Media Literacy "Getting Started" activity ideas : Students become "cultural investigators" in the area of mass media by participating in the activities suggested at this helpful site.

From Theory to Practice

• Popular culture can help students deconstruct dominant narratives and contend with oppressive practices in hopes of achieving a more egalitarian and inclusive society.
• The raising of critical consciousness in people who have been oppressed is the first step in helping them to obtain critical literacy.
• Television literacy affirms the need to teach children how to read and interpret television messages, including advertising.
• The time has arrived to broaden the canons of traditional education and the curriculum to include the expanding technologies of television, film, video, and computers.

Common Core Standards

This resource has been aligned to the Common Core State Standards for states in which they have been adopted. If a state does not appear in the drop-down, CCSS alignments are forthcoming.

State Standards

This lesson has been aligned to standards in the following states. If a state does not appear in the drop-down, standard alignments are not currently available for that state.

NCTE/IRA National Standards for the English Language Arts

• 1. Students read a wide range of print and nonprint texts to build an understanding of texts, of themselves, and of the cultures of the United States and the world; to acquire new information; to respond to the needs and demands of society and the workplace; and for personal fulfillment. Among these texts are fiction and nonfiction, classic and contemporary works.
• 2. Students read a wide range of literature from many periods in many genres to build an understanding of the many dimensions (e.g., philosophical, ethical, aesthetic) of human experience.
• 3. Students apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate, and appreciate texts. They draw on their prior experience, their interactions with other readers and writers, their knowledge of word meaning and of other texts, their word identification strategies, and their understanding of textual features (e.g., sound-letter correspondence, sentence structure, context, graphics).
• 4. Students adjust their use of spoken, written, and visual language (e.g., conventions, style, vocabulary) to communicate effectively with a variety of audiences and for different purposes.
• 5. Students employ a wide range of strategies as they write and use different writing process elements appropriately to communicate with different audiences for a variety of purposes.
• 6. Students apply knowledge of language structure, language conventions (e.g., spelling and punctuation), media techniques, figurative language, and genre to create, critique, and discuss print and nonprint texts.
• 7. Students conduct research on issues and interests by generating ideas and questions, and by posing problems. They gather, evaluate, and synthesize data from a variety of sources (e.g., print and nonprint texts, artifacts, people) to communicate their discoveries in ways that suit their purpose and audience.
• 8. Students use a variety of technological and information resources (e.g., libraries, databases, computer networks, video) to gather and synthesize information and to create and communicate knowledge.
• 11. Students participate as knowledgeable, reflective, creative, and critical members of a variety of literacy communities.
• 12. Students use spoken, written, and visual language to accomplish their own purposes (e.g., for learning, enjoyment, persuasion, and the exchange of information).

Materials and Technology

• 12-15 copies of different magazines (e.g., Teen People , The Source , Sports Illustrated )
• Chart paper

Advertisement Dissection and Analysis sheet

Preparation

Student Objectives

Students will

• Investigate the influence of advertising on their daily lives
• Engage in critical inquiry of mass media
• Identify hidden media messages
• Interpret messages presented through advertising
• Discuss the effect of advertising on culture

Use other activities from the PBS Media Literacy "Getting Started" activity ideas list to further investigate commercial advertising.

Student Assessment / Reflections

• Teacher observation of dialogue between students
• Written response synthesizing classroom discussions
• Calendar Activities
• Lesson Plans

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Critical Media Project

Critical Media Project (CMP) is a free media literacy web resource for educators and students (ages 8-21) that enhances young people’s critical thinking and empathy, and builds on their capacities to advocate for change around questions of identity and representation. CMP has a two-fold mission:

• to raise critical awareness and provide the tools to decode media representations of race, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, socio-economic class, religion, age, and disability, and develop an understanding as to how these identities intersect
• to encourage and offer guidance for students to tell their own stories, create their own representations, and uphold their status as active and engaged participants in civic society

At USC Annenberg, undergraduate and graduate students across disciplines have the opportunity to work on CMP. Our research group meets biweekly and focuses on a range of ongoing projects, including:

• organizing the I Too Am Media Festival for Los Angeles high schoolers
• expanding site content
• developing curriculum for use in schools
• engaging teachers in professional development workshops
• assessing and evaluating the site’s impact in classrooms
• teaching CMP-based curriculum in local high schools through the Annenberg undergraduate course COMM 367, “Community Engagement and Service Learning”
• working with local youth in classrooms or other programs at USC
• sustaining outreach via social media and in schools
• growing free programs such as I Too Am: Teens, Media Arts, Belonging

If you have questions or would like to join the Critical Media Project, contact the Founder and Director, Professor Alison Trope at [email protected] .

Critical Media Literacy

Sabrina Malik

Our Use of Media

If you are like me, while you’re working or playing you usually have at least one screen open. Maybe your laptop is open to your course shell while you’re completing homework, and your television is playing a show on Netflix. Perhaps you are also chatting with your friends using your cellphone while streaming music online. More and more, we rely on media technology to connect with each other, gain information, entertain ourselves, and learn about the world beyond what we can experience directly.

As illustrated in the above scenario, the influence of media in our lives is undeniable. In today’s interconnected world, where we find ourselves living in a global village global village , our ability to critique and analyze media messages is increasingly important. In this module, we will examine how we define media, the importance of critical media literacy, and media as a social structure. We will also explore media bias, regulation, and consolidation. Finally, we will consider how advertising and news coverage influences our understanding of social and global issues.

Consider the impact of our increasing reliance on media: How does engaging with media shape our perceptions of each other, ourselves, and the world? Do you think media plays a role in informing your personal beliefs, opinions, and values? Why or why not?

What Is Media?

Media Media is a social institution that involves channels of mass communication that reach a large audience. For example, some types of media are television, film, and radio; traditional print media such as books, magazines, and newspapers; and digital media such as the internet and social media. We use media for many reasons: to stay informed, to be entertained, to express our thoughts, feelings, and opinions, and to keep us connected to others in our social network.

We are constantly surrounded by media messages media messages . Think about the last time you commuted to school or work. Chances are you read several advertisements posted in the subway and on billboards. Perhaps you checked social media sites or watched your favourite television show on your mobile device. Maybe you picked up a newspaper to get caught up on local and world events. Media messages can be found everywhere. It is difficult to escape the impact these messages have on how we view ourselves and others.

This short introduction explores what media is and how we define media. The video asks its viewers to consider the types of media they engage with daily. (Source: MediaSmarts, 2013)

This video explains what media is and why media analysis is important in the current digital era. An introduction to the necessity of critical media literacy is also provided. (Source: McPherson, 2018)

Are you using media, or is media using you? Have you noticed that when you click on a link, or if you like a post on social media, that you will suddenly start seeing ads that reflect what you clicked on or liked? Did you know that your cell phone service provider can track your movements and sell that information to marketing research companies? This is the new reality of “big data.” As we will learn later in this module, big data is not just about gathering information, it’s about profiling citizens for profit. Most of us are giving away our personal data without fully understanding that we’re doing it. To learn more about big data and its implications, watch the video from The Guardian called “Big Data: Why Should You Care?” It can be found in the Go Deeper section under the Regulating the Internet and Big Data sub-topic

The Importance of Media Literacy

Media is so common in our everyday lives that we may take it for granted. We might assume, for example, that the news stories we read are reliable sources of information. We might see advertisements as forms of media that affect other people, but not us. We might think of social media as simply a way to share information and connect with friends. But, as we will see throughout the module, media does not exist outside the realm of power, ideology, and social structures.

Critical media literacy Critical media literacy is an approach to thinking about media messages and learning to read media text media text . “Text,” in this case, refers not just to words but also to images, sounds, and video. When you read media text, you consider all elements and how they contribute to the overall message. To “read” media text means to analyze its direct and indirect messages critically and actively. As you read, you will question what specifically is being communicated.

John Randolph (better known as Jay Smooth) is a cultural commentator , founder of New York City WBAI radio station’s hip hop program Underground Railroad, and creator of the video blog Ill Doctrine. In this video , he explains what media literacy is. He also discusses how to use media literacy as a tool to navigate the many messages we receive through the mass media. (Source: CrashCourse, 2018a)

Andrea Quijada is a media literacy educator and executive director for the Media Literacy Project. In this video , she speaks about her experiences teaching others how to “deconstruct” or analyze media messages. She asks us to consider the text and “subtext” (the hidden meaning) of media messages and encourages us to question what we see and don’t see in the media. (Source: Quijada, 2013)

Media as a Social Structure

Media acts as a powerful agent of socialization socialization . We learn about ourselves and others through the media representations media representations we find in popular media, whether on television, in films, in advertisements, or online. These messages may not affect us immediately. Instead, as we are continually exposed to them, they become part of our worldview over time.

For example, consider how media and advertising represent gender roles. Girls’ toys, such as baby dolls and toy kitchen appliances, are often based in the domestic realm. For boys, toys often mirror the world outside of the home, such as toy cars and trucks. As we age, we are continually exposed to gendered representations in the media that reflect these norms norms and expectations: that women belong at home, and men in the labour force.

The media appears to mirror reality back to us. But this is an illusion. In fact, it gives us a very limited and often false representation of our world. For example, media often encourages us to adopt dominant ideologies dominant ideologies and norms norms , ones that may create and maintain social inequalities. It takes time to reflect and critically analyze all the media messages we see and hear. We may see the same headline repeated in the news so often that we take the message as fact. In our busy lives, we often rely on limited descriptions of issues in the media to form our judgments and create our opinions.

Much of our view of reality is based on media messages, so it is important to consider who created the message and why. What is the purpose of the message? What is being communicated in the message, and what is being left out? By critically examining media messages, we have the power to pick and choose which messages are truer to us or more representative of our lived reality than others.

Educator, author, and social theorist Jackson Katz explores issues related to violent masculinity in popular media. This documentary examines representations of gender and race in popular films, television shows, and news stories. It discusses the impact of these harmful messages on culture and society. (Source: Katz et al., 2013)

Media bias Media bias generally refers to the particular slant or perspective of media messages that influences how specific issues or people are presented. For example, media representations often reflect bias. Media bias also refers to how media tends to represent and spread dominant ideologies dominant ideologies . This can lead to prejudiced prejudiced attitudes and opinions, as well as stereotyping stereotyping and discrimination discrimination , most often of minoritized minoritized and marginalized groups.

The images and language used to describe an event or issue can reflect and contribute to the bias of a media message. For example, as we will see in the video found in the Go Deeper section below, an advertisement from the 1940s describes the camps where Japanese residents of Canada and the United States were imprisoned during the Second World War as “assembly centres.” In fact, these were temporary concentration camps for people of Japanese ancestry. Those forced to live and work at these camps spent an average of three months there before being transferred to a permanent concentration camp (Linke, 2015).

Biased news reporting influences how the public feels about issues. One way bias in the news can occur is through a process of selection and omission selection and omission , where an editor may choose to include only some details of a story, while ignoring others. Another way bias can creep in is through the use of negative language. One survey of newspaper articles about unions found that negative terms such as “demands,” “inconvenience,” “labour unrest,” and “greedy” kept occurring (Finn, 1983, as quoted in Naiman, 2008). How might this affect how readers feel about unions?

How an event is described and what choice of words are used feed into dominant discourses dominant discourses . These discourses recreate and maintain inequities. The way the world is represented in the media will always contain bias. So it is important to learn how to recognize limiting perspectives and to seek a variety of sources and points of view.

Identifying bias in a news headlin e

Consider the following headlines:

More than 900 people attended the protest!

Less than a thousand people attended the protest.

Are these headlines describing the same or different events? What is the perspective of each? How does the choice of words used in the headlines contribute to bias?

This video explores ways in which we can learn how to recognize bias in the media. What words are chosen to describe people and events can lead to biased reporting in the news, as well as issues surrounding false information disguised as fact – or “fake news.” (Source: PBS NewsHour, 2017)

Other Sources

Media literacy: Five core concepts. (n.d.). Young African Leaders Initiative. https://yali.state.gov/media-literacy-five-core-concepts/

Savvy info consumers: Detecting bias in the news. (n.d.). University Libraries, University of Washington. https://guides.lib.uw.edu/research/evaluate/bias

Serani, D. (2011, June 7). If it bleeds, it leads: Understanding fear-based media. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/two-takes-depression/201106/if-it-bleeds-it-leads-understanding-fear-based-media

We learned how bias is created in the media and specifically in news reporting in this module. Biased news reporting can occur in three ways: through selection and omission, placement, and headlines. As you now know, selection and omission refers to which aspects of the story are included and which are left out. This type of bias can be the outcome of space considerations or advertising pressure on editorial decisions. Because of this type of bias, it is important to consider different sources of news to get a fuller picture of events. Bias can also occur through placement—where does the story appear? Is it on the front page of a newspaper or magazine, or is it the first story covered in the news on television? Does it appear on the front page of the news website? Or is it buried somewhere and given a very small word count? Placement of news stories determines how relevant the story is to media producers, and ultimately to us as media consumers. It sends a subtle message to us about what is important and what isn’t. Finally, bias can occur through the news headline. Headlines usually contain very few words, and these words are chosen carefully. In journalism, there’s a saying that “if it bleeds, it leads”: the more shocking or provocative the headline, the more likely it is to grab the reader’s attention. You can read more about the creation of fear-based media in the article called “If It Bleeds, It Leads: Understanding Fear-Based Media” in the Go Deeper section of the Media Bias sub-topic.

Representation in the Media

Growing up as a child of immigrants to Canada, it was rare to see people like me fairly represented in the media. I didn’t see many South Asian people on TV or in the films I watched. The representations that I did see were stereotypical, negative, and simplified. They made me feel ashamed of who I was. Over time, I began to question the validity of my experiences. Today, I see more diversity in popular media, but I still question how accurate and representative these depictions really are.

Do you see yourself fairly represented in the media? Are your experiences and lifestyle reflected in the films you watch or the news stories you read? Why might this be important to consider?

Representation in the media often reproduces stereotypes about gender, race, class, ethnicity, religion, ability, and sexuality. This is because media recreates inequalities that exist in our society. When examining how diversity is represented in the media, it is important to consider three main issues: inclusion, roles, and control of production (Croteau & Hoynes, 2003). For example, we may ask if media includes diverse perspectives of racialized racialized groups in Canada. We may question how racialized groups are portrayed in the media by exploring the roles their members are given. Finally, we may consider who is controlling the creation and production of media.

Representation and Race

As we saw in the previous module on media bias media bias , what the media chooses to reflect is very selective. Overt or obvious racism is less present in media representations today. However, subtle racism is still very much present (Hall, 1995). This often shows up in representations that feel natural but in fact hold unquestioned assumptions about race.

An example of this is how Africa is continually portrayed as a region marked by corruption, famine, and civil war. Those issues have been present in Africa. However, there are many other positive stories about Africa that are never mentioned. These include successful community development projects and the rapid growth of the movie industry in Nigeria.

This sort of subtle racism also occurs closer to home. Usually in stories about First Peoples First Peoples in Canada, the focus is on corruption on reserves, violence, and alcoholism. Rarely do we hear positive stories about Indigenous art, culture, or leadership.

Media representations Media representations of Indigenous groups recreate harmful stereotypes. Stuart Hall (1995) describes this representation in popular media as having two sides. On one side is the stereotype of Indigenous groups as “noble and “primitive.” On the other side is the stereotype of Indigenous groups as “savage” and “uncivilized” (p. 21). These representations have fed into the marginalization of Indigenous communities.

In these examples, we can see how the media reflects and contributes to the racism present in our society.

Representation and Gender

Although gender balance has improved in film and television in recent years, women of colour and Indigenous women in Canada are still extremely underrepresented in the media, both in front of and behind the camera. A recent study by the not-for-profit organization Women in View analyzed 90 television shows publicly funded by the Canadian Media Fund (CMF) airing between 2014 to 2017, and 1098 film productions funded by Telefilm between 2015 and 2017. They found that only 1.5% of television contracts and 1.8% of film contracts were assigned to women of colour. Alarmingly, only 0.7% of television and film contracts were assigned to Indigenous women. In 2017, of 24 television shows created, not one had any Indigenous women on staff (Collie, 2019).

Today, stereotypical representations in the media can be more subtle than they have been historically. Think of a television show or movie that you have watched recently and consider applying the Bechdel test Bechdel test . This test asks if there were at least two women in the film who talk to each other about something other than a male character. This is how it assesses if female characters are present and how complete or well-rounded they are. This simple test can help determine if there is equality of gender representation.

Representation and Class

Media representations Media representations of people experiencing poverty tend to frame their struggles as an individual problem, and not as a social problem. By doing so, they encourage us to believe that we can avoid such struggles through personal effort, such as hard work. Those who are struggling are often described as not working hard enough or exploiting social supports. In other words, they are blamed for their own poverty. For example, people who claim government benefits may be described in the media as “undeserving” of benefits or as committing fraud (Thompson, 2019).

Often we see media representations of wealthy lifestyles. These do not reflect the reality of most citizens. The vast majority of American and Canadian citizens work in service, manufacturing, or production jobs (Croteau & Hoynes, 2003, p. 218; Statistics Canada, 2020). These images are most obvious in advertising. For example, ads do not typically feature working class people. They portray images of white, middle class, and affluent upper-class people (p. 218). These messages make us feel anxious about our current lifestyle. They are also usually offering ways to fake our social status by purchasing luxury products and brand names. Consider the following question: How do these messages from advertising campaigns feed into the ideology of consumerism consumerism ?

Reflect on the impact the media has on how you view yourself and others. How does the media feed into existing power structures? What does the media tell us about ourselves and those around us? What values, lifestyles, or points of view do you see represented or omitted in the media?

In this TED talk , researcher Min Kim explores how our understanding of others is filtered through media images and the perspectives chosen by the owners of mass media. He argues the benefits of direct experience over filtered experiences. (Source: TEDx Talks, 2017b)

Cultural theorist Stuart Hall’s theory of representation is explored in this video , with attention on his groundbreaking work on the relationship between stereotypes, power, and the media. (Source: The Media Insider, 2019)

Artist, photographer, and educator Bayete Ross Smith examines how media images of people of colour shape our perceptions and create stereotypes in this TEDx Talk . He explores how art and media can be used as tools to educate and expose the many stereotypical representations we see during our lifetimes. (Source: TEDx Talks, 2015)

Bechdel Test Movie List. (n.d.). https://bechdeltest.com/

Lawson, K. (2018, February 20). Why seeing yourself represented on screen is so important. Vice. https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/zmwq3x/why-diversity-on-screen-is-important-black-panther

Statistics Canada. (2020, June 5). Labour Force Survey in brief: Interactive app. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/14-20-0001/142000012018001-eng.htm

Women in View. (2019, May). Women in View: Onscreen Report . [Report] Women in View. http://womeninview.ca/reports/

Media Ownership

In Canada and the US, most of the newspapers, radio stations, television stations, and internet providers are owned by a few very large corporations. This is referred to as media consolidation media consolidation .

The top five media companies in Canada are Bell, Telus, Rogers, Shaw, and Quebecor. These five corporations accounted for 72.5% of the $81.2 billion network media economy in 2017. Bell, the largest media company in Canada, accounted for nearly 28% of all revenue in 2017, up by one percent from the previous year. Wireless mobile is also extremely concentrated. Rogers, Telus, and Bell accounted for 92.3% of the sector’s revenue in 2017 (Winseck, 2018).

From a critical media literacy perspective, we must ask what issues arise when a few very large companies own so many media outlets. For example, are these companies constructing media messages to gain and maintain power? Do they create and spread ideas that help them maximize their profits?

With this level of consolidation, it is important to question in whose interest media messages are created, and why.

Read the Media and Internet Concentration in Canada Report 1984–2017 . (Source: Winseck, 2018)

Learn more about the major companies in the media landscape here . (Source: Molla & Kafka, 2018; this source is kept updated)

This video provides an overview of media concentration in the US. (Source: NowThisWorld, 2016)

The history of media ownership and concentration is explored in the eighth installment of Jay Smooth’s Crash Course in Media Literacy. Issues surrounding mergers and monopolies by media corporations are examined, including tech companies and access to the internet. (Source: CrashCourse, 2018b)

Media Regulation

The government of Canada plays an important role in media regulation media regulation . In other words, it determines what media and media content we have access to.

In Canada, the government body that controls media is called the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). The CRTC was created in 1968 by the Broadcasting Act. It oversees all sectors of the Canadian broadcasting system, including radio and television. Before the CRTC was created, this responsibility belonged to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC). The CBC was created in 1936 to provide an alternative to American radio.

The CRTC plays many roles. Companies that wish to operate radio and television broadcasting networks must first apply for a license from the CRTC. In addition, companies that want to buy or take over other broadcasting companies must receive approval from the CRTC.

The main role of the CRTC is to ensure Canadian culture is represented in media. However, large media corporations have pressured the government to change their policies so that they do not need to represent Canadian culture in their programs. This has made it very difficult for the CRTC to fulfill this role (McChesney, 2008). In addition, the increasing concentration of media ownership in Canada has not been challenged by the CRTC.

Media can be controlled and owned in various ways. For example, private-sector control of the media includes media that is produced and distributed by corporations for a profit. In contrast, media controlled by the public sector refers to media that is produced and distributed as a public service, and not necessarily to generate any profit. Here are some examples of different ways that media can be controlled.

Media produced by media corporations and media conglomerates media conglomerates to make a profit.

Media supported, regulated, and controlled by the government. State-controlled media acts as a tool for social control. The only information citizens have access to must be approved by the state and is most often in support of the government. In countries with state-controlled media, independent media sources may be suppressed or banned. This can threaten journalistic integrity and promote the state’s interests over its citizens.

Media produced by public film and broadcasting organizations. It provides a public service by creating content that does not necessarily produce a profit. In other words, it serves public instead of corporate interests, e.g. TVOntario.

Media in which people directly participate. This includes citizen journalism, blogs, social media sites like Twitter and Facebook, opinion pieces, etc. It is also called participatory media.

Learn about the statutes and regulations of the CRTC here . (Source: Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission, 2019)

In this report , the Committee to Protect Journalists describes 10 countries where independent media is suppressed or banned. (Source: Wang, n.d.)

Regulating the Internet and Big Data

What do you do online in a typical day? Check your social media pages to get updates from friends? Read reviews on the latest cell phones? Post a picture on Instagram? Find a map for directions to a restaurant? Everything you do online is tracked. The online trail you leave of your interests, movements, and purchases is your personal data, and it’s extremely valuable. If you’ve ever noticed advertisements “pop” up that seem to offer the kinds of products and services you’ve been recently browsing, then you’ve had a glimpse at why companies are willing to pay for your data. They harness it to target sales to you. Here’s how it works.

The term “ big data big data ” is important to understand because your free internet is built on it. You likely pay for an internet connection, but once you are online, you don’t pay for the actual internet—the online world where all your websites live. That is because there is an important difference between data and “big data.” Data is simply information. Even if you have a lot of information, it may not be very useful. For example, if you tracked how many people purchased shoes online in Canada, you would have data. However, this data would not help you sell more shoes online. Big data takes online shoe purchase numbers and then combines them with other information about those shoe buyers, such as their age, income, etc. This combination of data produces very valuable information for advertisers. With big data, shoe companies know which shoes to advertise to which people. It also tells companies where to place those ads, when to place those ads, and what prices to offer the shoes in those ads. Big data is not about the shoe. It’s about you. (Source: Anderton, Centennial College, 2020)

Regulating the internet is an issue of concern for most Canadians. The majority of Canadians (60%) believe that the government should step in to address disinformation disinformation and data privacy issues created by social media platforms (Wong, 2019). These issues have been highlighted by Brexit, the Trump presidency, and the Cambridge Analytica scandal (covered in more detail in Media 2). A general distrust is developing towards social media companies, in particular Facebook. People are becoming increasingly uncomfortable with how big tech companies target them for political and sales advertising. This, along with the fact that the internet is now controlled by a few large companies, has challenged the idea of net neutrality net neutrality as well as democracy more generally.

This video on big data by The Guardian explains how data is gathered on individuals. It also explains what companies can do with this information, such as target advertisements and political campaigns, or predict your future actions. (Source: The Guardian, 2019)

In this video , senior reporter and policy editor Russell Brandom explains how the end of net neutrality has given big companies the power to control internet access and streaming services. (Source: The Verge, 2018)

After watching the videos on big data and net neutrality, do you think our role as global citizens is being challenged by big tech companies? Why or why not?

Finley, K. (2020, May 5). Net neutrality: Here’s everything you need to know. Wired. https://www.wired.com/story/guide-net-neutrality/

Lytvynenko, J., Boutilier, A., Silverman, C., & Chown Oved, M. (2019, April 9). The Canadian government is considering regulating Facebook and other social media giants. BuzzFeed News. https://www.buzzfeed.com/janelytvynenko/canada-social-media-regulation

Malik, N. (2018, September 7). The internet: To regulate or not to regulate? Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/nikitamalik/2018/09/07/the-internet-to-regulate-or-not-to-regulate/#4985a0141d16

Media and Advertising

Advertising is the primary way media companies make money. Because of this, advertisers have great control over the content of media, as well as the owners of media companies. As explained in Robert McChesney’s Rich Media, Poor Democracy , media conglomerates media conglomerates now own many different types of companies. These may include publishing companies, promotion companies, production companies, television and radio stations, and newspapers. This is called vertical integration vertical integration . It allows media conglomerates to maximize profits by a process called “ synergy synergy ,” which involves the following:

This refers to how conglomerates turn movies into books; books into movies; movie music into soundtracks; hit movies into TV shows, etc. Because media conglomerates own companies that create different types of media content, they can take one product and find many ways to profit from it.

This refers to when a corporation promotes their entertainment product (movie, book, etc.) within their own media outlets. For example, a movie production company may promote their movie on a television “entertainment” show or news program owned by the same company. Deals may be made with food companies and restaurant chains to have the characters appear on cereal boxes, “kids’ meals,” toys, bed sheets, video games, etc. Some of these companies might also be part of the same media conglomerate. This means the profits stay with the same company, another example of vertical integration vertical integration . Disney is a good example of a powerful media company that uses cross-promotion for their products and branding.

Movie productions can cost hundreds of millions of dollars. This makes them very risky and expensive. That risk is reduced if the production company is owned by a media conglomerate. The conglomerate has the ability to aggressively promote the film. It can make sure it gets good reviews in the newspapers, magazines, and television media it owns. It can advertise and promote it widely. Therefore, big media corporations can help reduce risk and guarantee their products make money.

In the 1990s in both the US and Canada, governments removed some regulations on media companies. This allowed them to merge different media sectors together to create media conglomerates. As new technologies emerged, these too were taken over by media conglomerates. This deregulation was supposed to promote competition. However, it caused media companies to overpower and buy competing companies. So, in fact, it reduced competition. The 1996 Telecommunications Act made it possible for corporations to own large segments of the media sector. As a result, deregulation benefited these businesses more than the public.

Media theorist Robert McChesney and media scholar Mark Crispin Miller demonstrate how conglomerates influence media content in this film . They show how power in the hands of a few produces a system of media that feeds into consumerism and biased news reporting. (Source: Smith et al., 2003)

Manufacturing Consent: The Five Filters

Noam Chomsky and Edward Herman are American media analysts and educators. They argue that corporate media uses five “filters” to determine what is considered “newsworthy.” These filters are: corporate ownership, advertising, sourcing, negative responses to a media statement or program (“flak”), and creating polar opposites.

Due to media consolidation media consolidation , a small number of large corporations control the media. Major media corporations are very large companies seeking to make money, and they directly influence editorial content. Chomsky and Herman remind us that very wealthy and politically connected people sit on the boards of these corporations.

Advertising is essential to the success of any newspaper or television station. It is how they make money. Because media outlets want to attract and keep their advertisers, they are often biased towards their business interests. Chomsky and Herman point out that corporations that buy major advertising space can influence what content is printed or broadcast. These large companies have the power to withdraw their advertising dollars if they disagree with editorial content.

Sourcing is where media outlets get their news information. For example, the media gets information about important issues involving the government from government sources. This means that this information is highly controlled and regulated. Governments also control media through the laws they create. These laws might protect public interest or promote competition among media outlets. Those who control and regulate the media can influence what stories and information are presented in the news.

“Flak” refers to negative responses to a media statement or program. It may take the form of letters, phone calls, petitions, lawsuits, speeches, and legislation. It includes any type of complaint, threat, and punishment. These responses may be highly organized by a group or independent actions of individuals. For example, governments and advertisers can control media content by providing inaccurate, misleading, or biased information. They can threaten to pull their business (ads). In the case of the government, it can cut off their sources of information if they don’t cooperate. They can also threaten media companies with lawsuits (libel) and forced public apologies.

This filter refers to the ability of the media to create a perceived enemy or “other.” Major media outlets may create a story of “us” versus “them,” or “good” versus “evil.” This influences the public to pick a side. Usually, the public is encouraged to side with the position of the government or corporations and support their goals. These goals might be to buy more products (consumerism) or to support a political agenda. For example, in Canada the oil industry in Alberta is often portrayed in the media as benefiting the country’s economic interests. The Green Party of Canada (concerned with the environmental issues related to big oil) is shown as not representing national interests.

In this video , the five filters of media are explored in relation to the propaganda model from Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky’s writing in Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (1988) .

In this module, we examined how media is defined, the importance of critical media literacy, media as a social structure, media bias, regulation and consolidation, and the influence of advertising and news coverage on our understanding of social and global issues.

Key Concepts

Bechdel test

A simple test to determine the representation and inclusion of well-rounded female characters in films and TV.

“Extremely large data sets that may be analysed computationally [by computers] to reveal patterns, trends, and associations, especially relating to human behaviour and interactions” (“Big data,” n.d.).

consumerism

An ideology that connects our happiness to the things we buy, own, and consume.

critical media literacy

The ability to analyze and evaluate how media messages influence our beliefs and behaviours. In this process, viewers are not just recipients of media messages. They actively critique media content.

discrimination

The unjust or unfair treatment of different categories of people, especially based on their race, age, or sex.

disinformation

“Information that is false and deliberately created to harm a person, social group, organisation or country” (UNESCO, 2021).

dominant discourses

How the common-sense ideas, assumptions and values of dominant ideologies are communicated to us. Dominant discourses can be found in propaganda, cultural messages, and mass media.

dominant ideologies

Ideologies that are particularly influential in shaping our ideas, values, and beliefs because they are supported by powerful groups.

First Peoples

Peoples indigenous to Canada; includes First Nations, Inuit and Métis.

global village

The idea that the entire world is becoming more interconnected because of advances in technology. This makes it possible to deal with the world as if all areas of it were local.

A social institution that involves channels of mass communication that reach a large audience.

The act of favouring one perspective over others by the creators of media messages.

media conglomerate

A media company that owns many other media companies.

media consolidation

The process by which the ownership of media is concentrated into the hands of a small number of large corporations.

media messages

The main idea or moral of the story that is communicated by the content and type of media, such as in a television show, an advertisement, a news article, a song, etc.

media regulation

Government control of mass media through laws that may protect the public interest or promote competition among media outlets.

media representations

The way people, events, places, ideas, and stories are presented by the media. These presentations may reflect underlying ideologies and values.

Refers not just to words but also images, sounds, video, taken as a whole message.

minoritized

Experiencing discrimination and other disadvantages compared to members of the dominant group.

net neutrality

“The concept that all data on the internet should be treated equally by corporations, such as internet service providers [ISPs], and governments, regardless of content, user, platform, application or device” (Kenton, 2020).

Social expectations about attitudes, values, and beliefs.

A “preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience” (“Prejudice,” n.d.).

The process of creating, preserving, and communicating a system of dominance based on race.

selection and omission

A process through which bias is expressed in the news, where editors may choose to share only some details of a story, while ignoring others.

socialization

The process by which we come to understand different social statuses and their roles, or behavioural expectations, through interactions with others.

“A widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person” or group (“Stereotype,” n.d.).

When two or more media companies work together to produce and control one brand.

vertical integration

The control of two or more stages of media production by one media company.

Global Indigenous Example

The Indigenous Media and Communication Caucus at the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII) was founded in 2016. It was created by Indigenous journalists and media practitioners from Bolivia, Guatemala, Nepal, and Venezuela. The aim of the caucus is to increase Indigenous voices and participation in media, as well as access to media. It also seeks to strengthen the use of Indigenous languages in the media within state and international legal frameworks.

Read this article to learn more about the caucus. (Source: Sunuwar, 2019)

You can visit the caucus website here . (Source: Indigenous Media Caucus, n.d.)

Global Citizenship Example

In this module, we learned how big data has created issues with disinformation and privacy rights. However, it can also be used to identify social problems and solutions. For example, access to clean cooking fuel is a huge problem in India. The traditional cooking method can expose a person to toxins equivalent to smoking 400 cigarettes. The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas partnered with SocialCops to bring clean cooking fuel to 80 million women below the poverty line in just four years. To do this, they used big data to identity the need for liquefied petroleum centres (LPGs) in rural communities in India.

To learn more, watch this TedX video . (Source: TedX Talks, 2017a)

You can also visit the SocialCops website here . (Source: “Data to decisions,” n.d.)

Learn more about how big data is used for the greater good.

Lebied, M. (2019, December 10). 12 examples of big data in healthcare that can save people. Datapine . https://www.datapine.com/blog/big-data-examples-in-healthcare/

Panah, A. S., & Mccosker, A. (2018, November 2). Five projects that are harnessing big data for good. Government Technology. https://www.govtech.com/analytics/Five-projects-that-are-harnessing-big-data-for-good.html

Social Analysis Example

Social structures and institutions are a way of organizing society and creating patterns of social behaviour. As we have learned, the media reinforces dominant ideologies. Because of this, it is important to approach a social analysis of media using the following questions:

Who has created the message? Why? Who benefits from this message? Who loses? What techniques are used to attract my attention? How might different people understand this message differently from me? What are the roles, norms, and expectations communicated by this message? What is being left out, hidden, or omitted altogether? What types of representations are considered valuable or desirable, and which are not? How has media influenced what I believe, how I think, and how I behave?

Critical Media Literacy in Global Citizenship: From Social Analysis to Social Action (2021) by Centennial College, Sabrina Malik is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike License ( CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 ) unless otherwise stated.

Introduction photo by camilo jimenez on Unsplash .

This module contains material from the chapter “Media Literacy” by Sabrina Malik & Jared Purdy, in Global Citizenship: From Social Analysis to Social Action © 2015 by Centennial College, and material adapted from class materials for GNED500 Global Citizenship by P. Anderton, Centennial College.

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Collie, M. (2019, May 28). The lack of diversity in Canadian media is ‘hard to ignore’ – and the numbers prove it. Global News. https://globalnews.ca/news/5297230/women-of-colour-indigenous-canadian-media-diversity-women-in-view/

CrashCourse. (2018a, February 27). Introduction to Media Literacy: Crash Course Media Literacy #1 [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/AD7N-1Mj-DU

CrashCourse. (2018b, April 17). Media ownership: Crash Course Media Literacy #8 [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DvSTlxJsKzE

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Kenton, W. (2020, January 29). Net neutrality. Investopedia. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/n/net-neutrality.asp

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NowThisWorld. (2016, March 21). Who owns the media? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=awRRPPE3V5Q&feature=emb_logo

PBS NewsHour. (2017, June 6). How media literacy can help students discern fake news [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/z4fwJHhv6ZY

Prejudice. (n.d.). In Lexico. https://www.lexico.com/definition/prejudice

Quijada, A. [TEDx Talks]. (2013, February 19). Creating critical thinkers through media literacy: Andrea Quijada at TEDxABQED [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aHAApvHZ6XE&t=17s

Smith, J., Alper, L., Robb, M., & Jhully, S. (Filmmakers). (2003). Rich media, poor democracy [Video]. Media Education Foundation. https://centennialcollege.kanopy.com/video/rich-media-poor-democracy&inst=centennial

Stereotype. (n.d.). In Lexico. https://www.lexico.com/definition/stereotype

Sunuwar, D. K. (2019, September 19). Indigenous Media Caucus amplifies Indigenous voices globally. Cultural Survival. https://www.culturalsurvival.org/news/indigenous-media-caucus-amplifies-indigenous-voices-globally

TEDx Talks. (2015, February 19). Breaking down stereotypes using art and media | Bayete Ross Smith | TEDxMidAtlantic [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9zyqcuQVafk

TEDx Talks. (2017a, April 19). How big data can influence decisions that actually matter [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C6WKt6fJiso

TEDx Talks. (2017b, May 17). Whoever controls the media, the images, controls the culture: Min Kim at TEDxLehighU [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZpjWioF6iMo

The Guardian. (2019, May 7). Big data: why should you care? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ji18sDbWI_k&feature=youtu.be

The Media Insider. (2019, November 8). Stuart Hall’s representation theory explained [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yJr0gO_-w_Q

The Verge. (2018, June 11). Net neutrality is dead: Now what? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hIULYHz6BWA

Thompson, K. (2019, October 1). Media representations of benefits claimants. ReviseSociology. https://revisesociology.com/2019/10/04/media-representations-of-benefits-claimants/

Wang, R. A. (n.d.). 10 most censored countries [Report]. Committee to Protect Journalists. https://cpj.org/reports/2019/09/10-most-censored-eritrea-north-korea-turkmenistan-journalist.php

Winseck, D. (2018, December 11). Media and Internet Concentration in Canada Report 1984 – 2017. Canadian Media Concentration Research Project (CMCRP). doi:10.22215/ cmcrp/2018.2. https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/110.nsf/vwapj/972_CMCRP_MediaandInternetConcentration1984-2017.pdf/$file/972_CMCRP_MediaandInternetConcentration1984-2017.pdf

Women in View. (2019, May). Women in View: Onscreen Report . [Report] Women in View. http://womeninview.ca/reports/

Wong, T. (2019, September 25). Majority of Canadians want government to regulate social media, poll says. Toronto Star. https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2019/09/25/majority-of-canadians-want-government-to-regulate-social-media-poll-says.html

UNESCO. (2021, May 7). Journalism, ‘Fake News’, and Disinformation: A Handbook for Journalism Education and Training. https://en.unesco.org/fightfakenews

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Critical Media Content Analysis assignment

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Usage Notes

Learning goals and assessments.

Learning Goal(s):

• Produce an independent content analysis requiring to make informed decisions about collecting, organizing, and analyzing media data.
• Appraise everyday, taken-for-granted media texts and make connections across discrete units such as individual TV commercials.
• Connect data and context by situating commercials and movie posters in broader theoretical frameworks.

Goal Assessment(s):

• The first goal is assessed based on sections A and C of the project write-up, in which students will describe their process and reflect on the strengths and limitations of content analysis in the context of their own project.
• The second goal is assessed based on their descriptive codes, which demonstrates how the student was able to "make the familiar strange"; the analytic memos show how they identify themes across these codes and organize bits of data in analytic groups
• The third goal is assessed using students’ integrative memos, where they demonstrate how they see their findings relating to broader sociological ideas and theories. This need not be theoretically sophisticated so long as they demonstrate the technique.

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Mass Communication, Media, and Culture - An Introduction to Mass Communication

(32 reviews)

Copyright Year: 2016

ISBN 13: 9781946135261

Publisher: University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Jenny Dean, Associate Professor, Texas Wesleyan University on 2/27/24

This book is pretty comprehensive, but it is getting old in the media world where things are changing at a great pace. The basic text is good, but needs supplementary materials to truly keep pace with technology today. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

This book is pretty comprehensive, but it is getting old in the media world where things are changing at a great pace. The basic text is good, but needs supplementary materials to truly keep pace with technology today.

Content Accuracy rating: 3

I am sure the book was accurate when it was published, but the world keeps changing, and it isn't as current as it needs to be. But, it still isn't bad for a free book to access.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

Once again, same issue. The book is almost seven years old and hasn't been updated. The issue is that the examples and illustrations are getting to be a bit dated. I suspect that there aren't any updates of this book planned, which is unfortunate. If updated, this would be a fantastic read for students.

Clarity rating: 5

It is simple to read and is easily accessible. It meets the needs of a young college student.

Consistency rating: 5

Yes, the textbook is internally consistent in terms of terminology and framework.

Modularity rating: 5

It is well-subdivided and easy to access. Good use of subheadlines. It is a smooth read, and easy to find information through headers, subheads, headlines, and blocks of type.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

Everything is presented in a clear and concise manner.

Interface rating: 5

This textbook comes in a wide variety of formats and can be accessed by almost everyone through one method or another. It was super easy to access.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

The text is clean and clear of errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

I don't think this book is as inclusive as the typical book written today. This is simply because times have changed, and the need for inclusive and culturally sensitive books has escalated exponentially from the time this book was written. It needs more culturally relevant examples. I wouldn't say that anything in the book is culturally insensitive or offensive, but it isn't as diversified as it needs to be.

This is an excellent book for an introduction to mass communication or an introduction to media and society course. It covers all the basics that I would expect to cover. It just needs some updating which can be done through supplementary materials.

Reviewed by Ryan Stoldt, Assistant Professor, Drake University on 12/15/22

Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication thoughtfully walks readers through popular media and connects these media to questions about culture as a way of life. The book undoubtedly is comprehensive in its scope of... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication thoughtfully walks readers through popular media and connects these media to questions about culture as a way of life. The book undoubtedly is comprehensive in its scope of American media but largely fails to consider how media and culture relate in more global settings. The book occasionally references conversations about global media, such as the differences between globalization and cultural imperialism approaches, but is limited in its engagement. As media have become more transnational their reach and scope (due to technological access, business models, and more), the American focus makes the text feel limited in its ability to explain the relationship between media and culture more broadly.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The text is accurate although it has limited engagement in some of the topics it explores. As such, this would be a good introductory text but would need to be paired with additional resources to dive into many topics in the book with both accuracy and nuance.

Many of the sections of the book are relevant, as the book often contextualizes media through a historical lens. However, the more current sections of the book (such as the section on the Internet and social media) have become outdated quickly. These, once again, would be useful starting places for classroom conversation about the topic but would need to be paired with more current readings to hold a deeper conversation about social media and society today.

Some terms could be further explained, but the text is overall well written and easy to understand.

Consistency rating: 4

The book pulls from multiple approaches to researching and discussing media and culture. The introductory chapter draws more heavily from critical media studies in its conceptualizations of the relationship between media and culture. The media effects chapters draw more heavily from more social scientific approaches to studying media. The author does a nice job weaving these approaches into a consistent conversation about media, but different approaches to studying media could be more forwardly discussed within the text.

The author has made the text extremely easy to use modularly. Chapters are self-contained, and readers could easily select sections of the book to read without losing clarity.

The book employs consistent organization across the subjects discussed. Each chapter follows a similar organizational structure as well.

Interface rating: 4

Because the text is so modular, the text does not flow easily when read on the publisher's website. Yet, downloading the text also raises some issues because of strange formatting around images.

I have not seen any grammatical errors.

As stated previously, the book is extremely biased in its international representation, primarily promoting Americans' engagements with media. The book could go further in being more representative of different American cultures, but it is far from culturally insensitive.

Understanding Media and Culture would be an extremely useful introductory text for a class focusing on American media and society. A more global perspective would require significant engagement with other texts, however.

Reviewed by David Fontenot, Assistant Professor, Metropolitan State University of Denver on 11/15/22

The text comprehensively covers forms of media used for mass communication and includes issues towards emerging forms of mass communication. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

The text comprehensively covers forms of media used for mass communication and includes issues towards emerging forms of mass communication.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

In some places there is nuance missing, where I feel brief elaboration would yield significantly clearer comprehension without bias or misleading associations about media's influence on behavior.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

Still relevant and up-to-date with a valuable emphasis on issues related to internet mass media.

Very readable, with little jargon. Definitions are presented clearly and used in subsequent discussions.

Internal consistency is strong within the chapters.

Modularity rating: 4

The majority of chapters can be taken independently, with only a few larger structural pieces that lay the foundation for other sections.

The book takes an historical approach to media, which lends itself to a logical progression of topics. I might suggest, however, that for most students the material that is most accessible to their daily lives comes last with such an approach.

Interface rating: 3

The downloaded file has some very awkward spots where images seem clipped or on separate pages than the content that reference them. I only viewed this textbook in the online downloaded PDF format.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

No grammatical errors have jumped out at me in sections read so far.

There are quite a few opportunities to include discissions of media and culture that don't seem so anglo-centric but they are passed up.

I am using this textbook as the basis for an interdisciplinary class on media and the criminal justice system, and in that regard I think it will serve very well for an introductory level textbook. It provides a concrete set of core ideas that I can build off of by creating tailored content to my students' needs.

Reviewed by Elizabeth Johnson-Young, Assistant Professor, University of Mary Washington on 7/1/22

Appropriately comprehensive. Having some more up-to-date citations, particularly in the media effects theories criticisms section (with some more explanations) would be beneficial--perhaps supplementing with some ways these have been updated would... read more

Appropriately comprehensive. Having some more up-to-date citations, particularly in the media effects theories criticisms section (with some more explanations) would be beneficial--perhaps supplementing with some ways these have been updated would help a class.

Overall, content is clear and accurate.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

Mass media may always need updating, but this is appropriate and up-to-date.

Clarity rating: 4

Is an accessible text in terms of clarity and provides necessary definitions throughout in order to provide the reader with an understanding of the terminologies.

Text introduces terms and frameworks and uses them consistently throughout.

Small, easy to read blocks of text--could easily be used in a variety of courses and be reorganized for a particular course.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

Topics presented clearly and in an order that makes sense.

Easy to read through and images clear and displaying readily. It would help if there was a way to move forward without having to click on the table of contents, particularly in the online format.

No errors that stick out.

While appropriately comprehensive for an intro text, more examples and/or acknowledgment of who has been left out and those impacts could be helpful in the social values or culture discussions.

Overall, this is a great text and one that could be used in full for a course or in sections to supplement other communication/media studies courses!

Reviewed by David Baird, Professor of Communication, Anderson University on 4/18/22

I don’t know if any intro textbook can cover “all areas and ideas,” but this text was adequate to the task—basically on par with any other textbook in this space. I didn’t see a glossary in the chapters or an index at the back of the book. On the... read more

I don’t know if any intro textbook can cover “all areas and ideas,” but this text was adequate to the task—basically on par with any other textbook in this space. I didn’t see a glossary in the chapters or an index at the back of the book. On the other hand, the text is searchable, so the lack of an index is not a major problem as far as I’m concerned.

When the text was published, it would have been considered “accurate.” The content was competently conceptualized, well written and reflective of the standard approach to this kind of material. I didn’t notice any egregious errors of content aside from the fact that the book was published some years ago is no longer very current.

The primary weakness of the book is that it was published more than a decade ago and hasn’t been updated for a while. The text is relevant to the focus of the course itself, but the examples and illustrations are dated. For example, the book uses a graphic from the presidential election of 2008 in a treatment of politics, and “Who Wants to be a Millionaire?” is an example of current television programming.

I conducted a text search that tabulated the number of references to the following years, and these were the results: 2010: 588 2011: 49 2012: 8 2013: 4 2014: 0 2015: 2 2016: 0 2017: 0 2018: 1 2019: 1 2020: 0 2021: 1 2022: 1

The references to the more-recent years tended to crop up in forward-looking statements such as this one: “With e-book sales expected to triple by 2015, it’s hard to say what such a quickly growing industry will look like in the future.”

The second part of the question referred to the implementation of updates. I doubt that any updates are planned.

The text is well written and meets the usual standards for editorial quality.

The framework and "voice" are internally consistent.

The chapter structure provides the most obvious division of the text into accessible units. Each chapter also has well-defined subsections. Here’s an example from one chapter, with page numbers removed:

• Chapter 13: Economics of Mass Media

Economics of Mass Media Characteristics of Media Industries The Internet’s Effects on Media Economies Digital Divide in a Global Economy Information Economy Globalization of Media Cultural Imperialism

This aspect of the text makes sense and is largely consistent with similar textbooks in this area.

The text is available in these formats: online, ebook, ODF, PDF and XML. I downloaded the PDF for purposes of my review. The formatting was clean and easy to work with. I didn’t notice any problems that made access challenging.

I can’t say with certainty that a grammatical error or typo can’t be found in the textbook, but as I noted above, the writing is strong. I’ve seen much worse.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

The text seems to be around a dozen years old now, so it doesn’t include discussion of some of the high-profile perspectives that have surfaced in more recent years related to race, ethnicity, sexuality, etc. However, the book does discuss examples of media issues “inclusive of races, ethnicities, and backgrounds,” and this material is presented with sensitivity and respect.

This is a reasonably good resource for basic, intro-level definitions and explanations of some of the major concepts, issues and theories in the “Mass Communication” or “Media and Society” course, including:

• functions of the media • gatekeeping • media literacy • media effects • propaganda • agenda setting • uses and gratifications

The textbook also offers the standard chapters on the various media—books, newspapers, magazines, radio, television, etc. These chapters contextualize the various media with standard accounts of their historical development. My feeling is that much of the historical background presented in this book is more or less interchangeable with the material in newer textbooks.

However, the media industries have changed dramatically since the textbook was written, so all of the last decade’s innovations, developments and controversies are entirely missing. Of course, even a “new” textbook is going to be somewhat dated upon publication because of the book’s production timeline and the way that things change so quickly in the media industries—but a book published in 2021 or 2022 would be far more up-to-date than the book under review here.

The bottom line for me is that if one of an instructor’s highest priorities is to provide a free or low-cost textbook for students, this book could work with respect to the historical material—but it would have to be supplemented with carefully selected material from other sources such as trade publications, industry blogs and news organizations.

Reviewed by Kevin Curran, Clinical Assistant Professor, Loyola Marymount University on 3/21/22

This is one of the most comprehensive media studies books I’ve read. It attacks each media platform separately and with sufficient depth. That is followed by economics, ethics, government/law, and future predictions. Takeaways attend of each... read more

This is one of the most comprehensive media studies books I’ve read. It attacks each media platform separately and with sufficient depth. That is followed by economics, ethics, government/law, and future predictions.

Takeaways attend of each section will aid comprehension. Exercises at end of sections could be jumping off point for discussions or assignments. Chapters end with review and critical thinking connections plus career guidance.

The Chapter 2 rundown on both sides of media theories and summary of research methods was well-done.

Everything about this tome is good, except for its dating.

The book is well-researched and provides valuable, although often dated, information. The author used a variety of sources, effective illustrations, and applicable examples to support the points in the book.

It can be very hard to keep up with constant changes in the mass media industry. This book was reissued in 2016, but it has not been revised since the original copyright in 2010. The dated references start on page 2 when it speaks of Ringling Brothers and Barnum & Bailey as existing, when that circus ceased in 2017. The medium-by-medium exploration is well done, although the passage of time affects the end of each chapter.

Adoption of the book as-is will mean developing an update lesson for each chapter. For example, while smartphones are mentioned, they had not achieved saturation status at the time this volume was published.

The points are presented clearly. References with hyperlinks are available at the end of each section for those who still have questions or want more information. However, it is possible that because of the age of the book, some of those links may no longer be available.

The media chapters each follow a similar pattern in writing and order.

This will break up easily. The first chapter gives a good taste of what is to come. The book provides a comprehensive look at the history and influence of each medium individually. The last group of chapters necessarily contains many flashbacks to the medium sections.

It follows a logical pattern from the introduction to the individual medium chapters to the “big picture” chapters. That does require signposting between the two sets of chapters that some might find frustrating.

Interface rating: 2

The book is a standard PDF with links. The scan could have been better, as there is a lot of white space and illustrations are inconsistently sized. Users hoping for lots of interactivity are going to be disappointed.

The book is well edited. It is hard to find errors in writing mechanics.

The authors took a broad view of the mass media world. The music chapter was very well done.

Reviewed by Lisa Bradshaw, Affiliate Faculty, Metropolitan State University of Denver on 11/26/21

This textbook, downloaded as a 695-page PDF, contains 16 chapters and covers a variety of media formats, how they evolved, and how they are created and used, as well as issues related to media impact on society and culture. It is quite... read more

This textbook, downloaded as a 695-page PDF, contains 16 chapters and covers a variety of media formats, how they evolved, and how they are created and used, as well as issues related to media impact on society and culture. It is quite comprehensive in its coverage of media for the time of its writing (copyright year 2016, “adapted from a work originally produced in 2010”).

Content seems accurate for its time, but as technology and media have evolved, it omits current references and examples that did not exist when it was written. There does not seem to be bias and a wide variety of cultural references are used.

As mentioned previously, this textbook’s copyright year was 2016, and it was adapted from a 2010 work. It’s not clear how much of the content was updated between 2010 and 2016, but based on the dates in citations and references, the last update appears to have been in 2011. Even if it had been updated for the year 2016, much of the information is still out-of-date.

There is really no way to write a textbook about media that would not be at least partially out of date in a short time. This text’s background and history of the evolution of the various media forms it covers is still accurate, but there is much about the media landscape that has changed since 2010–2016.

Due to the textbook’s age, references to media platforms and formats such as MySpace, Napster, and CDs seem outdated for today’s media market. The textbook refers to previous political figures, and its omission of more recent ones (who were not on the political landscape at the time of writing) makes it seem out-of-date. To adapt it for modern times, these references need to be updated with fresh examples.

The writing level is relatively high. A spot check of the readability level of several passages of text returned scores of difficult to read, and reading level 11-12 grade to college level. The author does a good job of explaining technical terminology and how different media work. If adapting the text for students with a lower level of reading, some of the terminology might need to be revised or explained more thoroughly.

The text is consistent in its chapter structure and writing style. The order of topics makes sense in that chapters are mostly structured by media type, with beginning and end sections to introduce each respective media type in general, and conclude with a look to the future.

If adapting and keeping the same structure (intro to media in general, coverage of different media types in their own chapters, and main issues related to media), this 695-page textbook could be condensed by eliminating some of the detail in each chapter. There are a number of self-referential sentences that might need to be removed. If adapting the text to a more specific subject, the instructor would need to go through the text and pick out specific points relevant to that subject.

Each chapter introduces the respective media type and concludes with a summary that reflects on the future of that type and how it might evolve further. The chapters overall follow the same structure for consistency: overview, history, the media in popular culture, current trends, and potential influence of new technologies, with end-of-chapter Key Takeaways, Exercises, Assessment, Critical Thinking Questions, Career Connection, and References.

The text is well written and logically structured and sequenced. Despite its length, it’s easy to find information, as it’s ordered by chapters that address each media type and major issues related to media, and each chapter has a parallel structure with the others, all following mostly the same pattern.

I did not notice grammatical errors. The text is clearly and accurately written, and appears to have been thoroughly copyedited and proofread.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

I did not notice cultural insensitivity in the text. A wide variety of cultural references are used. Examples from around the world and from many different cultures are included, including discussions of digital divide and inequity issues related to media access in disadvantaged populations.

Reviewed by Adria Goldman, Assistant Professor of Communication, University of Mary Washington on 7/11/21

The text nicely breaks down different forms of mass communication. The text provides some historical background and discussion of theory to provide context for discussing mass media, which is all useful in helping students understand media and... read more

The text nicely breaks down different forms of mass communication. The text provides some historical background and discussion of theory to provide context for discussing mass media, which is all useful in helping students understand media and communication. There is not much discussion about the cultural significance of media. If using the text in a course, supplemental readings on the significance of culture and diversity, the importance of media representation, and media influence on an individual level (ex: impact on identity), would be especially helpful for a course exploring media and culture. The text does not feature a glossary or index, however the bolding of key concepts throughout the text is helpful in defining key terms.

The content is error-free. More discussion on culture would provide a more accurate account of mass communication and its significance.

The subject is very relevant and the book features topics important for a discussion on mass communication. As mentioned in other parts of this review, there is not much diversity featured throughout the text, which can impact the relevancy of the material to audiences and impacts the relevancy of the content in discussions on mass media and society. Updates would be straightforward to implement.

The text is clear and easy to follow.

The text is consistent in its use of terms and its framework. Since the book title mentions a focus on culture, an interesting add-on would be to have each section (on a specific type of mass communication) feature a discussion of culture and its significance.

The text's modularity is useful. It looks like it would be easy for students to follow and for instructors to re-structure in order to fit their course design.

The information follows a logical order, beginning with a discussion on the significance of mass communication and then going into each type.

No issues with interface noted.

No glaring grammatical issues noted.

Cultural Relevance rating: 2

There is not much focus on the significance of culture. More discussion on the role of race, class, sex, gender, religion and other elements of identity would be helpful in exploring mass communication--past, present, and potential for the future. The text could also use an update in images and examples to include diverse representation and to further communicate the role of culture, diversity, and representation in communication and mass media.

The book provides an understanding of mass communication that would be easy for undergraduate college students to follow. The optional activities would also spark interesting discussion and give students the opportunity to apply concepts. Students using the text would benefit from (1) more discussion on culture's significance in media and communication and (2) more diversity in the images and examples used.

Reviewed by Brandon Galm, Instructor in English/Speech, Cloud County Community College on 5/4/21

One of the strong suits of this particular resource is its comprehensiveness, with topics ranging from specific mass comm mediums to the intersections/impacts of media on culture, politics, and ethics. There's enough here to easily cover a full... read more

One of the strong suits of this particular resource is its comprehensiveness, with topics ranging from specific mass comm mediums to the intersections/impacts of media on culture, politics, and ethics. There's enough here to easily cover a full semester's worth of material and then some.

The content is well-sourced throughout with a list of references at the end of each chapter. The hyperlinks on the references page all seem functional still. Hyperlinks within the chapters themselves--either sending the reader to the reference list or to the articles themselves--would be helpful.

As of this review writing, some of the content is relatively up-to-date. However, with a quickly changing landscape in mass communications and media, certain chapters are becoming out-of-date more quickly than others. The information discussed is more current than most of the information cited. The structure of the book lends itself to easy updating as technologies and culture shift, but whether or not those updates will take place seems unclear with the most recent edition being 5 years old at this point.

All information is presented in a way that is very clear with explanations and examples when further clarification is needed.

For a book covering as many different topics as it does, the overall structure and framework of this textbook is great. Chapter formats stay consistent with clearly stated Objectives at the start and Key Takeaways at the end. Visual examples are provided throughout, and each chapter also includes various questions for students to respond to.

Chapters are broken down into smaller sub-chapters, each with their own sub-headings hyperlinked in the Table of Contents. Each sub-chapter also includes the above-mentioned Objects, Key Takeaways, and questions for students. Chapters and/or sub-chapters could easily be assigned in an order that fits any syllabus schedule and are in no way required to be read in order from Chapter 1 to Chapter 16.

I would like to have seen the book laid out a bit differently, but this is a minor concern because of the overall flexibility of assigning the chapters. The book starts with broad discussions about media and culture, then shifts into specific forms of media (books, games, tv, etc.), then returns to more broad implications of media and culture. Personally, I'd like to see all of those chapters grouped together--with all of the media and culture chapters in one section, and all of the specific forms chapters in another. Again, this is a minor issue because of the overall flexibility of the book.

As mentioned above, hyperlinks--including in the Table of Contents and references--are all functional. I would have liked to have hyperlinks for the references in the text itself, either as a part of the citation or with a hyperlinked superscript number, rather than just in the references page. All images are easily readable and the text itself is easy to read overall.

No grammatical errors that immediately jumped out. Overall seems clear and well-written.

The text provides lots of examples, though most do come from US media. The sections dealing with the intersections between media and culture are similarly US-centric.

Overall, a solid introductory textbook that covers a wide range of topics relevant to mass communications, media, and culture. The text is bordering on out-of-date at this point, but could easily be updated on a chapter-by-chapter basis should the publisher/author wish to do so.

Reviewed by Dong Han, Associate Professor, Southern Illinois University Carbondale on 3/30/21

It covers all important areas and topics regarding media, culture, and society. Different media forms and technologies from printing media to social media all have their own chapters, and academic inquiries like media effects, media economics,... read more

It covers all important areas and topics regarding media, culture, and society. Different media forms and technologies from printing media to social media all have their own chapters, and academic inquiries like media effects, media economics, and media and government also receive due attention. This textbook will meet the expectation of students of all backgrounds while introducing them to theoretical concerns of the research community. Its chapter layout is properly balanced between comprehensiveness and clarity.

Its content is accurate and unbiased. The textbook is written with ample research support to ensure accuracy and credibility. References at the end of each chapter allow readers to track sources of information and to locate further readings.

It is up-to-date in that the major cultural and media issues it identifies remain highly relevant in today’s world. However, since it was first produced in 2010, some more recent occurrences are not part of the discussion. This is not meant to be a criticism but a reminder that an instructor may want to supplement with more recent materials.

It is written with clear, straight-forward language well-suited an introductory textbook. The chapter layout, as mentioned earlier, is easy to access.

The book is consistent in terms of terminologies and its historical approach to media growth and transformation.

Each chapter is divided in sections, and sections in turn have various reading modules with different themes. For undergraduates taking an introductory course, this textbook will work well.

The topics are presented in an easy-to-access fashion. The textbook starts with a general overview of media and culture and a persistent scholarly concern with the media: media effects. Then it moves through different media in alignment with the chronological order of their appearance in history. The last few chapters focus on important but non-technology-specific topics including advertising and media regulations. For an introductory textbook, it is very accessible to the general student body.

The textbook does not have significant interface issues. Images, charts, and figures all fit well with the text.

There are no grammatical errors.

The textbook has a number of examples of minority cultures and ethnicities. It does not, however, have ample discussions on media and culture phenomena outside of the US, except those that have had significant impact on American culture (e.g., Beatlemania).

All considered, this is a very good textbook to be used in an introductory course. It is comprehensive, easy-to-read, and can help prepare students for future in-depth discussions on media, culture, and society.

Reviewed by Elizabeth Johnson-Young, Assistant Professor, University of Mary Washington on 7/6/20

Comprehensive text regarding mass communication, culture, and effects. The historical perspectives are helpful for understanding, particularly as it goes on to focus in on convergence throughout the text. A more complete glossary or index would be... read more

Comprehensive text regarding mass communication, culture, and effects. The historical perspectives are helpful for understanding, particularly as it goes on to focus in on convergence throughout the text. A more complete glossary or index would be helpful for terms for an introduction text, but key terms are highlighted and defined throughout. Extra examples would help throughout, particularly with theories and research methods.

Accurate, up to date information on history, concepts, and theories.

The information focuses on important historical moments, theories, cultural impacts, and moves to the present with ideas and examples that will likely remain relevant for quite some time.

Clear, easy to read text that would benefit introductory students of mass comm.

Introduces terms and concepts and then utilizes them throughout.

The separation of the larger text into smaller sections is incredibly helpful and makes reading and assignments of readings easy, leading also to the ability to separate into sections that would be appropriate for any course organization.

Organization is logical and easy to follow. Importantly, because of the modularity, it would also be easy to re-organize for one's course.

Navigation works, images clear and detailed.

No glaring grammatical errors.

The examples and images demonstrate diversity in race and also provides examples outside of the United States, which is important. There is some diversity in terms of gender and sexual diversity, more of which would be beneficial and various sections would be appropriate for that inclusion.

This is an excellent and comprehensive text for intro students that includes important historical moments and thorough coverage of main concepts and theories in the field, with a diverse set of moments and examples.

Reviewed by Emily Werschay, Communication Studies Instructor, Minnesota State University System on 10/22/19

Overall, this textbook is quite comprehensive in covering various channels of media, particularly from a historical perspective, and would work well for an introductory course. It features the same focused areas of content that are in my current... read more

Overall, this textbook is quite comprehensive in covering various channels of media, particularly from a historical perspective, and would work well for an introductory course. It features the same focused areas of content that are in my current publisher textbook and incorporates elements of culture as well. It does not provide a glossary or index, which would be helpful, but key terms are in bold.

The text contains accurate research with clearly-cited references that give credibility to the content.

The historical content is well-crafted. The text provides a clear and informative introduction to the history of media and does well with the rise of newspapers, television, and movies. You will not, however, find a reference more recent than 2010, which means any advancements in media and technology in the past decade are not covered. An instructor using this text would have to supplement content on current types of media such as streaming television and music services and the current debate of social media shifting toward news publishing in terms of content delivery. While the text includes culture and political climate of the past, much would need to be supplemented for the last ten years.

The text is professional and well-written. It is well-suited to a college reading level.

The chapter format, writing style, and overall presentation of information are consistent throughout the text. I appreciate the defined learning outcomes and key takeaways pulled out in each chapter.

The text is divided into clear chapters focusing on one medium at a time, much like other publisher texts for mass communication. For example, books, newspapers, magazines, music, radio, movies, and television each get their own chapter. Each chapter begins with clearly defined learning outcomes, and features key takeaways, exercises, assessments, and critical thinking questions at the end, as well as a section on career connections.

The topics are presented in chronological order from the history of mass communication, through the various mediums, and finally to the future of mass communication (though most will find the content particularly about recent and current trends will need to be supplemented as it is outdated).

I didn't find any problems with the interface as it is a standard text that can be viewed as a PDF, but an index would really help navigation. I will say that it's not particularly user-friendly, so I may try integrating the online format chapter-by-chapter into D2L so that I can break it up by modules and add links to make it more interactive with supplemental resources.

Professional, well-written text with no errors.

I don't believe readers will find any of the text culturally insensitive or offensive. The text is focused on U.S. media, however, so some supplemental content may be needed.

This textbook is very comprehensive and will work well for an introductory course. It covers the same focus areas as my publisher text, so I feel comfortable switching to this textbook for my Introduction to Mass Communication course with the awareness that it does not cover the past decade. I will need to provide supplemental information to update examples and cover current topics, but that is generally accepted in this particular field as it is continually changing with advancements in technology.

Reviewed by Bill Bettler, Professor, Hanover College on 3/8/19

This text is comprehensive on several levels. Theoretically, this text echoes the framework employed by Pavlik and McIntosh, which displays sensitivity to convergence. However, this text understands convergence on multiple levels, not just the... read more

This text is comprehensive on several levels. Theoretically, this text echoes the framework employed by Pavlik and McIntosh, which displays sensitivity to convergence. However, this text understands convergence on multiple levels, not just the three employed by P and M. This text is well-researched, with ample citations on a whole host of media topics. Each chapter has multiple ways that it tests the reader, with "Key Takeaways," "Learning Objectives," etc. And finally, the text features chapters on the history and development of key historical media, as well as key emerging media.

Some students find Pavlik and McIntosh a bit too transparent in their Marxist assumptions. While this text certainly introduces Marx-based theories about media, it seems to do a better job of contextualizing them among several other competing perspectives.

Some of the popular culture texts felt a bit dated--for example, opening the "Music" chapter (Chapter 6) with an extended case study about Colbie Caillat. Unfortunately, this is the nature of mass media studies--as soon as books come into print, they are out of date. But I have a hard time imagining my mass communication students being inspired and engaged by a Colbie Caillat case study. I'm not sure what the alternative is; but it seemed worth mentioning. Other examples are much more effective and successful. The historical examples from different types of media are well-chosen, thoroughly explained, and insightful. Also, this text discusses emerging media more successfully than any other texts I have used.

The style of this text is straightforward and scholarly. It seems to strike an effective balance between accessibility and specialized language. For example, key concepts such as "gatekeeper" and "agenda setting theory" are introduced early and applied in several places throughout the text.

Like Pavlik and McIntosh, this text uses the concept of "convergence" to explain several key phenomena in mass communication. Unlike P and M, this text understands "convergence" on more than three levels. Like P and M, this concept becomes the "glue" that holds the various topics and levels of analysis together. As mentioned before, this text is especially effective in that it introduces foundational concepts early on and applies them consistently across succeeding chapters.

On one hand, this text rates highly in "modularity," because I could imagine myself breaking its chapters apart and re-arranging them in a different order than they are presented here. This is in no way meant as a criticism. I routinely have to assign chapters in more conventional texts in a different order. The fact that the technology involved in delivering this text makes it easier to re-arrange is one of its best selling points. The reason I scored this as a "4" is because some of the chapters are quite dense, in terms of volume (not in terms of difficulty). Therefore, I could see students perhaps losing focus to some degree. I might combat this by making further breakdowns and re-arrangements within chapters. This is not a fatal flaw--but it does seem like a practical challenge of using this text.

As mentioned above, some of the chapters are quite dense, in terms of volume. Chapter One is such a chapter, for example. I could easily see Chapter One comprising two or three chapters in another textbook. Consequently, there is a likelihood that students would need some guidance as they read such a dense chapter; and they would likely benefit from cutting the chapter down into smaller, more easily digestible samples. On the other hand, the Key Takeaways, and Learning Objectives, will counteract this tendency for students to be overwhelmed or confused. They are quite helpful, as are the summarizing sections at the ends of each chapter.

I did not encounter any problems with interface. In fact, the illustrations, figures, charts, photographs, etc. are a real strength of this text. They are better than any other text I have seen at creating "symbolic worlds" from different forms of media.

The writing style is professional and free of errors.

This is a genuine concern for mass media texts. Media content is a direct reflection of culture, and today's culture is characterized by a high level of divisiveness. I did not detect any examples or samples that were outwardly offensive or especially controversial. But, perhaps, there is a slight bias toward "the status quo" in the case studies and examples--meaning that many (but certainly not all) of them seem to be "Anglo," Caucasian artists. Looking at the "Music" chapter, for example, some popular culture critics (and students) might lament that Taylor Swift is an exemplar. While this choice is undeniable in terms of the popularity of her recordings and concerts, some might hope for examples that represent stylistic originality, genre-transcending, and progressive ideas (Bruno Mars, Kendrick Lamar, Jay-Z, Beyoncé, Lady Gaga, etc.).

I have been using the same text for seven years (Pavlik and McIntosh). I have decided to adopt Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication. It is simply more thorough in its sweep of history and contextualization of culture, more multi-layered in its theoretical perspectives, and more rich in its examples and insights. This books is recommendable not just as an open source text, but as it compares to any conventional text. Students will benefit greatly from reading this text.

Reviewed by Hsin-Yen Yang, Associate Professor, Fort Hays State University on 11/29/18

Understanding Media and Culture: an Introduction to Mass Communication covers all the important topics in mass communication and media history. It also provides case studies, Key Takeaways, Exercises, End-of-Chapter Assessment, Critical Thinking... read more

Understanding Media and Culture: an Introduction to Mass Communication covers all the important topics in mass communication and media history. It also provides case studies, Key Takeaways, Exercises, End-of-Chapter Assessment, Critical Thinking Questions, and Career Connections in every chapter. Although this book does not provide a glossary, the comprehensiveness of the book still makes it a great textbook choice.

While the information was accurate and the discussions on key issues were supported by good references, it was odd to see the questionable formatting and quality of the first reference on page 3: Barnum, P. T.” Answers.com, http://www.answers.com/topic/p-t-barnum. --> First of all, Answers.com is not considered as a credible source by many scholars and the other half of the quotation marks was missing.

The major weakness of this book is the fact that many of the references were outdated. For example, on page 479, the statistics in the section, "Information Access Like Never Before," the cited reports were from 2002 and 2004. When discussing topics such as Net Neutrality, digital service providers, new policies and technologies, the urgency for updated information becomes evident. However, as the author correctly pointed out: "Although different forms of mass media rise and fall in popularity, it is worth noting that despite significant cultural and technological changes, none of the media discussed throughout this text has fallen out of use completely."

The writing in this book is very clear and easy to understand. The colored images, figures and tables should be very helpful in terms of student comprehension and engagement.

The framework and terminology are consistent throughout the book.

Each chapter can be assigned to students as a stand-along reading, and can be used to realign with other subunits should an instructor decide to compile reading within this book or from different sources.

Each chapter follows similar flow/ format: the history, evolution, economics, case studies and social impact of a mass medium, followed by Key Takeaways, Exercises, End-of-Chapter Assessment, Critical Thinking Questions, Career Connections and References. It was easy to navigate the topics and sections in this book.

I downloaded the book as a PDF and had no problem to search or navigate within the file. The book can also be viewed online or in a Kindle reader.

I spotted a few minor formatting or punctuation issues such as the missing quotation marks stated earlier, but no glaring errors as far as I know.

While it mainly focuses on American media and culture, this book contains statistics and cases from many countries (e.g. Figure 11.7), provides many critical thinking exercises and is sensitive towards diverse cultures and backgrounds.

Overall, this is a high-quality textbook and it contains almost all the key issues in today's media studies in spite of the somewhat outdated data and statistics. The strengths of this book are: Excellent historical examples, critical analysis and reflections, clearly defined key issues and in-depth discussions. Even when using the most recent edition of textbooks, I always research for updates and recent cases. This open resource textbook makes an outstanding alternative to those high-priced textbooks.

Reviewed by Hayden Coombs, Assistant Professor, Southern Utah University on 8/2/18

Perhaps the best quality of this text, Understanding Media and Culture is a very comprehensive textbook. I have used this text in my Mass Media & Communication course for two years now. Each chapter focuses on a different type of medium,... read more

Perhaps the best quality of this text, Understanding Media and Culture is a very comprehensive textbook. I have used this text in my Mass Media & Communication course for two years now. Each chapter focuses on a different type of medium, starting with the earliest books and working its way up to the latest technological advancements in mass media. Other beneficial topics include: Media & Culture, Media Effects, Economics of Mass Media, Media Ethics, Media and Government, and the Future of Mass Media. These topics provide a solid base for a 100 or 200-level introductory communication course. They also were written in a way that each chapter provided sufficient material for a week's worth of discussion.

This book was written in a very unbiased manner. It is completely factual, and not much room is left for subjective interpretation. The discussion questions allowed multiple themes and schools of thought to be explored by the students. Because this book is intended for an introductory course, the information is fairly basic and widely-accepted.

My biggest issue with this title was that the latter chapters were not written with the same quality as the first ten or so chapters. However, that was the thought I had after the first semester I used this text. Since then, multiple updates have been written and the entire text is now written in the same high-quality throughout. Because this title is being constantly updated by its authors and publishers, the text is never obsolete.

Terminology is clearly defined, and students have little trouble finding definitions in the glossary. Because this text is written for an introductory course, there are not many intense or confusing concepts for students to understand.

Consistency rating: 3

As previously mentioned, the biggest struggle I've had with this text is the fact that the latter third was not written to the same quality of the first ten chapters. However, this issue seems to have been remedied in the latest edition of this text.

The modularity was the biggest selling point for me with this text. Our semester runs 15 weeks, the same number of chapters in this text. I was able to easily focus our classroom discussions and assignments on the chapter theme each week. The text also provides plenty of material for two or three discussions.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

The text starts by introducing some basic concepts like culture and effects. From there, it focuses on ten different types of media (books, newspaper, radio, television, etc.). The concluding three chapters go back to concepts such ethics and the future of mass media. While not a major issue, there was a major difference in the tone of the two types of chapters.

This text is available in .pdf, kindle, .epub, and .mobi formats, as well as in browser. While nothing fancy or groundbreaking in terms of usability, it is simple and all of my students were able to download the format that best suited their individual needs.

The text contained no grammatical errors that I noticed in the latest edition, a tremendous improvement from the first semester I used this text.

I did not find the content to be culturally insensitive or offensive in any way. It used a variety of examples from the world's history, but I found none of them to be inherently offensive. The subject matter and the fact that this is an introductory text probably assist with the cultural relevance because it is easy to understand, but the themes rarely get into "deep" discussion.

This is a fantastic text. Comparing it to other texts for my COMM 2200 Mass Media & Society text, this textbook was not only easier for my students to understand, but it was written and compiled in a way that made teaching the material enjoyable and easy. I have recommended this book to the other instructors of this course because it allows our students to save money without sacrificing anything in terms of content or learning.

Reviewed by Heather Lubay, Adjunct Faculty, Portland Community College on 8/2/18

Overall the book is comprehensive, covering everything from books to radio to electronic media & social media. Each topic has a descent amount of information on both the history and evolution, as well as where we are today (though, as tends to... read more

Overall the book is comprehensive, covering everything from books to radio to electronic media & social media. Each topic has a descent amount of information on both the history and evolution, as well as where we are today (though, as tends to be the nature of the industry, the “today” piece gets outdated quickly. However, the text covers the topics that most other texts of this subject cover as well. I would have liked to have seen just a bit more depth and analysis, instead of the broad, surface-level coverage.

The text is fairly accurate, though, with the rapid rate of change, it’s difficult to be accurate shortly after publication. Using sites such as MySpace as an example, or only looking at movies put out through about 2007, impacts the accuracy as society has changed and moved on. Students in 2018 are given more of a historical perspective from when they were kids more so than having a representation of what media means in today’s world.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 2

This is a hard one because the historical information stands the test of time, but many of the examples fall short for today’s students. The Social Media chapter still references MySpace and Friendster as current platforms and only goes as far as FaceBook & Twitter. The author makes it a point to clarify when the book what published, which helps, but, again, it’ll be hard for a current student to see past that when they’ve grown up with the platform being discussed as “new” and have moved on.

The book is fairly fast-paced and easy enough to follow for lower level or beginner students. Examples are easy to follow and the key takeaway boxes and exercises help further basic understanding.

The chapters are fairly consistent, covering the basic history, evolution, and influence/impact.

The text can easily be used as formatted, or broken up into sections and moved around.

The organization is fairly straightforward. Earlier forms of mass communication are covered first, moving on to newer forms. Once students have a basic understanding of each form, they can then move on to topics like ethics, government, and economics, which need that basic understanding to fully grasp the larger concepts.

The book is easy to navigate with had no issues viewing the photos or charts.

The book is well written and free of any gratuitous errors.

The book does a good job of focusing on US media and society. It uses pretty typical examples, though it could incorporate more relevant examples to today’s students. Some case studies reference minority groups, but it would have been nice to see even more examples featuring minority groups. Also, Using YouTube as a “new” viewing outlet and discussing “The war between satellite and cable television” and DirectTV versus Dish makes the cultural relevance more towards older generations than younger ones.

Overall the book does a great job with the history of mass communication and society. It would work for any lower level course. However, the examples are fairly out of date and the instructor would have to present more recent and relevant examples in class.

Reviewed by Randy (Rachel) Kovacs, Adjunct Associate Professor, City University of New York on 6/19/18

I like the way that the author has broadened the scope of the book to incorporate so many aspects of culture, society, politics and economics that some people would be inclined to distinguish from the mass media, when in reality, all these aspects... read more

I like the way that the author has broadened the scope of the book to incorporate so many aspects of culture, society, politics and economics that some people would be inclined to distinguish from the mass media, when in reality, all these aspects of contemporary life are intertwined with and influenced by media messages. It provides an historical retrospective but also shows how convergence and constantly-evolving technologies have driven the way consumers use the media and the way producers will use those technologies to rivet the attention (and influence the purchasing choices) of today’s consumers. The text incorporates the most salient areas of media’s evolution and influence.

The book appears to be objective and adopts a critical but non-partisan perspective. It presents data, including media laws and policies, accurately, and the cases it cites are well documented. The author provides sufficient references to support the facts he states and the conclusions he draws. Caveat--The media landscape and technologies are constantly evolving, so the book is accurate for its time of publication but needs to be updated to include new developments.

The way that the author integrates the historical perspective with current roles of social media in is a clear indication of its relevance. The dates may change, as may the celebrities, industrialists, spokespersons, and there may be geopolitical and cultural shifts, but the author’s explanation of theories/principles and the cases selected show how mass media power and influence are here to stay. The author advances the salient issues at each juncture and contextualizes so they we can relate them to current events. The book could be updated but is still has relevance/longevity.

The book is written in a language that is accessible to the layman/beginning student of mass media. The cases that are boxed, and key takeaways at the end of each chapter further distill what is already explicated. There are many concrete facts but a minimum of jargon and any terms used are adequately explained.

The framework and the terminology are consistent. There is also a consistent structure in terms of the visual layout and breakdown of each chapter’s sections, which makes the material far more accessible to students. It’s reassuring in a way, because students know where to go in each chapter for clarification of terms and restatement of the major media developments or areas of impact.

The book’s content is broken down within chapters into (pardon the expression) digestible chunks. The way each subsection is organized makes sense. The major sections where media, developments, policies, etc., are first introduced are illustrated by boxed portions and then reiterated clearly at the end of the chapter with small, chunked takeaways and questions that challenge the students to ponder issues more deeply. The modules are distinguished by color, typset, size of font, etc. which is aesthetically appealing.

The organization makes sense and the topics segue smoothly from one area of media focus to another. Also, the way the book opens with an overview of mass media and cultural is a good starting point from which to document specific historical eras in the development of communication and to transition from one era of communication to another within a context of technology, politics, industry and other variables.

: The text does not have any interface issues, as it is easy to navigate, all illustrations, charts, and other visuals are clear and distortion-free. All features of the book are legible and all display features are legible and functional.

The book is grammatically accurate and error-free.

The book represents a range of cultural groups in a sensitive and bias-free way. Its discussions of media with regard to both dominant cultures and various minority cultures is respectful, bias-free, and non-stereotypical. It is culturally relevant and inclusive.

For many years, I have used a textbook that I have regarded as very high quality and comprehensive, but as it has become increasingly expensive and out of reach financially for many of my students, I find it hard to justify asking my struggling students to add another financial burden to them. Why should I when they can use this OER textbook? I am seriously considering using Understanding Media and Culture in future semesters and recommending it to my colleagues.

Reviewed by Stacie Mariette, Mass Communication instructor, Anoka-Ramsey Community College on 5/21/18

This OER is very comprehensive. I used it for an online course as a PDF textbook. While this discipline evolves faster than any other communication area I teach, this book remains solidly grounded in a wide variety of resources and foundational... read more

This OER is very comprehensive. I used it for an online course as a PDF textbook. While this discipline evolves faster than any other communication area I teach, this book remains solidly grounded in a wide variety of resources and foundational theories.

As I use it more often, I find myself wanting to update it only for examples regarding the evolution in technology/platforms and the societal/cultural changes that result – not to change the historical content of what is already there.

I haven't come across any factual errors at all.

The examples in this book are often dated. This is my one very mild criticism of this text and only reflects the nature of the information. As we grow into new media and adapt as a society to those delivery methods, it's only natural. I actually use updating the examples in the textbook as an assignment for students.

Some closer to up-to-date examples that I have added into my teaching of the course and to the materials are:

"Fake news" and social media's role in spreading it, especially in terms of Facebook and the last election

Data mining and algorithm practices

"Listening" devices and digital assistants, like Siri and Alexa

The subculture of podcasts

Business models – both for artists and consumers – of streaming services across all media

The chapter on convergence is short and could be a text all on its own. Information relating to this topic is sprinkled throughout the book, but the concept itself is so important to analyze that I like to think about it on its own. This is an area I will beef up in future semesters for my own students.

Streaming services and online journalism overall are two areas that I have noted to update and reference in nearly every chapter.

The short segments and snippets of information are very helpful and clear for students. It's all very digestible and the vocabulary is at just the right level.

The discussion questions and further reading/information are placed in logical places in each chapter. And this consistency helps the reader understand their prompts and what to do next – and additionally the important topics to take away.

I love how this text can be reordered very easily. Since it's so comprehensive, I actually omit a couple of the chapters (radio and magazines) to take the info at a slower pace and have never struggled with remixing other chapters.

In fact, I plan to blend Chapters 11 and 16 (Social Media and New Technology) for my upcoming semesters and have no doubt the text and materials will allow for this.

I like how the chapters primarily focus on one medium at a time. From there, the structure of evolution, technological advancements, social/cultural implications and then a look at trends and emerging controversies helps to build to exciting and relevant discussions and for students to have the backdrop to bring their own insights.

The interface is reliable and easy-to-use. I deliver it as a PDF within my online classroom software. I have never had issues with students downloading and reading on multiple devices – or even printing and referencing – based on their preferences.

This book is very concise and grammatically crisp. It's clear that the authors of the version I am using valued precision in their language and it helps students to see this resource as high-quality!

Cultural and societal relevance are important in this discipline and it's purposely covered in each and every chapter. However, as I mentioned earlier, the examples are outdated in many cases. So I layer this into class discussions and supplement with further readings and assignments. Some of the topics I add are: Representation in entertainment media, like TV and film, for example how the #MeToo movement gained ground based on the film industry Ways that online gaming culture is permissive of the communication of –isms, like sexism and racism Ways that social media and screen time are impacting attention spans, interpersonal relationships/communication and child development How citizen-sourced video and reporting differs from that of trained journalists and how important the differences are The section on media effects is helpful and thorough. I always include a key assignment on this topic. It's also an area I plan to emphasize even more in the future – particularly the idea of tastemaking and gatekeeping. There are many crossovers to many examples that are more up-to-date than the version of the text I have been using.

I love this book and it is on-par with many others I have reviewed for my Introduction to Mass Communication class.

Reviewed by Stacy Fitzpatrick, Professor, North Hennepin Community College on 5/21/18

The presentation of the historical context of media evolution in the US is clear and reasonably detailed, providing a good foundation for an introductory level course. As other reviewers have mentioned, this text was published in 2010 and is out... read more

The presentation of the historical context of media evolution in the US is clear and reasonably detailed, providing a good foundation for an introductory level course. As other reviewers have mentioned, this text was published in 2010 and is out of date in multiple areas, particularly with respect to media laws and regulation, social media, and newer developments of technology (e.g. preference for streaming television, technological and social advancements in gaming). Beyond needing updates to reflect newer advancements in media, this text would benefit from more attention to global media structures, including how they vary across political systems and how they impact how citizens use media to communicate. Additionally, an index and glossary would be helpful for navigation.

I am basing this on the fact that this was published in 2010. Considering the publication date, the factual content for that particular time frame is presented accurately, clearly cited, and reasonably unbiased. There is perhaps an unintended gender bias in the presentation of some content (e.g. Sister Rosetta Tharpe is absent in the music section, as is Nina Simone), though this could be a result of a broader, societal gender bias. Images, charts, and graphs are used well and clearly explained.

The historical content is fine, but the text is almost 9 years out of date and there is a great deal of content that needs to be updated. Making the necessary updates may take some time since the content is tightly written and there are reflections of the date of publication throughout the examples used, images presented, and media discussed. Using this text in class would require the instructor to provide supplemental content on newer advancements in media.

This text is appropriate for a freshman/sophomore level course and reads well. Important terms are defined and each section includes an overview to set a context and clearly defined learning objectives.

The language, terminology, and organization of the text is consistent throughout. This makes moving between chapters easy since they follow a similar format.

With a few exceptions (chapters 1 and 2), the text lends itself well to using different sections at different points. Where there are self-references, there is typically a hyperlink to the section referenced. This is useful for those reading the text online, but less useful if printed sections of text were used.

Chapters 1 and 2 clearly present a structure that the following chapters follow. The only chapter that seems to really break that flow is Chapter 16, but that is more a result of the text being so out of date than a significant change in structure.

I found the online reading format the easiest to navigate. The Word and PDF versions are somewhat more awkward to navigate without using a search keyboard function.

There were a couple minor typos, but no significant grammatical errors that might impact comprehension. The readability assessment (via MS Word) indicated a reading grade level of 13.1, which is consistent with lower division college coursework.

There is a heavy focus on US media, which is acknowledged early on in the text. More integration of content related to global media would strengthen the text. There should be more examples that integrate multiple forms of diversity, such as gender, ability, age, sexuality, race, and ethnicity. Additionally, without an update, younger students may not understand some of the references. For example, younger students in 2018 don’t know Napster as a file-sharing site since it has rebranded to become a streaming site more similar to Spotify.

It would be great to see an update in the content of this text for 2018 that also incorporates broader perspectives of multiple identities and global perspectives. As is, I would use sections of the text and supplement that content with more current examples and issues. Balancing the cost of textbooks in this field with the quality and recency of the content is an ongoing challenge.

Reviewed by Craig Freeman, Director, Oklahoma State University on 5/21/18

The book covers all of the topics you would expect in an inter/ survey course. read more

The book covers all of the topics you would expect in an inter/ survey course.

The book does a good job of accurately surveying mass communications. Good job sourcing information.

The most recent citations are from 2010. That's just too far in the past for a rapidly changing subject like mass communication.

The book is clear and easy to read. Well written.

The book is internally consistent, with recurring sections.

The book does a good job breaking the information down into smaller reading sections.

The book follows the standard structure and flow for introductory texts in mass communication.

The interface is fine. It's a big book. Would appreciate active links to help skip chapters.

No grammatical errors.

I would appreciate a little more diversity in the examples used.

Really wish the authors would update this a bit. It does a great job with the history. Needs updating on the modern issues.

Reviewed by Kateryna Komarova, Visiting Instructor, University of South Florida on 3/27/18

The title Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication suggests that we are looking at a comprehensive introductory text. In my opinion, this book is the most valuable to GE courses and entry level courses across Mass... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 2 see less

The title Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication suggests that we are looking at a comprehensive introductory text. In my opinion, this book is the most valuable to GE courses and entry level courses across Mass Communication disciplines, as it does excellent job in covering the fundamentals of mass communication. The textbook is heavy on history, which is a great thing.

I found the content to be accurate and, to my knowledge, error-free.

In comparison with other introductory texts, the content is generally up-to date with current trends. Yet, the distribution of attention towards various forms of media tends to be slightly disproportional. For instance, print magazines alone (essentially, one of many forms of print media that’s experiencing a stable continuous decline) receive as much attention as all forms of social media altogether. As a communications practitioner and an instructor, I was pleased to see information on the merge of paid media and social media (content partnerships and native advertising being the prime examples, albeit these particular terms were not used by the author). On the other hand, some aspects of current media landscape (such as the role of mobile apps, for instance) could be explored further.

The text is written in simple, easy-to-understand language and would be appropriate to non-native speakers.

I find this text to be consistent in terms of terminology.

The book is organized in rather non-trivial fashion, without a unified approach to chapter categorization. Yet, I found this approach refreshing. I loved that the author suggests specific learning outcomes for each section (example: "Distinguish between mass communication and mass media"), key takeaways, and practical exercises. The question bank provided as part of this textbook is a treasure box! It’s a great resource that allows me to have more fun in the classroom by asking interesting questions that wake up the students and generate some amazing answers. The chapters are designed to be used selectively, in no particular order. Big plus.

The content is presented in chronological pattern: from past to future. Other than that, I did not trace much consistency in the material. For instance, Media and Culture is followed by Media Effects, after which the author switches to reviewing various forms of media (Radio, Magazines, Newspapers, etc.). The chapters to follow are Economics of Mass Media and Ethics of Mass Media. I find to be an advantage, as the subsections may be used selectively, and the order may be easily redesigned.

I read the textbook online via the Open Library portal http://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/1-2-intersection-of-american-media-and-culture/ . I found the navigation to be very easy. Good interface.

I did not spot any grammatical errors.

I found the content USA-centric. For this reason, it may have limited application to global courses (such as Global Citizens Project courses offered at USF). The majority of case studies are drawn from the United States; much attention is paid to the history of mass media in the USA and current U.S. legislation safeguarding privacy. In today’s increasingly globalized culture and economy, a broader outlook on media and culture may be expected. More international references would enhance the points made by the author. It is important for students to understand that major trends in mass communication, such as convergence of the media, are not unique to the United States. Similarly, increasing media literacy should be positioned as a global, rather than national, priority.

It is a great introductory text that provides a current overview of various forms of media and highlights the role of mass communication in society.

Reviewed by Joel Gershon, Adjunct Professor, American University on 2/1/18

The book should be the perfect fit for my course Understanding Media, as it indeed covers all of the subject matter of the course. The problem is that it is not up to date and therefore detracts from the complete picture that each one of these... read more

The book should be the perfect fit for my course Understanding Media, as it indeed covers all of the subject matter of the course. The problem is that it is not up to date and therefore detracts from the complete picture that each one of these topics delves into. For example, the music section poses the question: How do the various MP3 players differ? It refers to Spin as a magazine (it ceased its print operations in 2012). Or in the section on television, there is a question about the war between satellite and cable television. I think the winner of that is neither, as streaming a la carte is what people are talking about in 2017 as the direction TV is going in.

This criticism, of course, is obvious and easy. It's actually an exhaustive book that does contain a wealth of useful information, although no glossary or index – glaring omissions. Unfortunately, it suffers from not being up to 2017, when we are living in an up-to-the-second world. Especially in a field like media studies, it makes this book unusable in its entirety. The chapter ethics and economics aren't as badly out of date.

It is accurate for the time it was written in, but in today's world, much of this doesn't hold up. Just one example, there is the claim that Reader's Digest has the third highest circulation of all magazine, which is no longer the case in 2017. It is not in good shape. Even the references to "President Obama," obviously show that it was written a different era with a very different landscape for the media world. Still, the great majority of it appears to be represented fairly, albeit in an outmoded way. It's just that the trends and latest innovations in 2010 won't even make sense to a college freshman whose frame of reference likely came about three years after

Content is up-to-date, but not in a way that will quickly make the text obsolete within a short period of time. The text is written and/or arranged in such a way that necessary updates will be relatively easy and straightforward to implement.

Obviously, this is a major weak link of the textbook. I've already commented on this, but I think any time the textbook is referring to MySpace or Friendster in a way that suggests that they are viable social media sites, it makes itself into a caricature of an outdated guide.

No real problem here. The book is fully clear, well-written and to the point. The problem is that the point was made in 2010. That said, there is no glossary or index.

Again, this book is solid as a foundational textbook to get students the basic information regarding the history and meaningful cultural highlights of different forms of media. From radio to media and democracy, the lessons are thorough and contain useful and important information. It's just that some of this information is outdated.

The book is quite easy to read, the organization is fine and reads like any typical textbook. I will say that there have been advancements made, and that this book should be more interactive and multi-media if it wants to keep up with the Joneses.

It's fine in this regard. The writing itself is great and it's broken up nicely. Very readable and I wish it was up to date because it's a solid textbook.

This is fine for 2010, but there is no interactivity or video or things to let us know that we are in 2017.It's basic and fine, but nothing stands out are particularly innovative.

Written well. No issue here at all.

Again, this is the fatal flaw of the book. It's just not going to be persuasive if it doesn't manage to maintain the sensibilities of someone in 2017. Between politics and technology there have been extreme shifts in the media in the past few years and a book like this would need to be updated monthly to stay relevant. It could work as a historical document to see how people thought in 2010, but not really as a relevant book today.

Reviewed by Suzi Steffen, Instructor, Linn-Benton Community College on 6/20/17

This text is rather comprehensive, at least for the time it was published. It covers pretty much any topic one might want to cover in a Media and Society or introductory media and communications class, though for those interested in topic areas... read more

This text is rather comprehensive, at least for the time it was published. It covers pretty much any topic one might want to cover in a Media and Society or introductory media and communications class, though for those interested in topic areas like journalism, advertising, and public relations, this textbook is much more about the history of those areas than how they are surviving and functioning today (and that's fine with me; I can update with information that's more recent). There is no index (at least in this form), and there is no glossary, but terms are well-defined within each chapter and within pull-out boxes as well. It would be incumbent upon the professor and students to keep some kind of glossary or wiki, which is not a bad idea for a media history/media and society class in any case.

Often in a textbook for media and society or media history, one can see the author's world view shining through - is capitalism too much for media? Should media creators take an "unbiased" view of the world? How is a medium influenced by the way it is funded? The book has a solid conversational tone and is authoritative on its history, but I might prefer a little more analysis of media ownership and consolidation. As for accuracy, yes, the facts seem quite accurate to the best of my knowledge, and the text is written (and edited) by someone with a journalist's view of language - it's useful, it's best done well, and occasionally it lends itself to some essayistic moments.

I'm not sure there's a way to write a book like this that can keep it relevant past the month in which it was written, much less seven years later. Many of the examples the author uses to illustrate music, social media, books, newspapers (some of which don't exist anymore), magazines (ditto), etc., are simply no longer relevant. It *is* interesting to read about what the author thought was relevant at the time, and what the author thought would last, but this kind of book needs almost constant updating during this time of constant media churn and reinvention. I am giving it a 3, but really it's more like a 2.5 as any instructor would need constantly to find new examples that students will understand.

The book is accessible and lucid, absolutely. As with any history of a large discipline, the book contains a fair amount of jargon that is relevant to each portion of the subject matter covered, and the book is good about not only giving context and giving definitions but also setting aside boxed or special areas for examples that reinforce what it's talking about. The key takeaways at the end of each chapter, added to the exercises that are meant to help the students understand what's important in the dense historical detail and context of each chapter, are helpful as well.

This book is wonderfully consistent with terminology and the framework it employs to discuss media across a wide range of areas. From the beginning of each chapter, where an introduction lays out the plan of the chapter, to the end of each chapter - where a box of "key takeaways" explains what students should have learned - the book keeps a tone of very slightly amused detachment, mixed with earnest passion for certain topics, throughout, which is utterly consistent with how media people actually live their lives.

The text is definitely modular. It's written in a way that could easily be read in various chunks as the instructor or professor wishes to assign it. Blocks of text are broken up with images, a few charts, and a few stories that are boxed and that illustrate examples of topics within the chapters.

I think it's hard to know how to organize a media history/media and society textbook. Do you start with the printed word? But then, what about radio? Should radio come closer to magazines or closer to movies and TV? In that case, where do audiobooks and podcasts go? So, even as any instructor would grapple with these sorts of questions, the book is laid out in a way that made sense to the author - and that can be ripped apart and reassigned by each instructor. There's no need to read economics at the end of the course; perhaps, despite the fact that it's at the end of the book, it should come at the front end of the course - and because it's modular enough for flexibility, that's not a problem.

I read the textbook on my desktop Kindle and on my phone. It's not super with the images or charts, and the boxed questions and exercises at the end are especially hard to take. This interface could use a little attention, at least in the Kindle applications area. It's not impossible; it just needs some work.

No errors that I saw, though a textbook without at least a few grammatical errors is a miracle.

It's hard to say whether it's culturally insensitive or offensive because, well, I'm a white woman. I note that it talks about U.S. media's places (different for advertising, PR, newspapers, etc.) in the Civil Rights Movement and to a certain extent it discusses the ways that major media have been controlled or run by men, by white men, by straight white men. But I don't think the text addresses any of these things in the depth or with the clarity of thought that one would like to see in 2017. (Yes, it's a 2010 text.) In gaming, in Twitter discussions, in talking about newspapers or online media, the book is simply behind the times, and that makes it culturally problematic if not insensitive.

I am reluctant to adopt this book with students who really need more recent examples to make sense of how things are going now, today, in 2017, though it's also relevant for them to learn the history of how we got here (if anyone can really understand that at this point). I'd love to use a newer edition if one comes out. I might use or adapt parts of it along with other readings for my media and society class in 2018, but I'll be cautious about that.

Reviewed by Shearon Roberts, Assistant Professor of Mass Communication, Xavier University of Louisiana on 6/20/17

The textbook hits the standard areas for a typical Introduction to Mass Communication course: evolution of media industries, media and society, media effects and theories, media law and ethics, the digital age, and global media. It is... read more

The textbook hits the standard areas for a typical Introduction to Mass Communication course: evolution of media industries, media and society, media effects and theories, media law and ethics, the digital age, and global media. It is comprehensive in its case studies and historical events that are typically taught for an Introduction to Mass Communication course. The text is current as there is a chapter on the Internet and Social Media and several chapters look at the digital revolution as it impacts media industries. There is no glossary or index, however. Instructors will have to rely on chapter sections for lesson planning.

From Gutenberg to Apple and Google, the book provides content that is accurate on the development of media. The author thoroughly cites case studies and provides questions for critical thinking about issues affecting media industry trends and on the impact of the media on the public. Statistics, data and trends are appropriately cited for reference check on accuracy of estimates.

Case studies and citations stop at 2010. However, the author makes projections for media trends up to 2020. Since media industries are most vulnerable to yearly change, the information in the book holds for now, although the positions of some of the digital media players have changed since the book has come out. However, the author is careful to clarify dates for events that were transformative for media industry changes, at the point in which these events occurred, even if changes have occurred since the book was published in 2010. Within another 5 years, the book is likely to need some updates to digital age developments.

The language used is accessible for a first year student taking an Introduction to Mass Communication course. The theory, ethics and law chapters are broken down for a 1000-2000 level course. The case studies and critical thinking boxes are useful in helping to break down and apply a wealth of information in the text for students to conceptualize the importance of historical events and their social or cultural impacts.

The author is clear on defining media industries, digital convergence and common theories in mass communication.

Instructors can easily use the text as is, or piece together sections on history, digitization and media and society from several chapters, depending on the instructor’s preference.

The text follows the standard logic for media introduction courses moving students through print, to audio, to film to broadcasting and to the digital age. The author wisely weaves in the impact of new media in each of these phases of evolution so the student does not have to wait until the end of the text to see the impacts of the changes of the industry, as they understand media to be today.

While the interface is simple, all graphics and text boxes, as well as assignments are designed similarly throughout the text and easy to locate as an e-text for student work.

Sentences throughout the text are concisely written and the text appears thoroughly proofed.

It was important for me to see examples of race, gender and global dimensions of the media represented as case studies, assignments and critical thinking in the book. From using The Birth of a Nation and its outcry from the NAACP in the film chapter to the rice of BET, or the understanding stereotyping of African Americans in TV, this book has relevant examples that relate to minority students or for a Historically Black University. I did however see no mention of the black press, or the work of alternative media in introduction narratives left out of the mainstream media. However, most introductory media textbooks, also leave this out. If this is an interest area for diverse students, unfortunately instructors are left to source that information themselves. But the most prominent case studies for diverse groups can be found in this text.

It was surprising to discover such an open-textbook as the cost of Intro to Mass Communication textbooks are typically over $100 and students only use this textbook once. This is a valuable resource. I hope the author would consider updating in a few years for recent developments and important case studies such as the #BlackLivesMatter movement and President Donald Trump's election for an examination of media literacy.

Reviewed by Gwyneth Mellinger, Professor and Director, School of Media Arts & Design, James Madison University on 6/20/17

The book covers all of the subject areas typically touched on in a media and society survey course; however, the discussions within chapters would benefit greatly from more examples and, in some cases, greater detail in explanation. I often... read more

The book covers all of the subject areas typically touched on in a media and society survey course; however, the discussions within chapters would benefit greatly from more examples and, in some cases, greater detail in explanation. I often thought the content was pretty thin. This was particularly so in Chapter 2, where the treatment of effects theories and media studies controversies required much more supporting discussion to be relevant to undergraduates. The greatest weakness in the text, and the specific reason I would not adopt it for my own course, is that the book's engagement of social and digital media is, for the most part, woefully out of date and separated into discrete chapter segments, rather than synthesized into discussions directly. A text on media and society assigned in 2017 cannot be comprehensive if it does not engage media in a way that makes sense to the students who are reading it. There is no index or glossary.

Content Accuracy rating: 2

There is no bias in the text and historical detail appeared to be represented accurately. Again, I question whether a book written in 2010, which lacks full context for the subject matter, can accurately reflect media and society for students in 2017. For example, in 4.6, online journalism is represented as blogs and online newspapers. That is an accuracy issue for today's students.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 1

The book is out of date. Examples and context stop at 2010, and many cultural references will not resonate with current students, which is the point of examples and cultural context. The Beatlemania example early in the book and the references to 2009 in the opening paragraphs advertise the lack of currency. Significantly, the book cannot be easily updated in its current form because its approach and perspective are also out of date. By failing to integrate social media and the Internet into the central narrative, the book emphasizes legacy media in a way that is no longer relevant.

The book is clearly written, though additional examples and context would be helpful in places.

The narrative is consistent in terminology and framework.

The modularity of the text would allow use of sections of the text at different points in a course.

The content in Chapter 11 on evolution of the Internet and the impact of social media belongs near the beginning, not the end, of the text. In addition, the impact of media economics on content is downplayed by sequestering this discussion in Chapter 13. Each chapter on legacy media ends with a section on the impact of new technology on that medium. These sections feel tacked on.

There were no interface issues. That said, the book lacked the visual engagement used by many media and society texts to capture and maintain the interest of today's students.

The text is clean. Of note, the text correctly uses "media" as a plural noun. There was, however, this awkward subheading at 1.2: "What Does Media Do?"

The text is not culturally insensitive. It acknowledges cultural imperialism and the digital divides as issues. There are examples of media content that would be deemed inclusive. That is not to say, however, that today's students would find the examples culturally relevant. The book is written from their grandparents' perspective.

Without irony, the unknown author of the text includes in a media literacy checklist and discussion (1.8) the advice that students should scrutinize the identity and credentials of authors. This same section warns against anonymous online sources. This is a conceptual problem with this particular online text. It's not clear why the author wants to distance her/himself from the project, but it creates a question of credibility.

Reviewed by Elizabeth England-Kennedy, Assistant Professor, Rhode Island College on 4/11/17

The book is extremely comprehensive. Not only does it include all forms of mass media, but it intelligently and thoughtfully addresses critical concepts such as ethics and culture. Photojournalism (especially the work of muckrakers such as Jacob... read more

The book is extremely comprehensive. Not only does it include all forms of mass media, but it intelligently and thoughtfully addresses critical concepts such as ethics and culture. Photojournalism (especially the work of muckrakers such as Jacob Riis) is not included, and investigative reporting is too briefly addressed, although including advocacy journalism was a sound choice. There is no index or glossary. The lack of a glossary is surprising since key words are already highlighted in text.

The text is accurate and information is fairly represented and free of personal bias. No errors were found.

This is the most concerning characteristic of the book: The information has long-term relevance and is written in a highly readable way that will enhance its longevity. However, the examples tend to be temporally but often not generationally up-to-date and positioned for longevity. For example, beginning the book with an example that is this far removed from today's undergraduates' world may lessen their interest in reading further, as opposed to beginning with more focus on Beatlemania and then moving to an example of an artist/group more accessible to their generation. Additional examples used later in the book are drawn from recent time frames, but may not be commonly accessed. This is the only aspect of the book that would make me hesitate to adopt it.

The text is written in lucid prose that is accessible to introductory readers, though individuals whose first language is not English could have some difficulty reading independently. However, with minimal pre-reading guidance (e.g., introducing concepts that will be included in an upcoming reading assignment, instruction on how to use the Learning Objectives and Key Takeaways to best effect), these readers should also be able to understand and effectively use the text. Context is given for jargon/technical terminology, and definitions are generally clear.

The text is consistent in format, terminology, framework, and tone.

Modularity rating: 1

The book is clearly divided into relatively short subsections that are logically sequenced. Longer sections tend to be broken up by images, all of which are relevant examples of concepts being discussed in the section. The Learning Objectives, Key Takeaways, End-of-Chapter Assessments, and Critical Thinking Questions sections for each module are useful for guiding student reading and could be easily adapted into learning exercises and assessments such as discussions, quizzes, exams, and writing assignments. The Career Connection section at the end of chapters is innovative, and could be especially useful for students considering majors in communications-related fields. Chapters and sub-sections could be used independently in reading packets or rearranged without their being weakened, making it a more flexible resource or textbook.

The organization is clear. Sections are clearly labeled and of approximately the same length. Titles of chapters and subsections are logical and clear. Topics are logical laid out: An overview of foundational concepts in the first two chapters frames the remaining chapters effectively. The remaining chapters are organized in a historically-logical order. This structure is well-designed to helps readers better understand how an increase in the number and forms of media channels impacts audiences and media effects. Chapters are also internally well-organized and could be used separately as desired.

There are no interface difficulties. Pictures are clear and free of distortion. Navigation is clear and easy to use. Because the sections are short, reader interest should be maintained despite the low level of images included. Multiple platforms can be used.

The text contains no grammatical errors. A nice touch by the author is to clarify and model the correct grammatical usage of "medium" vs "media."

No cultural insensitivity or offensiveness was found. The author acknowledges that the book is focused on US media and includes culturally diverse examples. Topics such as cultural imperialism are addressed specifically. Related topics such as cultural appropriation and marginalization are referenced, although these specific terms are not necessarily used (e.g., the latter is addressed in the chapter on music as an outcome of the oligopoly in music without using the term "marginalization"). This could have been taken further; for example, the section on "Issues and Trends in Film" does not address concerns about "whitewashing" or lack of diversity in Hollywood movies and the section on Independent films does not address movies that countered these trends (e.g., the work of Spike Lee and Robert Rodriguez). However, the book lays the groundwork necessary for a discussion of such concepts in class or for use of supplemental materials that build on this text.

The book could be used as a stand-alone for an introductory class. Sections could be used in more advanced classes as supplemental readings or in reading packets.

Reviewed by Kevin Smith, Instructor, Chemeketa Community College on 2/15/17

This text is comprehensive in its coverage of all major media platforms and key general concepts related to mass media. There are times (e.g. Chapter 2: Media Effects) when some concepts are defined vaguely, but this is not indicative of the book... read more

This text is comprehensive in its coverage of all major media platforms and key general concepts related to mass media. There are times (e.g. Chapter 2: Media Effects) when some concepts are defined vaguely, but this is not indicative of the book as a whole. There is no glossary nor index, but most terms are defined well in the context of each chapter. The review sections at the end of each chapter would also help students organize and recall relevant information as they study. There is little that I feel is missing from this textbook that would be appropriate for an introductory mass media course.

A neutral, objective tone is struck throughout, with no apparent errors or gaps in coverage of major media and concepts. To the best of my knowledge, I believe this text to be free of errors, although it needs to be updated.

While this text is outstanding in its coverage and clarity, it is now seven years out-of-date and needs to be updated. A text on mass media should reflect the most recent changes in technology and economic and political contexts.

This text appears to be written for college freshmen and sophomores. Perhaps even upper-level high school students could successfully grasp its content. Most jargon particular to the discipline is defined and illustrated thoroughly.

The text is rigorous throughout, with even weight given to all concepts. There are occasional overlaps between chapters in coverage of terms (e.g. media bias), but nothing that seems sloppy or out-of-place. The historical overview of media technologies blends seamlessly with the beginning and later chapters on media studies concepts.

The structure of the book lends itself exceptionally well to divisibility, while demonstrating the ability to maintain its own internal coherence. The text seems designed for a semester-long course, so those looking to use it for quarters or with students whose expected reading loads might be lighter will find it easy to pull only what they need from it without sacrificing clarity.

The book's content is designed expertly, with introductory chapters leading into a chronological overview of the history of media technologies (books to social media). The text concludes by expanding its scope to cover more general concepts (e.g.media ethics) that scaffold on previously discussed ideas. This framework would greatly aid students in comprehending central ideas in media studies as they relate to specific technologies and historical periods.

I did not notice any problems in this area, although a cover might be helpful in identifying the text.

I noticed some minor typos, but nothing that reflects poorly on the high level of discourse and mechanical aspects of the text.

The text employs examples that would be helpful to students as they seek to understand mass media in diverse settings. There was no inappropriate content noted. The text is respectful and inclusive in this sense.

The end of chapter summaries, takeaways, exercises and critical thinking questions are outstanding and would serve any instructor well in designing a course with relevant activities tied directly to the text, while also pointing to other sources in contemporary mass media. The book is an invaluable resource that deserves the attention of a group of scholars who can update its content in order that it be more relevant to students.

Reviewed by Amy Rawson, Professor, Century College on 2/8/17

Interestingly, this textbook was more comprehensive than I originally expected. The text covered all of the major areas to be expected in a mass communication textbook: Media, Books, Newspapers, Magazines, Radio, Movies, TV, Games, Internet &... read more

Interestingly, this textbook was more comprehensive than I originally expected. The text covered all of the major areas to be expected in a mass communication textbook: Media, Books, Newspapers, Magazines, Radio, Movies, TV, Games, Internet & Social Media, Advertising & PR, Economics, Ethics, Media & Government and the Future of Mass Media. However, I am giving 4 stars because there is no index or glossary which I deem especially important for a mass communication textbook.

The textbook is accurate. I also like the chapter on the future of mass media. The textbook seems to be error-free and unbiased. Each chapter section includes a few learning objectives and a few "key takeaways." There are also exercise questions at the end of each chapter section. The examples in the exercise questions are dated. It would be nice to have more current examples. However, I would prefer questions about the chapter at the end of the entire chapter or at the end of each section in addition to the objectives, takeaways and exercises. Thus, I am giving 4 stars for outdated examples.

I agree with another reviewer that the examples are a bit dated (which quickly happens in a mass communication textbook). This affects the credibility of the overall text. For example, in Chapter 16.1 Changes in Media Over the Last Century the example box titled "Pay-for-it Content: Will it Work?" is from 2009! This is 2017.

The textbook is written in clear and easily understood language. It is accessible and comprehensible. It would be nice to have a glossary for students for the mass communication jargon.

The text seems to be consistent with terminology and framework. However, the textbook seems dated overall and new terminology and frameworks could be added to make it more relevant and interesting for students.

The modularity of the textbook is good. It is easily and readily divisible into smaller reading sections that can be assigned different points within the course. I like the division of the chapters into subsections.

The organization/structure/flow of the textbook is good. However, I agree with another reviewer that the textbook is too lengthy. In my opinion, 647 pages is too long. Although I have used other textbooks of similar length, there are many more vivid visuals for students and more timely information and examples.

The text is free of significant interface issues that may confuse or distract the reader.

The text contains no grammatical errors.

The textbook examples for cultural relevance could be more current.

Thank you for this opportunity. I like the idea of an open textbook and would be interested in doing more reviews in the future.

Reviewed by Tom Grier, Professor, Winona State University on 8/21/16

The book is comprehensive, covering the study of media and its intersection with culture, through an in-depth look at each of the major mediums, then content considerations, economics and ethics issues related to the mass media. read more

The book is comprehensive, covering the study of media and its intersection with culture, through an in-depth look at each of the major mediums, then content considerations, economics and ethics issues related to the mass media.

This text seems accurate. I didn't find glaring errors of fact in my reading. Though, as I will mention later in my review, many of the examples used in the text are now several years outdated, when more recent examples or case studies would be more relatable to a youthful college audience.

This is one area where I find some difficulty with the book -- as is the case with every text of this type. The world of media is ever-changing and fast-changing. The historical information about the invention, early adoption, and improvements to the mediums of mass communication (books, newspapers, radio, television, etc.) are fine. A few of the examples and case studies used to describe events related to the media feel outdated. This is most apparent in Chapters 1 and 2 on Media and Culture and Media Effects. Examples from 2010 and 2011, are not relative to college freshmen in 2016 who were in middle-school and probably not paying attention when these things happened. Therefore, the longevity of this text is limited, unless it is updated-revised at least every third year.

The author's writing style is informative and engaging. While the writing is clear and understandable, the chapters often get too deep and try to cover anything and everything in a particular content area-- or sub-chapter, when a couple statements and one case study would suffice.

I found the chapter formatting, writing style and narrative flow to be consistent from chapter to chapter.

Here, the text shines. First, it is broken into chapters that are easily identifiable and segment the content nicely. Within each chapter are several sub-chapters that allow readers to read and absorb material in smaller chunks. This will be helpful to the learning styles of younger people today.

For the most part, I agree with the author's organization and flow. My only thought, and it's just an opinion, is: Chapter 2 on Media Effects should be moved to Chapter 14, so it comes after the major media categories and then the economics of the media, and just before the ethics and law of media. To be fair, most mass media textbooks follow this same organization. When I teach the class, I always move the "effects" chapter to later in the semester, after I've discussed the media types, their history and development.

A second thought, I'd hold the footnoted source credits to the end of each chapter, or preferably to the end of the book. The sometimes very long list of footnoted sources between each sub-chapter stops the flow for readers that may wish to read a full chapter.

I downloaded the PDF version, and read that. I found the interface cumbersome. I wish paragraphs were indented. I wish it was easier to navigate from chapter to chapter or topic to topic without scrolling, scrolling, scrolling. I wish there was an easy way to get to a Table of Contents with one click, and then from there click topic-anchored reference points to skip to specific information sought.

I wish it had an index that had anchor links. I realize this would be a large undertaking to create and connect the links. But that would make searching and finding specific information easy and fast. If I was a college student studying for a chapter quiz or exam on the foundations of radio, I might like to scoot to the Index and click on Radio-Invention, or on Marconi and be led instantly to that content within the text.

And, probably an easy fix, I wish it was more evenly spaced. In my opinion, there should consistently be two spaces between sub-headed sections or sub-chapters. In most places in this text, a new, bolded subhead appears on the very next line under its preceding paragraph. This looks jammed and messy.

I have no problem with the grammar. It's clear, easy to follow, and written to be accessible to a college audience. I used the Gunning Fog Index to test several paragraphs throughout the text and found some of the writing aimed at an audience with 10-11 years of formal education, and in a few cases more than 15 years of education. The average of my selected readings came out at 12-13 years of education -- perfectly appropriate for a freshmen-level college course.

Other than my hope for some more recent case studies and examples, I find the text to be culturally relevant. A few of the examples mention MySpace, Napster and Kazaa as internet entities with which the audience should be familiar. In reality, today's college freshmen know almost nothing of these three internet terms. In my current Media and Society class, less than ten percent of the class had ever had a MySpace account. They had heard of MySpace, but really knew nothing. No one in the class knew about Napster or Kazaa first-hand... perhaps had heard of them in another class.

This text feels too long. This is a difficult thing. The author includes everything he feels needs to be discussed in each chapter. But it's too much for a college freshman-level class. Example: The chapter on Music is more than 50 pages long. While I agree college students should be able to read this much each week for a class, I'm confident they will not read this much. I believe the text could be condensed quite a bit while maintaining the content necessary to make it meaningful at the freshman level. It's a complete text, and would make a nice reference tool -- with better indexing and searching links within the body -- but it won't work at an entry level to the study of media. At my university, the "Media and Society" class is a 100-level course, used as a general education class that can fulfill a categorical credit-need for all students, not just Mass Communication majors. And we consider the class a "feeder" to the major, introducing students to the study of media and hopefully igniting an interest in students to consider a career in media, and therefore declare a Mass Communication major. This book, with its depth, might be more appropriate in an upper-vision media studies course.

Reviewed by Nick Marx, Assistant Professor, Colorado State University on 1/7/16

The text is a broad and comprehensive overview of all relevant forms of media today. Although this is a common organizational approach for survey textbooks of media, this particular volume utilizes it in a particularly clear and cogent manner. ... read more

The text is a broad and comprehensive overview of all relevant forms of media today. Although this is a common organizational approach for survey textbooks of media, this particular volume utilizes it in a particularly clear and cogent manner. Instructors approaching media and culture from a mass comm/journalism standpoint are much likelier to find this text useful than are instructors who approach media and culture from a perspective emphasizing critical/cultural studies, historical poetics, and/or aesthetics.

Content is accurate and strikes appropriately diplomatic tones where contentious issues might arise that concern social and cultural power.

The text is quite relevant for the most part, but by the very nature of its subject matter will undoubtedly require updates every few years. Framing the intro of the "Future of Mass Media" chapter with a specific device--the iPad--rather than the set of cultural protocols such devices foster, for example, might prove to be one area where instructors redirect conversations after the next new device inevitably cycles through.

The text is lucid and easy to follow. The book is ideal for introductory-level courses, but is likely too survey-oriented for courses beyond that level.

The text is consistent in structure, tone, and subject matter.

Here the book really excels at guiding students through a programmatic approach to studying media. Each section of history/description is followed by useful discussion prompts and activities, easily lending itself to course adoption.

The book flows logically. Some medium-specific chapters might arguably be collapsed into others, but their separation provides instructors with a good range of options for organizing lesson plans as they wish rather than having to proceed sequentially.

The text is a cleanly organized PDF, but is quite cumbersome to navigate internally. At 700+ pages, there's no table of contents and little in the PDF that allows for quick and easy browsing without intense scrolling. I'd recommend a hyperlinked TOC and some mechanism that affords instructors/students the freedom to teach/read in a modular, not linear, fashion.

The book is very clean and free of any obvious errors.

The book appropriately qualifies and focuses on the US media context, drawing on a good diversity of examples throughout.

Reviewed by Robert Kerr, Professor, University of Oklahoma on 1/12/15

This book devotes almost 800 pages to achieving an impressive level of comprehensiveness, considering the vast subject material upon which it focuses. Moving from Gutenberg’s 15th-century invention of the movable type printing press, through the... read more

This book devotes almost 800 pages to achieving an impressive level of comprehensiveness, considering the vast subject material upon which it focuses. Moving from Gutenberg’s 15th-century invention of the movable type printing press, through the beginning of the contemporary media age launched by the introduction of the telegraph in the mid 19th century, on into the explosive era opened with the beginnings of wireless communication, and ultimately into the revolution of Internet communication that by 2008 meant that U.S. households were consuming 3.6 zettabytes of information annually, the equivalent of a seven-foot-foot tall stack of books that covered the entire nation and represented a 350 percent increase from just three decades previously. This book manages to cover that remarkable series of media developments, and actually a good bit more, while keeping it all in broader context and without getting bogged down in the tedium of too much minutia from any one topic area.

This reviewer came across no errors of fact nor any pattern of bias in presentation.

The author of any text on this subject is faced with the challenge of achieving up-to-date content on a subject that explodes with new developments faster than any static text could ever stay fully up to date on for long. This text addresses that challenge by focusing on presenting a fully, dynamic framework that is so fully developed that it provides readers with a quite useful and enduring framework for considering crucial issues of media and culture in a manner that should give it a considerable shelf life. That framework is designed to help readers understand not only today’s media landscape but to consider what may be ahead for that landscape in terms of the future of media and culture.

The text breaks down relevant concepts and terminology with lucid, accessible prose so that even readers at the most introductory level should be able to always understand the discussion. Throughout the text, it very clearly helps readers think about each concept and related elements very clearly and in context that illuminates their significance.

This book’s use of terminology and framework is remarkably consistent. The author clearly has an instinctive, unified understanding of the essential dynamics driving the media world as it has evolved, exists today, and is unfolding going forward, and consistently discusses all topics in a context that never loses connection with that broad, fluid picture.

Chapters are organized into small modules, short subsections that by and large can stand alone and could be reorganized as an instructor might find more useful for the purposes of particular courses. Each chapter and each subsection includes highly useful learning objectives, key takeaways, and exercises, links to source materials and end-of-chapter assessments.

The book begins with a thorough overview that takes the reader quickly through a multifaceted assessment of the relationship between media and culture. With that foundation established, it moves into discussion of what is understood about the complex subject of media effects. Then it moves into narrower topics within the broader view considered so far, moving on to discussions of books, newspapers, magazines, music, radio, movies, and television, and then on to more recent developments such as electronic games, the Internet and social media. Then it steps back again to consider broader media influences such as advertising/PR, the role of economics in shaping the nature of mass media, ethical considerations, and government influence, before concluding with a substantial discussion of the future of mass media. The final chapter very effectively brings together the many strands of discussion from preceding chapters and synergizes them with a forward looking discussion of what the media future may hold. A table of contents within the book pdf itself would be helpful, as would content outlines at the beginning of each chapter. However, each chapter does contain very good breakdown highlights of each subsection’s learning objectives, key takeaways, and exercises, as well as extensive links to source materials and end-of-chapter assessments.

There do not seem to be any interface problems. The book is easy to navigate and the images/charts are displayed clearly, without distortion. Display features are presented quite distinctly and effectively throughout and should present readers with not distractions or confusion. The layout is somewhat visually plain, compared to many websites and even many traditional textbooks with more graphically elaborate designs, but the simple layout is easy to negotiate. The number of images/charts is not abundant, but is sufficient.

Grammar is used correctly throughout -- including use of the term “media” as a plural noun, which even too many academics have begun to use incorrectly as a singular term. It even includes an explanation of why it is incorrect to make that term singular, despite its popular usage in such manner. The text is very well written throughout, lively and to the point, with an easy flow that should enable readers to move through it almost effortlessly.

Over the course of this 761-page book, the reader is taken through an extensive range of discussion examples that span a multitude of races, ethnicities, and backgrounds. This reviewer did not detect any instances of cultural insensitivity or offensiveness.

This book is written well enough to be of general interest as a stand-alone read, apart from the context of its use as a textbook.

Reviewed by Doug Trouten, Professor, University of Northwestern - St. Paul on 7/15/14

The text covers all of the major forms of media and significant related topics (advertising, media economics, ethics, etc.). While the text lacks a dedicated chapter for journalism, this topic is covered at length in some of the other chapters. No... read more

The text covers all of the major forms of media and significant related topics (advertising, media economics, ethics, etc.). While the text lacks a dedicated chapter for journalism, this topic is covered at length in some of the other chapters. No glossary or index is provided.

Content is accurate and free of glaring errors. Although written in a personal, conversational tone, the text avoids obvious personal bias.

The content is up-to-date, including discussion of social media and references to recent works of media criticism. The rapid development of new media makes it likely that some of the material in this (or any) book will quickly seem dated, but the most time-sensitive material is confined to a few chapters, which should facilitate future updates.

The book is written in clear, easy-to-understand language that should appeal to today's college-age reader.

The text shows good consistency, introducing key ideas early and using them to facilitate understanding of material covered in subsequent chapters.

The chapters are clearly divided into subsections, each with clearly stated learning objectives, key takeaways and learning exercises. Most subsections could stand on their own, and chapters focusing on specific forms of mass media could easily be rearranged or skipped if desired.

The topics are presented in a logical fashion. After introducing basic ideas about media and culture and media effects, the text moves to discussion of various forms of media in chronological orders, and ends with chapters on various mass media applications and issues, such as advertising, public relations, ethics and government regulation.

The text is a basic PDF, with fixed line breaks that limit display options. Most URLs are live links. Footnote numbers and references to chapter sections look like links but are not, which may confuse some readers. A format better-suited for e-readers would be welcome.

The text strives to be culturally neutral, and should not offend any particular group of readers. The text clearly focuses on the U.S. media context, and acknowledges this limitation early on.

This is an impressively comprehensive overview of mass communication, written in a clear and engaging manner. Discussion questions and exercises are helpful resources for classroom use. A glossary, index and more flexible e-format would make this text even more useful. This text is a welcome addition to the field, and will serve students and teachers well.

Table of Contents

• Chapter 1: Media and Culture
• Chapter 2: Media Effects
• Chapter 3: Books
• Chapter 4: Newspapers
• Chapter 5: Magazines
• Chapter 6: Music
• Chapter 7: Radio
• Chapter 8: Movies
• Chapter 9: Television
• Chapter 10: Electronic Games and Entertainment
• Chapter 11: The Internet and Social Media
• Chapter 12: Advertising and Public Relations
• Chapter 14: Ethics of Mass Media
• Chapter 15: Media and Government
• Chapter 16: The Future of Mass Media

Ancillary Material

• University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing

About the Book

According to the author, the world did not need another introductory text in mass communication. But the world did need another kind of introductory text in mass communication, and that is how Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication was birthed.

The only question was: What would be the purpose of another introductory mass communication text?

Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication was written to squarely emphasize media technology. The author believes that an introduction to mass communication text should be a compelling, historical narrative sketching the *ongoing evolution* of media technology and how that technology shapes and is shaped by culture — and that is what he set out to deliver with his new textbook.

Today's students are immersed in media technology. They live in a world of cell phones, smart phones, video games, iPods, laptops, Facebook, Twitter, FourSquare, and more. They fully expect that new technology will be developed tomorrow. Yet students often lack an historical perspective on media technology. They lack knowledge of the social, political and economic forces that shape media technology. This is not knowledge for knowledge's sake. It is knowledge that can help them understand, comprehend, appreciate, anticipate, shape and control media technology.

With this focus, Understanding Media and Culture becomes an appropriate title. Indeed, the title has particular significance. Marshall McLuhan's Understanding Media is a key text in media studies. Written in the 1960s, Understanding Media was the subject of intense debates that continue to this day. Its central message was that the technology of media — not their content — was their most important feature. In a typically pithy phrase, McLuhan said, "The medium is the message." The title, Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication , situates the introductory text in a large, engrossing theoretical conversation.

The goal is to adopt a textbook that will support and complement your teaching of this course. Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication will support an engaging and interesting course experience for students that will not only show them the powerful social, political and economic forces will affect the future of media technology, but will challenge students to do their part in shaping that future.

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Critical Media Analysis Project (CMAP)

Whitney Gegg-Harrison University of Rochester

This assignment asks undergraduate students to critically annotate an existing popular media item using Kapoor & Narayanan’s “18 Pitfalls” framework. This framework helps students to reflect critically on media hype relating to AI, and gives them language to assist them in identifying, labeling, and explaining examples of hype to potential readers. In creating their annotated articles, students gain practice applying their critical AI and media literacy skills, which are skills they can apply to their own lives as they engage with media about generative AI and strive to be thoughtful, critical users (or not) of generative AI products.

Learning Goals

• Interrogate potential sources of and reasons for hype and biases in popular media writing about AI 
• Apply concepts from Critical AI Literacy and engage with existing scholarship on AI
• Annotate and analyze the biases in a popular media article using an existing framework
• Explain technical concepts to a non-academic audience

Original Assignment Context

This assignment is the first of two “major” assignments in a newly-created upper-level writing class called “Writing about and with Artificial Intelligence.” The class was cross-listed between the Writing, Speaking, and Argument Program, the English Department, and the Digital Media Studies Program and drew students from a variety of majors. The assignment was supported by a set of readings and class discussions centered around Critical AI Literacy, which many of the students used as sources for their CMAP.

Materials Needed

• Kapoor & Narayanan's "18 pitfalls" piece
• A media item of each student's choosing (potentially transcribed, if the media item is audiovisual)
• Additional readings/resources on Critical AI Literacy to support students' analyses.
• A Google Doc template for the annotations; interested students who are comfortable with creating web pages from html/CSS templates can also be encouraged to try using Molly White’s annotations .

~ 4 weeks: one full (75 minute) class period to introduce the assignment & go over the 18 pitfalls; one full class period devoted to in-class work time on the assignment; one full class period devoted to peer response; additional outside-of-class work time for the students.

The Critical Media Analysis Project (CMAP) was the first of two major assignments in the first offering of my “Writing about and with Artificial Intelligence” class. The class was deliberately designed to front-load discussions around Critical AI Literacy; we began by reading (and writing) about AI from a critical perspective so that students could make an informed decision about when, whether, and how they might write with AI later in the semester. Early in the class, students were introduced to Kapoor & Narayanan’s “18 Pitfalls to Beware of in AI Journalism” and explored some of Kapoor & Narayanan’s “Critical Annotations” of articles from CNN and the NYT. 

The CMAP assignment asks students to apply the “18 pitfalls” framework to a media item of their choice, which they highlight and annotate in the style of those “Critical Annotations”; in addition, students write an intro and outro in which they motivate, contextualize, and offer a clear “take-home message” for readers of the “AI Snake Oil” website. Students went through multiple rounds of peer response and instructor feedback as they honed their presentation of their critiques for the final portfolio version of the CMAP.

Students found the project challenging, but enjoyed practicing their critical analysis skills and produced excellent critical annotations. Several students shared that in the process of working on their CMAP, they discussed issues relating to AI hype with roommates and friends, and were very happy to be able to dispel misguided beliefs about AI with the information they learned from their analysis.

Critical Media Analysis Project (writing *about* AI)

AI policy: NO AI for first draft. AI-assistance OK for revision and editing. You’ll document your use (or not) of generative AI tools for revision and editing as part of your Process Notebook.

In class 3, we discussed the concept of “Critical AI Literacy”, and introduced a framework of 18 common “pitfalls” that journalists fall into when writing *about* AI. For this assignment, I want you to imagine that you’ve been asked to create an analysis for “AI Snake Oil”. You will choose one “hype”-filled  article, video, or other form of media to analyze using their framework, and will create an annotated version of the article/video/etc in which you contextualize your analysis and make an argument about what your analysis tells us about AI literacy.

What you need to do

• Remember that you can read the entire article on Substack without subscribing by just clicking “Continue Reading” when the pop-up appears.
• Then, choose a media item to focus on. This can come from anywhere. I tend to see the most “hype” in articles from the Edtech and Business domains, but even “mainstream” news like the Washington Post, the New York Times, CNN, etc have their share of AI hype to critique.
• Then, create an “annotated” version of the media item using color-coded highlights as Kapoor and Narayanan do (e.g. in this example from CNN , and in this example from the NYT ). If you’re comfortable with creating web pages from html/CSS templates, you can use Molly White’s annotations , and if not, you’re welcome to use my Google Docs template . If you’re using a non-text type of media (like a video or an audio podcast), my suggestion is to work with the transcript for the color-coded highlights.
• Your goal in the intro and outro is to contextualize your analysis (e.g. relate it to the framework that Kapoor and Narayanan provide, and to other sources we’ve already read) and offer us a “take home message” about what your analysis shows us.

Requirements

• Length: Aim for ~1000-1500 words across your annotations and introductory and outro text
• Format: Use a readable font and a reasonable font size - otherwise, formatting choices are yours to make!
• Citation style: Use whichever style feels most comfortable for you (e.g. APA, MLA, IEEE, hyperlinked URLS) - just make sure that you are consistent!
• Sources: You must engage with at least 3 sources in this paper: the Kapoor & Narayanan “18 Pitfalls” piece, your chosen media example, and at least one other source from our course readings.

Your audience consists of both regular readers of “AI Snake Oil” and of interested people who are encountering the site for the very first time via your article. This creates a tricky balance: you don’t want to bore the regular readers by rehashing things they already know in excruciating detail, but you are going to need to provide some context for those readers who are encountering this site for the first time. You also can’t necessarily assume that your readers have read anything from our course readings (but of course, they may have!).

Why I’m having you do this

This assignment is aimed at honing your critical media analysis skills and preparing you to be a more thoughtful consumer of media relating to generative AI. You’ll practice analyzing a piece of media using an existing framework and writing about a technical topic for a non-academic audience. These skills are ones you’ll be able to apply to your own life as you engage with media about generative AI and strive to be a thoughtful, critical user (or not) of generative AI products.

Assessment criteria

These are what I will use when evaluating your final draft as part of the Final Portfolio. Please feel free to make a copy and use as a checklist!

Argument & Analysis

• The introduction clearly motivates the analysis that follows
• The implications for the analysis (why does it matter?) are discussed explicitly in the intro and outro
• The annotations are supported using well-chosen evidence and good reasoning
• There is a clear “take home message” in the outro

Engagement with Sources and Evidence

• The Kapoor & Narayana “18 Pitfalls” piece
• The media item you’ve chosen to analyze
• At least one other source from our course readings
• Examples from your chosen media item are clearly highlighted with colors corresponding to your key and annotated with comments sharing your analysis 
• The examples are analyzed in relation to both the “18 pitfalls” framework and at least one other reading we’ve done this semester
• My annotations/intro/outro have an appropriate in-text citation/signal for every source that is used, at the place of use
• My annotations/intro/outro use quotation marks wherever I am using the exact words of a source
• My project has a references section in the outro that has an entry for every source that was cited in the text
• Double-check: Do my in-text citations provide a clear “pathway” to the reference entry? Do my reference entries provide a clear “pathway” to the actual source?

Organization & Coherence

• The intro and outro are well-organized and coherent, with clear connections between ideas
• Each annotation is focused, coherent, and clearly relevant to the analysis
• There is a clear connection between the annotations, such that taken together, they build toward the “take-home message” in the outro.

Presentation & Style

• The critical analysis has an interesting, accurate, and genre-appropriate title
• If choices deviate from genre conventions, is it intentional, for a clear purpose?
• There is effective, thoughtful use of vocabulary, grammar, and stylistic options.
• The process of drafting, revising, and editing the project is fully and accurately documented in the relevant Process Notebook entries.

Acknowledgements

Thanks to Kapoor & Narayanan for their " 18 Pitfalls to Beware of in AI Journalism "

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Media Criticism

MEDIA CRITICISM course description & goals In this course we will explore a variety of approaches to media criticism, including textual, institutional/industrial, and audience-oriented approaches. First, we’ll consider media as a  primarily textual phenomenon, concentrating on how to interpret popular media images. Second, we’ll examine how popular media images are crafted and circulated by media institutions, paying careful attention to the industrial logics and conditions that circumscribe media production. Finally, we’ll approach media from the vantage point of the audience; we’ll think about what audiences do with media and how media intersects with everyday life.

Throughout the semester, we’ll cultivate a broad and multi-faceted critical perspective on popular media.  Together we’ll develop a media criticism toolbox, as we wrestle with key concepts in media studies and think through the social and political consequences of media texts and institutions. This critical perspective will require us to challenge many of the assumptions we may hold about media, its place in society, as well as our own engagement with it.  Your goal this semester is to become a critical media scholar. Students will put the critical perspective we develop into practice by producing their own piece of media criticism.

succeeding in this course This course will be at once fun and hard.  On the one hand, much of our work this semester will be pleasurable. We’ll be learning about popular media, developing tools for making sense of the images we encounter in our daily lives.  We’ll watch lots of clips and draw from our own experiences with popular media. On the other hand, this class will ask students to think in new ways about media, to grasp and apply difficult concepts, to draw connections across readings, and to articulate their own critical arguments and conclusions about popular media. Readings will be challenging. Assignments will be demanding, and my expectations will be high. Here are some hints for doing well in this course:

Come to class everyday with readings in-hand, completed, and carefully considered. Ask questions. If you’re thinking them, chances are others are too. Pick a research topic early in the semester, and come see me often as you develop your research plan and critical arguments. Keep a reading journal. Make notes of important concepts, ideas, and passages that you find useful and illuminating. Take full advantage of our writing workshop days. We’ll devote ample class time to student paper writing. Come prepared with your ideas and reading journal. Put your new knowledge to work in your everyday life. Develop your critical perspective by applying our readings as you watch media. Bring your observations and insights to class to share.

important! All assigned course readings must be completed by the Monday of the week they are assigned (or by the first class meeting of the week). All written work must be submitted in hard copy, double-spaced with 1 inch margins in Times font, and carefully proofread for spelling and grammatical errors. Late assignments will be penalized the equivalent of one letter grade for each class period they are late. I will not grant extensions except in the case of a real and documented emergency. Extensions must be cleared before the due date for the assignment.class reading schedule (subject to change)

Week 1 8/27: Course & Class Introductions media texts & images

Week 2 8/30-9/3: Signs Judith Williamson, Decoding Advertisements “Introduction” and “A Currency of Signs” Week 3 9/6-9/10: Subjects Judith Williamson, Decoding Advertisements “Signs Address Somebody” Week 4 9/13-9/17: Ideology John Fiske, “The Codes of Television” Mimi White, “Ideological Analysis and Television” Week 5 9/20-9/24: Genre & Form Steve Neale, “Questions of Genre” Thomas Doherty, “The Rom-Com Genre and the Shopping Gene” Deborah Moddelmog, “Can Romantic Comedy be Gay? Hollywood Romance, Citizenship, and the Same-Sex Marriage Panic” Week 6 9/27-10/1: Advertising Analyses Week 7 10/4-10/8: Advertising Analyses

–fall break– media industries & institutions

Week 8 10/13-10/15: The Culture Industry Eileen Meehan, Why TV is Not Our Fault (excerpt) Toby Miller, Global Hollywood 2 (excerpt) Week 9 10/18-10/22: Mobilizing the Audience

Joseph Turow, “Signaling Divisions” Sarah Banet-Weiser, “The Nickelodeon Brand: Buying and Selling the Audience” Joseph Tompkins, “What’s the Deal with Soundtrack Albums?: Metal Music and the Customized Aesthetics of Contemporary Horror”

Week 10 10/25-10/29 Writing Workshops. Paper Proposals due 10/29.

Week 1111/1-11/5: Cultures of Media Production I Justin Wyatt, “A Critical Re-definition: The Concept of High Concept” and Henry Jenkins, “Searching for the Origami Unicorn” Week 12 11/8-11/12: Cultures of Media Production II Laura Grindstaff, “Trash, Class, and Cultural Hierarchy” John Caldwell, “Convergence Television”

media audiences & everyday life

Week 13 11/15-11/19: Audiences & Fans/Meaning & Affect Stuart Hall, “Encoding/Decoding” Lawrence Grossberg, “Is There A Fan in the House? The Affective Sensibility of Fandom” Week 14 11/22 Paper Drafts due 11/22. Peer Reviews.

–thanksgiving break–

Week 15 11/29-12/3: Consumption, Identity & Making Do Valerie Walkerdine, “Little Girls as Heroines and Stars” and “Girls Watching Films at Home” Elizabeth Chin, “The Shadow of Whiteness” and “Anthropologist Takes Inner-City Children on Shopping Sprees” Week 16 12/6-12/8: Research Presentations

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“I think if you look at the history of Clemson and Georgia, you can go all the way back to the 80s and the great rivalries and the games that were so epic back at that time,” said Bulldogs head coach Kirby Smart. “You fast forward, whatever that is, 40 years all the way up to now, and you’ve still got two perennial powers facing each other in a kickoff game. They’re both big-time rivals. The schools are pretty close to each other, so I think that’s pretty cool.”

According to Smart, the fact that both teams are ranked in the Top 15 is more significant for fans and media.

“No, I think it matters to you guys,” Smart added. “I think y’all want to have the best matchup you can possibly have, so I know as the title sponsor, Aflac loves it. I know you guys have done a tremendous job there in Atlanta in the kickoff game to make sure this is a great event. Nothing better than having two top-10 teams teeing up against each other to kick it off.”

With the College Football Playoff now expanded to 12 teams, this game might not carry the same weight it would have under the old four-team format. However, Smart believes the winner will gain a crucial early advantage.

“Well, it’s going to be a feather in the cap of someone,” Smart said. “Whoever wins the game is going to be going into that playoff committee talk with a strength of schedule, a major win, because both teams are going to have great seasons after that. I think it’s critical. I can’t say it’s more critical. Obviously with four teams, not winning this game could put you out. Now with 12 teams, I don’t know that losing this game does. I think it makes these games more popular. They’re going to happen more often because people are going to be more willing to play out-of-conference top-notch opponents with a 12-team playoff.”

If Clemson pulls this one off, it could be a monster season for the Tigers.

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Trump and Vance's 'divide and conquer' strategy on the campaign trail: From the Politics Desk

Welcome to the online version of  From the Politics Desk , an evening newsletter that brings you the NBC News Politics team’s latest reporting and analysis from the campaign trail, the White House and Capitol Hill.

In today’s edition, we talk with JD Vance about how he has tried to expand the Republican ticket's appeal, and explore why Democrats are feeling newly energized in the critical battleground of Georgia. Plus, chief political analyst Chuck Todd explains why Harris is overthinking her media strategy.

Sign up to receive this newsletter in your inbox every weekday here.

Vance opens up on running with Trump in new interview

By henry j. gomez, alec hernández and jillian frankel.

A week ago, the rift between Donald Trump and Georgia Gov. Brian Kemp looked beyond repair, with the former president’s relentless ridicule of a popular battleground state Republican posing a potential mortal threat to his campaign.

Then JD Vance got Kemp on the line. 

Within hours of their phone call last week, Kemp, who along with his wife had been the target of vicious Trump attacks , was on Fox News publicly declaring his support for the GOP ticket. Soon after, Trump was thanking the governor for the kind words.

Vance, in an interview with NBC News aboard his campaign plane Tuesday night, downplayed any role he might have had in brokering a truce, wagering that he was one of many important voices in Kemp’s ear. But Vance also described a strategy, blessed by Trump, that takes advantage of the fact that he can reason with or appeal to people in ways Trump cannot. 

After their first few joint campaign appearances, Vance recalled, Trump “said, basically, ‘I trust you. We should both be in different places, unless it’s a really big event ... divide and conquer.’” 

“We’re each trying to talk to different people in different ways, and we’re each trying to try to run the race as best we can,” Vance added. “And he obviously sets the tone and sets the policy, and I just try to help.”

Reconciling abortion differences: In the interview, Vance also touched on how he has reconciled some of his policy positions with Trump’s, particularly on abortion. Vance campaigned last year against a constitutional amendment that passed overwhelmingly in Ohio, codifying abortion rights in the state. He also in the past expressed support for federal abortion restrictions. 

But since joining the GOP ticket, Vance has deferred to Trump, who has said he wants to leave the issue to the states.

“I don’t think of it as, like, backburnering your own values,” Vance said. “I am pro-life, and I do care about the issue. I do want to save as many babies as possible. I also remember here that voters get to make these decisions, and I advocated very strongly for voters to vote no [in Ohio], and we got our asses handed to us. And so I think all of us who are pro-life have to kind of step back and say, ‘How can we better make a case to the American people here?’”

The RFK effect: Vance also laughed off memes that suggest Robert F. Kennedy Jr., who dropped out and endorsed Trump last week, should be the Republican vice presidential nominee. 

On Kennedy’s well-known vaccine skepticism, Vance said that his three children have received “the standard vaccines,” but that he likes Kennedy’s “general skepticism” to the public health bureaucracy.

“That doesn’t mean that I agree with him on every issue, but I do think that we should be a little bit more willing to challenge public health authorities in the wake of Covid,” Vance said.

Read more from the interview, including Vance’s response to an awkward visit to bakery in Georgia last week →

Harris gives Democrats new hope in Georgia

By sahil kapur, alex seitz-wald, jonathan allen and nnamdi egwuonwu.

Georgia is front and center in the presidential campaign this week, with Kamala Harris and Tim Walz embarking on a bus tour today that is scheduled to end Thursday in the Savannah area with a solo Harris rally.  

Joe Biden won Georgia by fewer than 12,000 votes over Trump in 2020, becoming the first Democrat to carry the longtime GOP stronghold in nearly three decades. Now it’s up to Harris to prove that was no fluke by keeping the state in the blue column. 

Harris is a better demographic fit than Biden in Georgia, which has the highest proportion of Black voters of any presidential battleground state. Its electorate is also younger than those of most other presidential battlegrounds, and while Biden was struggling with young voters this cycle, they appear more receptive to Harris so far. The state also has a fast-growing Asian American population , which leans Democratic and has helped the party in close races.

To win Georgia, Harris will need to reproduce the formula that powered Biden and Sen. Raphael Warnock: boosting turnout and mobilizing Democrats in deep-blue Atlanta; putting big points on the board in the city’s population-rich suburbs, which are full of well-educated voters who are skeptical of Trump; and limiting her margin of defeat in the vast and solidly red rural areas, where losing by less could hand her the state’s 16 electoral votes.

Sammy Baker, the chairman of the Gwinnett County Republican Party, acknowledged that replacing Biden with Harris has improved Democrats’ fortunes in Georgia.

“I was very, very comfortable that it would be — not an easy win, but it would be a 4- or 5-point win. I think it’s going to be a little tighter now, because I think she’s energized a few of the Democrats that were not energized before, and they seem to be a little more active,” Baker said.

Read more on the state of play in Georgia →

2008 redux? The newfound energy Democrats are feeling extends well beyond Georgia. Natasha Korecki reports that some in the party are going as far as to say that Harris is reigniting the magic of Barack Obama’s historic 2008 run. Read more →

How Harris is overthinking her media strategy

By chuck todd.

Among the sillier news cycles every campaign is the “debate over debates” and the debate over media coverage and access. It’s a conversation that the media and politicians care a lot more about than the public at large. Of course, these internal debates do matter, since they affect what the rest of the country’s voters eventually see of the presidential candidates, either on the debate stage or through the media filter. 

Let me start with the first big mistake of the Harris campaign since she took over as the Democratic nominee. They have now raised the stakes for her first sitdown interview . More words and phrases will get scrutinized simply because the campaign and the candidate are behaving as if doing these interviews is about as interesting to them as visiting the dentist’s office.

I know many Democrats have an allergy to all things Trump, but the one thing I thought more candidates would learn from his initial campaign in 2016 is that he viewed all media as good for him, whether he thought the interviewer was a friendly, a neutral or an opponent. When he said something outrageous or controversial during one sit-down, he’d do something entirely newsy (and just as notable) in another that would essentially dilute the impact of all of his interviews. 

What the Harris campaign ought to do is set aside one day a week for media interviews and saturate the landscape. As we all know, there’s no one place to go anymore to get near 100% media saturation. 

If she did five or six round-robins one day a week with a sprinkling of all types of media outlets, no one interview would be likely to overshadow any one news cycle, and she’d most likely have a chance to reach more diverse audiences on a regular schedule.  

By the way, these interviews would also help her with debate prep. Trump should be using the same strategy. Whether we like it or not, we live in a fragmented media environment, and that calls for fragmenting how a candidate reaches out. It should be an all-of-the-above strategy.  

Read more from Chuck →

🗞️ Today’s top stories

• ⚖️ Another student loan defeat : The Supreme Court rebuffed a Biden administration plea seeking to revive its latest plan to tackle federal student loan debt. Read more →
• ❗'She can go to hell': Vance condemned Harris over the Biden administration’s withdrawal from Afghanistan, using his harshest rhetoric yet towards the VP on the trail. Read more →
• 🗣️ Resurfaced remarks: Vance’s 2021 criticism of the head of the American Federation of Teachers for not having children of her own is receiving renewed attention. Read more →
• ❓An ‘incident’ at Arlington: Arlington National Cemetery officials confirmed that an “incident” occurred there Monday during a visit by Trump to commemorate the third anniversary of the Abbey Gate attacks in Afghanistan. Read more →
• ⚫ Trump shooting fallout: The man who attempted to assassinate Trump last month had searched for information on both the Republican National Convention and the Democratic National Convention before ultimately opening fire on the former president's rally in Butler, Pennsylvania, FBI officials said. Read more →
• 👀 Revisiting Jan. 6: New footage of the Jan. 6, 2021, attack on the Capitol that HBO turned over to Congress shows Nancy Pelosi calling Trump a “domestic enemy.” Read more →
• 🗳️ Ballot battles: Jim Messina, Obama’s 2012 campaign manager, is leading a new super PAC aimed at boosting the party’s legal efforts around election protection. Read more →
• 📽️ 'I’m not with her:' A new video from the Trump campaign features Black women siding with him over Harris, as the campaign looks to make inroads with a key part of the Democratic base. Read more →
• Stay up to date with the latest 2024 election developments on our live blog →

That’s all from the Politics Desk for now. If you have feedback — likes or dislikes — email us at [email protected]

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