try to compare the educational system of russia

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The Russian Educational System vs the British One

In this article let's find out the differences between the Russian educational system and the British one.

Often, open-minded parents look for a replacement for the Russian school system, seeing obvious flaws in it. A good alternative would be a British school. Such education is highly valued in many countries: England occupies the first position in the world’s best universities ranking.

The structure of the educational system

Kindergarten.

The first difference is that a kindergarten in Russia is usually an independent institution, while in the UK, children can go to school from the age of 3. There, several stages of preschool preparation are organised for them, each of them has its own pedagogical goals.

At the British International School , for example, there are 2 groups where we prepare children for basic education: Nursery and Reception. The teachers communicate with the children in English, but just in case there is a Russian-speaking assistant in the class.

Primary And Secondary School

Children are admitted to Russian primary schools from the age of 6-7, while in the UK, children enter the first grade at the age of 5. This is obligatory for everyone.

Secondary education is compulsory in both the Russian and British systems. Pupils at a comprehensive school in Russia can receive a certificate after the 9th grade, whereas in the UK it’s only after the 11th grade. Years 10 and 11 are devoted to studying the IGCSE programme. At the end there are exams. After successfully passing them, an international certificate of secondary education is given. This is the last stage of compulsory general education in the UK.

Pre-University Training

Some schools offer pre-university training in Years 12 and 13. By the way, BIS is the only one in Moscow that offers its students two international programmes to choose from: IB Diploma and A-level . They each last for 2 years and are highly regarded by universities around the world.

Holidays and School Calendar

In a typical Russian school, each academic year consists of 4 quarters of 2–2.5 months. Senior students attend classes 6 days a week, younger students go to school 5 days a week. After each quarter, children go on holiday, which lasts a week-and-a-half. At the end of the year, the longest break is as long as 3 months.

In the UK, they study by trimesters. In the middle of each trimester is a week of rest, or half-term break. There are long holidays between terms: 6 weeks in summer, and 2–3 for Easter and Christmas. Children go to school 5 days a week regardless of age.

Study Load and Programme Slant

In these aspects, the school systems of Russia and the UK differ greatly.

First of all, the British curriculum is structured completely differently. The older the students, the fewer compulsory subjects. From the very beginning, this system helps students to determine their areas of interest and to choose subjects useful for future work. The Russian system is the opposite. In the first grade, only basic subjects are studied, and more new subjects are added every year. The goal of the Russian educational system is to broaden students’ horizons as much as possible, whereas the British one helps to choose the future profession.

The second great difference is the approach to teaching. You can often hear about the individual approach in Russian schools, but it is important to understand that it is hardly possible to implement it there. It is all about the number of students in a class. In Russia, there are 25 and sometimes 30 people. In Great Britain it is 15–20. Therefore, British parents can be sure that their children will definitely be able to receive material adapted to their individual abilities, and the teacher will have enough time for everyone.

In addition, the focus of the educational programme is different. From an early age, the British are brought up to be responsible and independent, while Russian children are brought up to be patient, you cannot say otherwise. In Russia, schoolchildren get a huge number of homework assignments, many of them require learning by heart. In a British school, on the contrary, they encourage children to research, to find information by themselves and to come to conclusions. In the classroom, they discuss - not retell - textbooks. A great deal of time is devoted to creative tasks.

The British International School has been working in Moscow for 30 years and teaches children according to the national curriculum of England. Our experience shows that the British educational system is truly progressive. It gives not only deep academic knowledge, but prepares students for further study, work and adult life.

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How Are K-12 Schools Different In Russia (Compared To The U.S.)?

The question on how are K-12 schools different in Russia (Compared to the U.S.) can best be answered by looking at how they are basically structured and identifying their most distinct features. The policies on education of both countries as well as the education system control mechanisms in place at local and federal levels must then be compared. Although the structures of the educational system of both the US are similar in many ways, there are a few peculiarities that distinguish one from the other.

The American Education System

In the United States, there is no such thing as a national school system because the service of providing education to the public is decentralized. The American Constitution grants the exclusive power to craft and implement education policies to each of the states in the union. No national laws are enacted for the purpose of establishing a prescribed curriculum, the recognition of various professions and degrees, the legal status of faculty members and students, or institutional governance. The functions of the U.S. Education Department do not include them.

Creation and administration of education policy starts at the state and spills down to local and institutional levels. This includes laws on school safety and health, formulation of curriculum guidelines, creation and development of public education policies for both primary and secondary levels, appointment of boards and agencies to oversee the administration of public education, and others. The respective state legislature and state boards of education are usually responsible for developing policies on education that are implemented by the states' education departments.

Although state boards of the different states may have a lot of similarities in terms of their functions, and are composed of prominent citizens of the state, they may be formed in various ways. In some states, they are appointed by the governor or the legislative branch. In other states, they are selected by the people through general elections.

State boards in most states are responsible only up to the secondary level, while in some states, the responsibility extends to all levels of education. They perform oversight functions on educational policies. The state board (or the governor) appoints the state superintendent, the highest-ranking education official in the state who manages the day to day activities of the education department.

The Russian Education System

Unlike the U.S., Russia has a centralized education system the direction of which is determined by a specific national policy. Compulsory curriculum guidelines for all public schools are established and implemented by the "Federal Ministry of Education, Science, and Social Development." There are, however, some state-financed experiments that are being introduced such us bi-lingual schools that teach the students' native dialect. These initiatives are appreciated and allowed by the federal governors.

Although there are also government-initiated grants and programs such as those for talented and gifted students as well as those for differently-abled individuals, these efforts pale in comparison to those offered in the U.S. The Russian programs are also sometimes not properly disseminated because of lack of funding. U.S. government initiatives, in contrast are well-funded and popular in terms of information and availments.

Just like in the U.S., school choice is also provided in Russia although the initiative is less popularly known in the former Soviet republic. As opposed to the assignment by local school district on which schools children are placed based on residence, the educational reform on school choice gives parents the freedom for parents to enroll their kids in the school they prefer. Although Russian children are initially assigned the schools they should go to, they are now allowed to enroll elsewhere.

The education systems of both the U.S. and Russia were established based on tradition and historical background which explains some things that are unique in each of them. The systems evolve based on the current needs and conditions.

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Education System Profiles

Education in the russian federation.

Elizaveta Potapova, Doctoral Candidate, Central European University, and Stefan Trines, Research Editor, WENR

This article describes current trends in education and international student mobility in the Russian Federation. It includes an overview of the education system (including recent reforms), a look at student mobility into and out of the country, and a guide to educational institutions and qualifications.

The Russian Federation, more commonly and simply known as “Russia,” is a complex, heterogeneous state. Home to some 143.4 million citizens, its population includes a sizable number of ethnic minorities besides the Russian majority. Most citizens consider their mother tongue to be Russian. However, up to 100 other languages, including 35 that are “official,” remain in use. Russia, the largest nation in the world in terms of landmass, shares borders with 14 neighbors: Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, North Korea, and China.

The Federation, like the Soviet Union before it, is a nominally federal system that consists of 85 “federal subjects,” including “republics,” “oblasts” (provinces), “krais” (districts), and “cities of federal importance.” However, Russia is not a truly federal system. Because of the re-centralization of power under the rule of Vladimir Putin, Russia is often referred to as a “quasi-federal” state, or a system that is “ unitary in function .” The autonomy of provinces, republics, districts, and cities of federal importance is limited.

Some 54 percent of 25- to 64-year-old Russians held tertiary degrees as of 2015, making the country one of the most educated in the world. However, its higher education system – especially its universities are in need of modernization , particularly in terms of research, which is deemed to be lagging . As of mid-2017, the country faces a range of pressures that are affecting its education system, especially at the tertiary level. Among these are:

• Economic challenges: In recent years, the Russian government has enacted deep spending cuts across the board. Economic sanctions, deteriorating exchange rates, and a decline in the price of oil , Russia’s main export, have led to severely decreased revenues  and tightened governmental spending in multiple sectors. According to government data , federal spending on education decreased by 8.5 percent between 2014 and 2016, from 616.8 billion rubles to 564.3 billion rubles (USD $10 billion).
• Demographic pressures: The number of college- and university-age students in Russia has plummeted in recent years. Today, the country’s demographic crisis is so profound that the Russian parliament radically loosened citizenship requirements in recent months . Population decline has motivated the Russian government to stimulate the immigration of skilled workers and position the country as an international higher education destination. The decline, expected to cut tertiary enrollments by as much as 56 percent between 2008 and 2021, has also played a role in the proposed closure and merger of many universities.
• Lingering corruption:  Weak government institutions were a hallmark of the years immediately following the Soviet era. Many forms of systemic corruption went unchecked for years. As of 2017, Russia is ranked 131 st out of 176 countries on the 2016 Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index . In 2016, Russia’s general prosecutor recorded 32,824 corruption crimes , and estimated that corruption deprived the government of revenues totaling $USD 1.3 billion in that year alone – likely a lowball estimation, given that officially reported cases only represent a fraction of all instances of corruption. The higher education system is particularly vulnerable to corruption : Instructors at poorly funded universities are routinely underpaid. Ambitious students, meanwhile are seeking academic advancement and, upon graduation, improved employment prospects; many are willing to pay instructors for better grades, revised transcripts, and more. Efforts to stem admissions-related and other forms of corruption are in place, but have so far had mixed results. (See additional detail below.)

Still, the Russian government has pushed an ambitious higher education agenda focused on improving quality and international standing. The country is seeking to radically enhance the global ranking of its universities by 2020 and to attract substantial numbers of internationally mobile tertiary-level students from around the globe. At the same time, the government has actively sought to send scholars abroad – and incent them to return home as part of a broader effort to modernize the flagging economy.

This article seeks to provide an overview of the education system in Russia, especially at the tertiary level. It provides a broad context for understanding the current state of higher education in Russia; analyzes inbound and outbound mobility trends; provides a brief overview of the education system from the elementary through higher education levels; and addresses issues of quality and accreditation. It also provides a number of sample documents to help credential evaluators and others familiarize themselves with the appearance of authentic academic documents from the federation.

Economic Trends: A Recession Drives A Push for a Modernized Economy

Throughout 2015 and 2016, Russia experienced a recession that can be traced to two primary root causes: Economic sanctions imposed by Western countries in response to Russia’s annexation of Crimea and its military intervention in Ukraine, and the decline of crude oil prices. Oil exports accounted for more than 50 percent of the value of all Russian exports in 2013. Russian President Dmitry Medvedev warned as early as 2009 that Russia needed to reduce its economic dependence on commodities and modernize, and technologically upgrade Russian industries in order to sustain economic growth. The economic fallout of the recent price decline has laid bare the country’s dependence on energy exports, giving new urgency to efforts to modernize the Russian economy.

Demographic Trends: Declining Birth Rates Affect the Higher Education System

Demographic trends have had a profound effect on the Russian Federation , not least its university system. The number of secondary school graduates dropped by about 50 percent between 2000/01 and 2014/15, from 1.46 million to 701,400 graduates . The number of students enrolled in tertiary education institutions, likewise, decreased from 7.5 million students in 2008/09 to 5.2 million in 2014/15 and is expected to further decline to approximately 4.2 million students by 2021 . The United Nations estimates that the Russian population will shrink by 10 percent in the next 35 years, from 143.4 million people in 2015 to 128.6 million in 2050 ( medium variant projection , 2015). According to the World Bank, Russia’s labor force shrinks by an estimated  one million workers annually due to aging, and that aging will drain pension funds while increasing public debt . Further compounding labor shortages is a net outmigration of scientists and highly skilled workers, even though current outmigration rates remain a far cry from the massive brain drain that Russia experienced shortly after the collapse of the Soviet Union.

In the near term, these pressures may ease, at least in the education system. After sharp declines in the 1990s, Russia’s birth rates have, since the 2000s, rebounded , and current increases in fertility rates have given some observers cause for optimism. However, most analysts maintain that current fertility rates remain too low to stem overall population decline, and that demographic pressures remain one of Russia’s biggest economic challenges .

Reforms, Mergers, and University Closures

Declining student enrollments have coincided with a decrease in the number of Russian higher education institutions. In 2012, the government initiated a process of reforms and consolidation that had, by 2017, already reduced the number of institutions by more than 14 percent, from 1,046 accredited tertiary institutions in 2012/13 to 896 in 2016. In 2015, it announced that it intended to close or merge as many as 40 percent of all higher education institutions by the end of 2016, with a particular focus on the private sector. It also intended to reduce the number of branch campuses operated by universities by 80 percent. It is presently unclear, however, to what extent these cuts will go forward. In late 2016, Russia’s newly appointed minister of education suspended the mergers because of resistance from affected universities.

Other objectives included modernization and the effort to shift education and to focus on technical innovation: Simultaneous to the cuts among existing universities, plans were announced to create up to 150 new public universities specializing in technological innovation and high-tech in order to improve Russia’s international competitiveness. In 2012, Russia also established a “Council on Global Competitiveness Enhancement of Russian Universities” and launched the so-called 5/100 Russian Academic Excellence Project , an initiative that provides extensive funding for a group of 21 top universities with the goal of strengthening research and placing five Russian institutions among the top 100 universities in global university rankings by 2020 . The initiative also seeks to shift the mix of students and scholars on Russian campuses, pulling 10 percent of academics and 15 percent of students from abroad .

International Student Mobility

Inbound mobility.

Foreign student quotas are seen as a measure of the effectiveness of higher education institutions, and the Russian government has, as part of its effort to boost the rankings of its universities, made it a priority to boost international enrollments. In 2015, Russia raised the international student quota at Russian universities by 33 percent . It also significantly increased the scholarship funds available to foreign students. That same year, a number of top Russian universities included in a newly-founded Global Universities Association to jointly recruit at least 15,000 international students to Russian annually .

The majority of foreign students in Russia are enrolled in undergraduate programs at public universities. Beyond that, the trends in inbound mobility and the reasons behind them vary, depending on students’ place of origin.

• Former Soviet Republics : Geographic proximity, linguistic and economic ties make Russia the top destination of mobile students in the majority of post-Soviet Republics, where most students speak Russian as a second language. The Russian government encourages regional student exchange in an attempt to expand influence and “soft power” in other former Soviet Republics. Thus, the vast majority of foreign students in Russia, more than 60 percent, come from these countries. The three top sending countries in 2015 were Kazakhstan, which accounted for 25 percent of all students, Belarus (7.8 percent), and Ukraine, accounting for 7.2 percent.
• China: The number of Chinese students enrolled at Russian universities has increased considerably in recent years, and in 2015, China became the fourth-largest sender of international students to Russia, accounting for 7.1 percent of enrollments. Governments on both sides have in recent years taken steps to boost student exchange , and many Russian universities are expanding their recruitment efforts in China. Efforts include dual degree programs and the establishment of Russian language learning centers in China. Russia offers Chinese students a low-cost alternative compared to Western countries like the U.S., and enrollments can be expected to rise in the years ahead. (Geographic proximity is another factor.) At the same time, the inflow of Chinese students is impeded by language barriers, since most education programs in Russia are taught in Russian.
• Other Asian countries : India and Vietnam are other Asian countries that send significant numbers of international students to Russia. Enrollments from outside of Asia, by comparison, are small. European countries (excluding Turkey, Moldova, Ukraine, and Belarus) in 2014 only accounted for about one percent of international degree students in Russia, more than half of them from the Baltic States.

In 2014, students from Africa and the Americas respectively made up only about two percent and less than one percent of the total international student population.

Outbound Mobility

As of 2017, Russia’s government encourages Russian students to further their education abroad. In 2014, the government introduced a Global Education Program that seeks to facilitate human capital development in Russia and remedy shortages of skilled professionals by funding Russian graduate students at 288 selected universities abroad. Some 72 are located in the United States. The program is intended to support up to 100,000 Russian citizens over a time period of ten years and targets master’s and doctoral students in disciplines, such as engineering, basic sciences, medicine, and education. It covers students’ tuition costs and living expenses up to 2.763 million rubles (USD $48,372) annually. At the same time, the government is seeking to curtail outmigration. Grant recipients are required to return to Russia within three years to take up employment in a number of select positions, mostly in the public sector.

As of recently, such scholarship programs appear to be bearing fruit. Between 2008 and 2015, UIS data indicates that the number of outbound Russian degree students increased by 22 percent, from 44,913 to 54,923. This increase in mobility has likely been influenced by the rising cost of education in Russia, as high tuition fees have spurred students’ interest in the comparatively inexpensive universities of Central and Eastern Europe, for instance. The number of Russian applications in the Baltic countries, Poland and the Czech Republic, as well as China and Finland, has reportedly increased by 50 percent in recent years. Given Russia’s population size, however, the overall number of degree students going abroad is still quite small and makes up just about 1 percent of Russia’s 5.2 million tertiary students (2015).

The most popular destination choice among Russian degree students abroad in recent years has been Germany, where 18 percent of outbound students were enrolled in 2015 (UIS). The U.S., the Czech Republic, Great Britain, and France were the next popular choices, accounting for 9 percent, 8 percent, and 7 percent of enrollments, respectively.

China, Russia’s neighbor and an increasingly important international education provider, is another notable destination. UIS data, which tracks degree-seeking students only, does not rank China as a top-50 study destination. But China is presently ranked as the number one destination of Russian students if non-degree candidates are included in the count. According to the Project Atlas data , 21.6 percent of outbound Russian students studied in China in 2015, reflecting the strong growth in exchange programs, language training programs, and internships that has accompanied the strengthening of Sino-Russian cooperation in recent years.

Russian student mobility to the U.S. is, by comparison, anything but booming. After peaking at a high of 7,025 students in 1999/2000, the number of students has fluctuated over the past decades. The country has not been among the top 25 sending countries since 2012 (IIE, Open Doors). In 2015/16, 5,444 Russian students were enrolled at U.S. institutions, a decrease of 2.1 percent over 2014/15. In Canada, on the other hand, Russian enrollments have been mostly increasing in recent years – the number of students grew by more than 200 percent between 2006 and 2015, from 1,252 to 3,892 students, according to the data provided by the Canadian government .

Transnational Education: A Different Kind of Internationalization

Compared to countries like China or the United Arab Emirates, Russia is not a major host of foreign universities or branch campuses. The global branch campus directory maintained by the “Cross-Border Education Research Team” (C-BERT) lists only one wholly foreign-owned provider in Russia: the U.S.-based Moscow University Touro . There are a number of other foreign institutions licensed to operate in Russia, such as the “ Stockholm School of Economics Russia ,” as well as transnational partnerships like the “ German-Russian Institute of Advanced Technologies ,” but the overall number of such ventures is still relatively small.

On the other hand, Russia is a major player in transnational education (TNE) in post-Soviet countries, where Russian state universities currently operate 36 branch campuses , most of them located in Armenia, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. Unlike in countries like Australia or the UK, where TNE is primarily driven by private providers, TNE in Russia is directed by the government and presently pursued vigorously. Despite charges by the previous Minister of Education in 2014 that education at cross-border campuses was of poor quality and should be suspended, President Vladimir Putin in 2015 instead vowed to strengthen TNE in countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), where Russia is already the predominant TNE provider.

One of the reasons the Russian government is pursuing TNE is that international education is a major element in Russia’s soft power strategy in the “near abroad” aimed at fostering “economic, political and socio-cultural integration in the post-Soviet space .” This objective is formalized in the role of a government agency called Rossotrudnichestvo (Federal Agency for the CIS), which was set up to promote Russian higher education abroad, support Russian institutions located in foreign countries, and popularize Russian culture and improve the image of Russia in the CIS.

In Brief: Russia’s System of Education

Administration.

Federal Law №273 on education (2012) provides the core legal framework for the Russian education system. The Federal Ministry of Education is the executive body responsible for the formulation and implementation of education policies at all levels. Under its purview is the Federal Education and Science Supervision Agency, which is tasked with the supervision and quality control of educational institutions. Regional Ministries of Education are responsible for policy implementation at the local level.

General Education

General education in Russia comprises pre-school education, elementary education, lower-secondary, and upper-secondary education. The course of study takes 11 years in a 4+5+2 sequence. Four years of elementary education are followed by five years of lower-secondary education, which are followed by two years of upper secondary schooling. In addition to general academic programs, students can enroll in vocational-technical programs of varying lengths at the upper-secondary level (discussed further below).

Education has been compulsory until grade 11 since 2007 (until then, it was only compulsory until grade 9), and access to general education is a guaranteed right of every Russian citizen, according to article 43 of the constitution . Schooling is provided free of charge at public schools; private schools are also available, although in limited numbers. Private schools in Russia only reportedly accounted for about 1 percent of all 42,600 schools that existed in Russia in 2015.

The overall number of pupils enrolled in the Russian school system has decreased considerably over the past decades as birth rates have declined. They dropped by more than 32 percent between 2000 and 2013, from 20.5 million to 13.9 million students. Only in the last few years have enrollments started to grow again, reaching 14.6 million students in 2015/2016. The trend has been driven by an increase in birth rates beginning in the 2000s.

Participation and completion rates in general education are high. The net enrollment ratio at the elementary level was 95.2 percent in 2014, according to the World Bank . In 2011, 94 percent of 25-64 year-olds had completed at least upper-secondary education (compared to an average of 75 percent in the OECD and a 60 percent average among G-20 countries). Youth literacy is universal and has held steady at 99.7 percent since 2002, as per UIS data.

Types of Schools: Lyceums, Gymnasiums, Schools for the Gifted and Talented

Most Russian schools incorporate all stages of general education, from elementary to upper-secondary school. However, there are a number of schools that only provide elementary or lower-secondary education, mostly in more rural regions. Other schools only provide upper-secondary education. Evening schools, known as “schools for working youth” in Soviet times, for example, deliver upper-secondary education to students who completed compulsory education (grade 9, until 2007), but want to continue their education or prepare for tertiary education. These schools are attended by both children above the age of 15 and adults who want to further their education.

Other types of schools include lyceums, gymnasiums, schools for the gifted and talented, and general schools. All of these schools teach the general academic core curriculum, but some offer curricular specializations and are more selective. For instance:

• Lyceums offer specialized programs in a variety of disciplines, including sciences, mathematics, or law, and many of these schools are affiliated to universities.
• The gymnasium is a special type of school focusing on education in the humanities, including the study of two foreign languages.
• The schools for the gifted and talented are often associated with conservatories and fine arts universities and specialize in music, ballet, and performing arts, although some schools for gifted and talented children also exist in the sciences .

Education at lyceums, gymnasiums, and other specialized schools is of high quality; these schools are considered to be among the best secondary schools in Russia. An annual ranking of Russian schools conducted by the Ministry of Education included 160 lyceums and 175 gymnasiums among the country’s 500 best schools in 2016. Admission to the schools is typically competitive and may involve entrance examinations. Only about 16 percent of Russian pupils presently attend specialized schools and the availability of these schools tends to be limited in more remote provinces.

Elementary Education

Russian children enter elementary education at six to seven years of age. This stage of education lasts four years and includes instruction in the subjects of Russian language (reading, writing, literature), mathematics, history, natural sciences, arts and crafts, physical education, and a foreign language starting in grade two. Most classes are taught by one primary class teacher for the whole duration of the elementary cycle, although subjects like foreign language, physical education, music, or arts may be taught by specialized teachers. The school year runs from the beginning of September to the beginning of June. Completion of elementary education is a requirement for progression to the lower-secondary cycle, but there is no final centralized state examination as in the other stages of general education.

Lower-Secondary Education (Basic General Education)

Elementary school is followed by five years of lower-secondary education, called “basic general education” in Russia. Classes meet for 34 weeks a year and include 27 to 38 hours of weekly instruction. The federal government sets a general core curriculum of compulsory subjects, but within this framework schools have limited freedom in designing their own curricula at the local level.

Subjects studied in lower-secondary education include Russian language, foreign language, mathematics, social sciences (including history and geography), natural sciences, computer science, crafts (taught separately for girls and boys), physical education, art, and music. Students from Russian republics that have a language other than Russian as their official language have the right to study their native language in addition to Russian and can substitute Russian with their native language in the final graduation examination (a right that is guaranteed as per Russia’s education law).

The basic general education stage concludes with a final state examination, called Gosudarstvennaya Itogovaya Attestatsia or GIA. The examination covers mandatory subjects – Russian and mathematics – as well as elective subjects. Students who pass the examination are awarded the Attestat ob osnovnom obschem obrazovanii,’ commonly translated as “ Certificate of Basic Secondary Education ” or “Certificate of Incomplete Secondary Education.”

The certificate enables students to obtain entrance to secondary education, either along a general university-preparatory track or a vocational-technical track.

General Upper-Secondary Education

General upper-secondary education lasts for two years  and includes a range of subjects similar to those offered at the lower-secondary stage. It prepares students for the Unified State Examination ( Ediny Gosudarstvenny Examen or EGE), which is a series of standardized examinations conducted in May/June of each year. The EGE functions both as a final graduation examination, as well as an entrance examination for higher education. High EGE scores are important for access to the limited number of tuition-free seats at Russian universities.

The EGE is overseen by the Federal Education and Science Supervision Agency ( Rosobrnadzor ) but administered by local authorities. All students sit for mandatory mathematics and Russian language exams. Since 2015, the exam in mathematics has been split into a “base examination” required for high school graduation, and a more advanced “profile examination” required for university admission. Students who do not wish to go to university can opt to only test in the base exam and Russian language. All students who pass are awarded a Certificate of General Secondary Education ( Attestat o srednem obshchem obrazovanii ) – a final graduation certificate. The certificate also lists the grades for all subjects studied during grades 10 and 11.

Students who fail the exam can sit for it a second time, but if they fail again, they do not qualify for the award of the “ Attestat ,” and only receive a certificate of study from their secondary school. Pass rates, however, are nearly universal. According to a recent report published by Rosobrnadzor , only 1.5 percent of students in 2015, and 0.7 percent of students in 2016 failed to reach the minimum threshold in the mandatory core disciplines, which in 2016 was 27 on a 100 point scale in mathematics, and 24/100 in Russian language .

In addition to the two compulsory subjects, students can elect to be tested in an unlimited number of “profile subjects” for admission into degree programs of their choice. The subject options include physics, chemistry, biology, geography, history, social studies, literature, foreign languages, and computer science.

University Admissions

Until recently, Russia’s universities made independent admissions decisions  and did not necessarily factor in EGE performance. In 2009, however, the Russian government decided to make the use of the EGE in admissions mandatory. The impetus was twofold: to fight corruption in academic admissions, and to widen participation in higher education.

Prior to 2009, academic corruption challenges were particularly prevalent in university admissions. According to some reports, the total volume of bribes paid in connection to university admissions in Moscow in 2008 amounted to USD $520 million, with individual students paying bribes as high as $5,000 . The introduction of the EGE sought to take admissions decisions away from the universities, and replace them with objective external criteria.

The EGE also facilitates broader access to higher education. Before the introduction of the EGE, applicants often had to travel to universities across the country to sit for institutional entrance exams – a costly and time-intensive process that has now greatly improved. As per the Russian ENIC/NARIC, the EGE exam is now used in the admission of nearly 100 percent of applicants. Only two elite universities (Moscow State University and St. Petersburg State University) have been exempted and continue to administer their own admissions tests in addition to the EGE.

As of 2015, students could, according to Sergey Kravtsov , the head of the Federal Education and Science Supervision Agency, sit for the EGE examination in 5,700 testing centers throughout Russia, as well as in 52 countries abroad. A reported 584,000 students took the base stage EGE examination in 2016, and 492,000 sat for profile exams.

Upon passing the EGE exams, these students receive a certificate of results. These can be used to can apply to three different study programs at five universities at a time. Admission is competitive and based on test scores in the subjects required for particular degree specializations. Higher scores improve the chances of admission into top universities.

Certain programs that require special creative or physical abilities, for example, in artistic disciplines, sports, or military sciences, may require additional entrance examinations. Foreign students are admitted based on separate institutional admissions requirements, and typically have to take the Test of Russian as a Foreign Language (TORFL).

Academic Corruption in the EGE and Beyond

Russia is afflicted by a widespread culture of academic fraud. The introduction of the centralized EGE exam has reduced the use of direct bribes for university entrance but has reportedly led to significant test-related fraud, including, prior to the test, distribution of exam questions, and after the test, revision of incorrect answers .

Fraud is prevalent in graduate admissions as well. In one notorious example, a senior lecturer at Moscow State University was in 2010 caught accepting a bribe of €35,000 (USD $39,140) to guarantee admission to the faculty of public administration. The sale of fake degrees and the ghost-writing of papers and dissertations constitute another problem. Some experts reportedly claim that as many as 30 to 50 percent of doctoral degrees circulating in certain disciplines like law and medicine may either be fake or based on plagiarism, while other researchers assert that 20 to 30 percent of all Russian dissertations completed since the fall of the Soviet Union were purchased on the black market . The use of such suspect degrees is blatant, and not uncommon among politicians and higher-level civil servants. A 2015 study of the Dissernet Project , an organization dedicated to exposing academic fraud, found that one in nine politicians in the lower house of the Russian parliament had a plagiarized or fake academic degree . In 2006, researchers from the U.S. Brookings Institution analyzed the dissertation of President Vladimir Putin and alleged that it was plagiarized .

Vocational and Technical Education

Russia’s education system includes both secondary-level and post-secondary vocational programs, as well as programs that straddle secondary and higher education. As of the 2012 adoption of Russia’s latest federal education law, all of these programs are now primarily taught at the same types of institutions called technikums ( tehnikum ), and colleges ( kolledzh ). The professional-technical uchilische (PTU) and professional-technical lyceums (PTL) that existed prior to 2012 were largely upgraded to, or merged with, technikums and colleges.

Basic vocational programs at the secondary level are entered on the basis of the Certificate of Basic Secondary Education (grade 9) and are between one and four years in length. Programs have a focus on applied training but may also cover the general secondary education curriculum. Students who have completed general upper-secondary education can enroll in shortened versions of these programs, which are typically one to 1.5 years in length. The final credential is the Diplom o Nachalnom Professionalnom Obrazovanii (Diploma of Vocational Education). It gives access to higher-level vocational education programs and specialized employment, mostly in blue-collar occupations, such as carpentry, tailoring, cookery, or automotive technology. Graduates from programs that include a general secondary education component have the option of sitting for the EGE university entrance exams.

The popularity of basic vocational education declined rapidly after the collapse of the Soviet Union. The fact that employment was more or less mandatory during Soviet times meant that 98 percent of graduates from basic vocational programs were employed in the Soviet Union. Today, employment prospects are more precarious. The number of graduates from lower-level vocational programs has declined by 43 percent between 2000 and 2013 alone, from 762,800 to 436,000, as per the statistical data provided by the Russian government.

Advanced vocational programs, referred to as “middle level professional education” in Russia, are considered (non-tertiary) higher education. They typically last two to three years after upper-secondary school (grade 11). Students who have not yet completed upper-secondary education, however, may enter these programs after grade 9 if they meet certain additional admissions requirements. They may, for instance, have to pass admissions tests, and are required to complete the general secondary education curriculum as part of the program. Advanced vocational programs combine applied training with theoretical instruction, and usually require the preparation of a written thesis. The final credential is called Diplom o srednem professionalnom obrazovanii, which can be translated as “Diploma of Middle Level Professional Education.”

The Diploma of Middle Level Professional Education continues to serve an important function in the Russian education system, even though enrollments have begun to decline, if at smaller margins than those in basic vocational education. The credential certifies formal training in a wide range of occupations, ranging from technician to elementary school teacher to accountant. Nurses in Russia, for example, can work after completing mid-level professional education rather than earning a bachelor’s degree, as is required for licensure in the United States.

Mid-level professional education also aligns with tertiary education in that graduates may, on a case-by-case basis, be granted exemptions towards university programs in similar disciplines, and may be allowed to enter directly into the second or third year of bachelor’s programs at some universities.

Tertiary Education

Institutions.

In 2015/16, there were a total of 896 recognized tertiary education institutions in operation in the Russian Federation. Public institutions are categorized into :

• Big multi-disciplinary universities
• Academies specialized in particular professions, such as medicine, education, architecture, or agriculture
• Institutes that (typically) offer programs in singular disciplines, such as music or arts.

There are 50 specially-funded and research-focused National Research Universities and Universities of National Innovation, as well as nine Federal Universities, which were established to bundle regional education and research efforts and focus on regional socioeconomic needs in more remote parts of Russia.

Finally, there are two National Universities, the prestigious Lomonosov Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State University. These well-funded elite institutions have special legal status and are under the direct control of the federal government, which appoints their rectors and approves university charters. Moscow State University is arguably Russia’s most prestigious institution and currently enrolls more than 47,000 students. Modeled after German universities, it was founded in 1755.

Private Universities

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought about the de-ideologization of education, and successively replaced the rigid centralization and state planning of the Soviet Union with new paradigms of institutional autonomy, effectiveness, innovation, and internationalization. In contrast to other sectors, the education system, however, was spared the “ shock-therapy ” of economic liberalization, which brought about what has been described as “the most cataclysmic peacetime economic collapse of an industrial country in history.” There was no large-scale privatization of state universities and the overall structure of the education system remained largely intact. Over time, however, Russia has seen the emergence of a healthy private higher education sector following the legalization of private education in 1992.

Private institutions now account for some 366 accredited institutions – just over one-third of all higher education institutions in Russia. The number of students enrolled in these universities has increased considerably over the past decades – between 2000 and 2014 alone the number of students at private universities grew by 88 percent, from 470,600 to 884,700 students .

Today, private universities tend to supplement public education with more specialized niche offerings, rather than compete directly with the bigger state-funded universities. Private enrollments account for only about 16 percent of all tertiary enrollments. And, as demonstrated by prestigious funding projects for state universities, and the closure of private niche universities , the Russian government does presently not prioritize the development of the private sector. Private education, thus, is for the time being expected to primarily gain traction in the “ sphere of non-formal and extra-system education .”

Rankings and International Reputation

The Russian Ministry of Education maintains a webpage dedicated to tracking the progress of Russian universities in global rankings. As of 2016 rankings, the goals of the 5/100 project to place five Russian universities in the top 100 of global rankings still seem distant. Lomonosov Moscow State University was the only Russian university among the top 100 in the most common rankings. It was ranked at 87 th place in the Shanghai ranking (followed by St. Petersburg State University and Novosibirsk State University at 301-400 and 401-500, respectively). In the Times Higher Education Ranking , Lomonosov reached 188 th place in 2016/17 with no other Russian universities among the top 300. In the QS ranking , Russia’s flagship university reached 108 th place followed by St. Petersburg State University ranked at place 258. Of note is also that Russia in 2016 announced that it will launch its own international ranking , including universities from Russia, Japan, China, Brazil, India, Iran, Turkey, and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

Funding and Education Spending

As a result, education has become more expensive for many students, even in the public sector. Students with high EGE scores are usually allowed to study for free; however many students pay annual tuition fees averaging 120-140 thousand rubles (USD $2,084 to $2,432) for a bachelor’s degree and 220-250 thousand rubles (USD $3,822-4,343) for a Specialist degree (described in more detail below). Although students can take out low-interest loans, these costs are high considering Russian income levels. Inflation rates of more than 11 percent in 2014 caused many Russian universities to raise tuition fees by significant margins , while the average monthly income simultaneously dropped by 35 percent to USD $558 in 2015.

As noted earlier, federal spending on education decreased by 8.5 percent between 2014 and 2016. This downturn reverses spending increases in previous years. Between 2005 and 2013, overall Russian higher education spending as a percentage of GDP increased from 2.7 percent in 2005 to 3.8 percent in 2013 . In the tertiary sector, spending levels stayed mostly constant between 2005 and 2013, but because the number of students simultaneously declined, the amount spent per student actually rose by 32 percent to $USD 8,483 . This number, however, is still low when compared to the average spending in countries at comparable levels of development, causing observers like the World Bank to recommend that Russia increase education spending and prioritize human capital development in order to ensure sustained and inclusive economic growth.

Quality Assurance: State Accreditation and the Role of the Bologna Process

All higher education institutions in Russia, public or private, must have a state license to deliver education programs. To award nationally recognized degrees, institutions must also obtain state accreditation. The accreditation process is overseen by the Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science ( Rosobrnadzor)  and is based on institutional self-assessments, peer review, and site visits certifying compliance with standards set by Russia’s National Accreditation Agency (subordinated to Rosobrnadzor) .

Accreditation is granted for six-year periods and entitles institutions to award state-recognized diplomas in a set number of disciplines, and to apply for funding by the government. Both the National Accreditation Agency and Rosobrnadzor maintain online databases of accredited institutions and the degree programs they are authorized to offer.

A signatory to the Bologna declarations since 2003, Russia has adopted many of the quality assurance provisions stipulated in the declarations. Internal quality assurance systems have been established at most of Russia’s universities , and there are now at least five independent accreditation agencies operating in Russia. These agencies accredit programs and institutions in disciplines such as engineering and law, but accreditation by these agencies is not mandatory and does not replace existing quality assurance mechanisms, which remain strictly based on institutional accreditation by the government. Accreditation by European agencies, including those registered with the European Quality Assurance Register (EQAR) is presently not recognized by the Russian government.

Threats to Academic Freedom: The Case of the European University in St. Petersburg

Under the rule of Vladimir Putin, Russia has become an increasingly authoritarian country in which the government suppresses journalistic and academic freedoms. Threats to academic freedoms are also on the rise in other European countries like Hungary, where the government is trying to shut down the Central European University founded by U.S. billionaire philanthropist George Soros (see our related article in this month’s issue). In Russia, another Soros-supported Western-style university, the European University in St. Petersburg (EUSP) is facing a similar fate. 

EUSP is an internationally renowned private graduate school specializing in social sciences that is regarded as one of Russia’s best universities. Founded in 1994, EUSP received state accreditation in 2004, only to be closed in 2008 in what has been described as a case “ domestic ‘lawfare’ , in which state-run courts enforce political conformity through legal pretexts”. EUSP is known as a liberal-minded institution with foreign board members that teaches Western-style political science. The 2008 closure coincided with the award of a €673,000 EU grant to EUSP to improve election monitoring in Russia, after which Rosobrnadzor inspected and cited the university with technical infractions, followed by temporary closure for not meeting fire-safety standards .

The university was reopened shortly afterward but continued to face difficulties. Passage of Russia’s “ law on undesirable organizations ” forced EUSP to forego foreign funding in 2015. In 2016, Rosobrnadzor launched another wave of inspections, citing the school with 120 violations , including the lack of a fitness room and an information stand against alcoholism, after a conservative Russian politician and a key-author of Russia’s “ gay propaganda law ” had logged a series of complaints , reportedly after hearing that EUSP was teaching inappropriate content in its gender studies curriculum . Other possible reasons suggested by the media involve interests in lucrative construction contracts for the building in which EUSP is housed. In March 2017, EUSP’s license was revoked . Appeals are currently working their way through the courts while the fate of the university remains uncertain. 

Tertiary Degree Structure

Prior to the introduction of the Bologna three-cycle degree structure in 2003, tertiary education in Russia consisted mainly of long single-cycle degree programs of five to six-year duration leading to the award of a “Diploma of Specialist,” followed by a doctoral research degree called Kandidat Nauk (Candidate of Science). In 2007, the single-cycle Specialist program was replaced with a two-cycle degree system consisting of an undergraduate Bakalavr (Bachelor) degree, and a graduate Magistr (Master) degree in many fields of study. In these fields, Specialist degrees are being phased out, and the last waves of students studying under the old structure are currently reaching graduation. However, implementation of the two-cycle Bakalavr/Magistr system has not been mandated across the board, and long Specialist degrees continue to be awarded in a number of fields, including the professions and technical disciplines. The three degrees still in common circulation are thus:

• Bakalavr : Bakalavr degrees in Russia are always four years in duration (240 ECTS credits). (In other European countries the length of bachelor’s degrees varies between three and four years.) Bakalavr degrees are awarded in a wide variety of disciplines and require completion of a thesis (prepared over a time period of four months) and passing of a final state examination in addition to coursework. Admission is based on EGE results in disciplines related to the major of the program.
• Magistr : Magistr degrees are research-oriented graduate degrees that are always two years in length (120 ECTS). Programs conclude with the defense of a thesis and state examination. Admission requires a Bakalavr degree, but universities are free to set additional admission requirements, including entrance examinations and interviews. Bachelor graduates that completed a degree in a different field of study generally have to pass an entrance exam to demonstrate proficiency in the intended area of study. Holders of Specialist degrees are also eligible for admission.
• Specialist Degrees : Specialist programs are at least five years in length and involve state requirements of approximately 8,200 hours of instruction, a thesis, and state examination. Programs lead to the award of the “Diploma of Specialist” and are generally considered to be professionally rather than academically oriented, although the Specialist degree has the same legal standing as the Magistr degree and gives full access to doctoral programs.

European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credits are used in Bakalavr and Magistr programs, but, as of now, rarely in Specialist programs. The ECTS grading scale, as well as a new 0-100 grading scale, have been introduced in recent years, but are generally not used on state format academic transcripts, which continue to be issued using the standard 2 to 5 grading scale. Degree programs at both public and private universities conclude with state examinations and the defense of a thesis in front of a State Attestation Commission.

Diploma Supplements existed in Russia prior to the Bologna reforms, and are still issued for all Russian tertiary degrees.

Kandidat Nauk and Doktor Nauk

Students obtain entrance to doctoral research programs – or aspirantura – on the basis of Magistr or Specialist degrees. Doctoral programs are usually three years in length, including lectures and seminars, and independent original research. Upon completion of the study program, doctoral candidates are awarded a diploma of completion of aspirantura . A final Kandidat Nauk degree is conferred only after the public defense of the doctoral dissertation.

Another type of doctoral program, the Doktor Nauk (Doctor of Science), requires additional study beyond the Kandidat Nauk . It is a higher doctorate that entails the completion of another dissertation and takes most candidates anywhere between five and fifteen years to complete. The Doktor Nauk is required to obtain full-tenured professorship in Russia, as well as the prestigious rank of “Professor of the Russian Academy of Sciences.” Full tenure is otherwise only granted to professors with at least 15 years of outstanding teaching service at a university.

Teacher Education

Teacher training in Russia takes place both in post-secondary vocational education and the tertiary education sector, depending on the level. Pre-school and elementary school teachers are commonly trained at pedagogical colleges and are allowed to work as teachers on the basis of the Diploma of Middle Level Professional Education (although pre-school and elementary teacher training programs are also offered at universities). Secondary school teachers, on the other hand, are taught at universities and tertiary-level teacher training institutes. Upper-secondary school teachers are required to have a Specialist (or Magistr ) degree. Programs include academic study in the areas of teaching specialization, pedagogical and methodological subjects, and an in-service teaching internship.

Document Requirements

Russia is a signatory to the Hague Apostille Convention and officially certifies documents for use in other signatory states through government agencies. WES relies on this process in the authentication of academic documents from Russia.

Secondary Education

• Final graduation certificate including all subjects and grades – E.g. Certificate of (Complete) Secondary General Education ( Attestat o Srednem (Polnom) Obshchem Obrazovanii including Prilozhenie or Tabel ) – Certified by apostille through an authorized body of education of the Russian Federation. (See here for a list of appropriate education authorities).
• Precise, word-for-word English translations of all documents

Post-Secondary and Higher Education

• Degree Certificate and Academic Transcript – Certified by apostille through an authorized body of education of the Russian Federation. See here for a list of appropriate education authorities.

Click here for a PDF file of the academic documents referred to below.

• Attestat o srednem obshchem obrazovanii (Certificate of General Secondary Education)
• Diplom o srednem professionalnom obrazovanii (Diploma of Middle Level Professional Education)
• Diploma of Specialist
• Bakalavr (Bachelor)
• Magistr (Master)
• Kandidat Nauk (Candidate of Sciences)

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of World Education Services (WES).

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Preschool Education in Russia

Preschool education is not mandatory in Russia. However, over 80% of children aged 1-6 attend some form of preschool. The majority of these institutions are state-run and publicly funded, making preschool education either free or low-cost for Russian citizens. Foreign residents in Russia can also access public preschools, although they might need to navigate some additional administrative processes and limited availability. For instance, although public preschools in Moscow are generally available to foreign residents, they may need to fulfill additional proof of residence processes and compete for limited spots in popular areas. Therefore, some foreign residents opt for private or international preschools, which may offer programs better suited to their needs, such as bilingual education or a curriculum aligned with their home country’s education system.

Like elsewhere in the world, the curriculum in Russian preschools is designed to prepare children for not only the academic but also social environment of primary school, thus focusing on socialisation in addition to the development of motor skills, basic numeracy, language and creativity through a variety of activities.

Primary Education in Russia

Primary education in Russia begins at age 7 and lasts for four years, covering grades 1 through 4. This stage focuses on building a solid foundation in core subjects, ensuring that students acquire essential skills in reading, writing and mathematics. For local schools, the curriculum is standardised across the country, with students typically studying the Russian language, mathematics and introductory science.

Primary education in Russia is offered in both public and private schools. Public schools are the most common and are funded by the government, making them free for all students. These schools follow the national curriculum and are accessible to all children. Private schools, on the other hand, charge tuition fees and may offer additional programs, such as bilingual education or specialised subjects. They often have smaller class sizes and more resources, catering to families seeking a different or more tailored educational experience.

Key aspects of primary education in Russia include:

• Class Sizes: Typically, public school classes are relatively small, averaging 20-25 students per class, allowing for individual attention. Private schools often have even smaller classes.
• Daily Structure: The school day usually lasts four to five hours, with students attending classes five days a week.
• Assessment: Students are graded on a 5-point scale, where 5 is "excellent," 4 is "good," 3 is "satisfactory," and 2 is "unsatisfactory." Regular tests and homework assignments contribute to these grades, which reflect the students' understanding and performance in each subject.
• End-of-Stage Evaluation: While there are regular tests and homework throughout the primary years, there are no formal national exams at the end of primary school. Students are promoted to the next grade based on their overall performance throughout the year.

The primary school environment in Russia tends to be more formal and disciplined compared to Western countries. Teachers are highly respected, and there is a strong emphasis on order and adherence to rules. Unlike in some Western systems, where creativity and independent thinking are strongly encouraged from an early age, Russian primary schools often focus more on mastering the basics and developing good study habits. However, the environment is supportive, with teachers playing a crucial role in guiding students through this formative period.

International Education Options in Russia

Due to the limited international recognition of results in state exams, international schools have become more popular for expatriates and internationally-minded families. Russia offers a range of international education options, particularly in major cities like Moscow and St. Petersburg. According to ISC Research, there are over 50 international schools across Russia. These schools have the following characteristics:

• Language of Instruction: English is typically the primary language of instruction, with additional language support offered for non-native speakers.
• Accreditation: These schools are often accredited by international bodies, ensuring that their education standards are recognised globally.
• Tuition fees : International schools in Russia tend to have higher tuition fees compared to local schools, reflecting their specialised curriculums and smaller class sizes.

These schools provide globally recognised programmes such as the following key options:

• International Baccalaureate (IBDP): Available in several schools, offering a globally recognised diploma that is highly regarded by universities worldwide.
• British Curriculum (A-Levels and   IGCSE ): Offered in British international schools, these qualifications are essential for students planning to attend universities in the UK and other Commonwealth countries.
• American Curriculum ( SAT   Preparation): Some schools and tutors in Russia offer specific preparation for the SAT, focusing on students aiming for American higher education institutions.

This growing interest in international curricula also led to a rise in demand for specialised international curriculum tutors, such as IB tutors , both online and offline. They help students navigate the challenging curriculum. As more Russian students aim for higher education abroad, tutoring provides them with the skills and confidence needed to excel in an international academic environment.

"IB tutoring in Russia combines global standards with the rigour of Russian education, helping students excel academically and develop strong critical thinking skills," says Elena Ivanova, an experienced Physics tutor .

Vocational Education in Russia

Vocational education in Russia provides an option for students who prefer practical training over the traditional academic route. After completing basic general education, students can choose to study specific skills that are directly applicable to various trades and professions instead of further advancing to secondary generla education. They also have the option to choose a few years later, after they complete their secondary general education, to decide whether to go onto higher education or pursue vocational training.

Key aspects of vocational education in Russia include:

• Types of Institutions: Vocational education is provided by colleges (technikum) and vocational schools (uchilishche). These institutions offer programs that range from 2 to 4 years, depending on the field of study and the level of education completed by the student prior to enrollment.
• Curriculum: The curriculum in vocational schools is a blend of theoretical knowledge and hands-on training. Students spend a significant portion of their time working in workshops, laboratories, or real-world environments related to their field of study. Common areas of focus include technical trades (e.g., mechanics, electricians), service industries (e.g., hospitality, tourism), healthcare, and information technology.
• Certification: Upon completion of their vocational education, students receive a diploma or certificate that qualifies them for employment in their chosen field. These qualifications are recognised across Russia and are often highly valued by employers looking for skilled workers.
• Employment Opportunities: Graduates of vocational schools are well-prepared to enter the workforce immediately. Many programs are designed in collaboration with industry partners, ensuring that the skills taught are aligned with current market needs. This practical focus allows graduates to secure jobs more easily compared to their peers who follow a purely academic route.
• Transition to Higher Education: For students who wish to continue their studies, some vocational schools offer pathways to higher education. Graduates can enroll in universities or technical institutes, often receiving credit for the coursework completed during their vocational training.

Vocational education in Russia plays a vital role in the country's economy by providing a skilled workforce ready to meet the demands of various industries. It offers an alternative to the traditional academic path, giving students the opportunity to pursue rewarding careers in a shorter time frame.

Higher Education in Russia: Degrees and Institutions

Higher education in Russia is well-regarded globally, particularly in fields like engineering, natural sciences, and mathematics. The system is divided into several levels, with the most common degrees being the Bachelor’s , Specialist and Master’s degrees.

Key aspects of higher education in Russia include:

• Bachelor’s Degree: Typically a 4-year program, offering fundamental knowledge in a chosen field.
• Specialist Degree: Unique to Russia, this degree usually takes 5-6 years to complete and is more focused than a bachelor’s degree, often required for specialised professions like medicine, law and engineering. However, while the Specialist Degree is widely recognised in Russia and some other countries, it may be less recognised by Western Europe and North America.
• Master’s Degree: A 2-year program following a bachelor’s or specialist degree, allowing for deeper specialisation.

Russia is home to over 700 universities, with institutions like Lomonosov Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State University consistently ranked among the top in the world. These institutions attract both domestic and international students, offering a diverse range of programmes across various disciplines. According to the Ministry of Education and Science, around 4 million students are currently enrolled in Russian higher education institutions.

Challenges and Strengths of the Russian Education System

The Russian education system is known for its strong emphasis on academic rigour, particularly in STEM subjects, which has historically produced experts in fields like mathematics, engineering, and science. This focus on a solid theoretical foundation is a significant strength, providing students with deep knowledge in core areas. Compared to international curricula like the IBDP, A-Levels, or IGCSE, the Russian system offers a more centralised and uniform approach, ensuring consistency across the country.

However, the system also faces notable challenges:

• Creativity and Innovation: The emphasis on standardisation and rote learning can sometimes limit opportunities for creativity and independent thinking, areas where Western education systems often excel.
• Resource Disparities: There is a significant disparity in resources between urban and rural schools, with the latter often facing outdated facilities and a shortage of qualified teachers.
• Pressure and Stress: The intense competition for university admission, particularly in prestigious institutions, places significant pressure on students, contributing to high levels of stress.

Despite these challenges, the Russian education system remains a robust framework that prepares students well for specialised academic and professional careers. However, there is an ongoing need for reforms to address the balance between academic rigour and fostering innovation and creativity.

Conclusion: The Future of Education in Russia

The Russian education system is known for its structured and disciplined approach, particularly in the early years, contrasting with the more relaxed styles often seen in Western countries. This strict environment helps students build a strong foundation in key subjects like literacy and numeracy. Despite this traditional focus, Russia also offers international education options, especially in cities, providing a diverse and globally relevant learning experience. This blend of discipline and flexibility equips students to succeed both locally and on the global stage.

Can international students study in Russian public schools?

Yes, international students can study in Russian public schools. However, they may need to go through additional administrative processes, such as providing proof of residency or obtaining a study visa. Public schools in Russia are generally open to all children living in the country, including those from foreign families. Russian language proficiency is often required, as the majority of instruction is in Russian. Some schools, particularly in larger cities like Moscow and Saint Petersburg, may offer specialised programs or bilingual classes that accommodate non-native speakers. It's advisable for parents to contact the school directly to understand the specific requirements and support available for international students.

Are Russian diplomas recognised internationally?

Russian diplomas, particularly those from accredited universities and recognised institutions, are generally respected and recognised internationally. However, the recognition of a Russian diploma may depend on the country and the specific field of study. For instance, degrees in engineering, medicine, and the sciences are often highly regarded. Some countries might require additional certification or an equivalency evaluation, especially for professional degrees. It's important for students planning to work or continue their studies abroad to check the specific recognition criteria in the destination country. Many Russian universities have partnerships with foreign institutions, which can also facilitate the international recognition of diplomas.

What languages are taught in Russian schools?

Russian is the primary language of instruction in schools across the country. However, students are typically required to learn at least one foreign language, with English being the most commonly taught. Depending on the school and region, other languages such as German, French, Spanish, or Chinese might also be offered. In regions with significant minority populations, local languages may be included in the curriculum as well. The study of foreign languages usually begins in the primary grades and continues through secondary education. Some specialised schools and private institutions may offer advanced or bilingual language programs to further enhance students' language skills.

Is there support for students learning Russian as a second language?

Yes, many Russian schools provide support for students learning Russian as a second language. This is particularly true in schools with a significant number of international or immigrant students. Support can include additional Russian language classes, specialised teachers who focus on helping non-native speakers, and tailored learning materials. In larger cities, some schools offer bilingual programs or international curricula that accommodate students who are not fluent in Russian. These programs aim to integrate students smoothly into the Russian education system while helping them achieve proficiency in the language. Parents should inquire directly with schools about the specific support services available.

How do Russian schools handle extracurricular activities?

Extracurricular activities are an important part of student life in Russian schools. Schools typically offer a wide range of activities, including sports, arts, music, and academic clubs. Participation in extracurriculars is encouraged as it helps students develop additional skills, explore their interests, and build social connections. Many schools have dedicated facilities for activities like gymnastics, football, and music. Additionally, students may have access to cultural clubs that promote traditional Russian arts or explore global cultures. These activities often take place after school hours, and some may require a small fee. In larger cities, specialised clubs or private organisations may offer even more diverse options.

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Russian education system: trends, dimensions, quality assurance

Key transformations: historical overview

As is well-known, the United Nations Organization declared 2005-2014 the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development.

The global goal of this initiative is to attain such a level of education that could meet the crucial chal­lenges of the current century.

Therefore, new content, new quality, and a new level of cooperation are attributes of education in the XXI century.

The governments of many countries initiated reformation of their national educational systems. Russia is no exception. Substantial transformations are going on in this country as well. The following is a retrospective list of some significant events which have become core landmarks for renovations of the Russian educational system.

2003—the Russian Federation officially joined the Bologna process. The objective was Russia’s integration and partic­ipation in the processes of establishing and harmo­nization of the common European Education Area. As a result:

• Russia’s higher education adopted a multi-level education system: bachelor’s and master’s pro­grams (getting education in some disciplines, for example, in Engineering and Medicine, takes up five years and corresponds to a separate level—a spe­cialist’s program);
• the European Credits Transfer System (ECTS) was implemented;
• a Diploma Supplement compatible with a com­mon-European Official Transcript is granted upon successful graduation;
• the system of foreign academic certificates rec­ognition in the RF and Russian academic certificates recognition in foreign countries, members of the Bologna Declaration, was established;
• comparable methodologies and assessment crite­ria were developed and are in effect now, which makes it possible to perform public professional assessment of Russian study programs on the international level;
• by 2020 nearly 100% of higher education insti­tutions will meet the core requirements of the Bologna process. This final indicator of the Bologna process implementation in Russia was defined in the Federal Targeted Program for 2016-2020.

FACT The Russian Federation today:

• occupies the ninth position among 223 countries of the total population (146 million people);
• belongs to the countries with a high level of the Human Development Index (the fiftieth position among 188 countries);
• belongs to the countries with the maximum values of the Gross Enrollment Ratio in the age of 5-18 (98.7% in 2012, the expected level in 2020 is 99.4%);
• occupies the 43rd position in the Global Innovation Index ranking among 128 coun­tries. In comparison with 2012, the country has moved eight positions up in this ranking;
• according to experts' assessment, Russia's upward trend in the Global Innovation Index ranking was substantially impacted by its tra­ditionally high ranking positions in a number of indicators (sub-indexes) reflecting the qual­ity of human capital assets, predominantly: Education (the 27th position among 128 coun­tries), Higher Education (the 23rd position), Research and Development (the 25th position), Knowledge Creation (the 21st position).

2006—the National Priority Project Education was initiated in Russia. The project aimed at per­forming complex modernization of all education levels in order to achieve new quality corresponding to the current societal demands. As a result:

• the material and technical resources of educa­tional organizations were renewed;
• the top educational organization development programs competed for governmental support;
• the mechanism of identifying high-ranking higher education institutions (federal universities) as well as their government support was developed and validated;
• the experience gained by high-ranking educa­tional organizations is incorporated into practice of educational activity;
• for two years of the project implementation (2006-2008) the state gained unique manage­rial experience which shaped the contemporary national policy in education.
• 57 higher educational institutions, 9,000 sec­ondary schools, 340 educational institutions of primary and secondary vocational educa­tion got financial support for implementation of their innovative development programs;
• 40 thousand best educators and 21 thousand talented young people received monetary awards;
• over 800 thousand school teachers received an additional monthly payment for classroom management;
• Russiaʼs educational organizations received about 55 thousand units of new equipment and almost 10 thousand school buses.

2008— the beginning of a gradual implementa­tion of a new generation of the Federal State Education Standards (FSES) based on a com­petency building approach. The objective was to adapt the content of education to the latest personal, economic, societal and state demands. Due to the framework nature of the new generation standards educational organizations gained greater indepen­dence in terms of education content. For instance, while developing bachelor’s programs a higher edu­cation institution is responsible for determining independently up to 50% of courses (modules), and as for master’s programs—up to 70%. As a result:

• educational organizations obtained a tool for a prompt and flexible response to dynamic demands of the contemporary economy and society;
• employers gained an opportunity to imme­diately participate in designing curricula and programs. Today the academic community and employers’ associations are actively involved in the development and alignment of professional and educational standards. This work is coordinated by the Presidential National Council for Professional Qualifications, which was established in 2014. Among other tasks the Council should facilitate the international cooperation in developing national systems of professional qualifications;
• incorporation of the new generation of the Federal State Educational Standards along with other measures assured the achievement of new learning outcomes, continuity of education levels, practical implementation of the Bologna process requirements including the development of the “lifelong learning” model (LLL).

2012—the new Federal Law “On Education in the Russian Federation” was enacted. The objec­tive was to establish a legal environment adequate of the national educational system. As a result:

• the constitutional right of each citizen of the RF for education was confirmed once again;
• the state guaranteed an availability and a free-of-charge basis of general education and secondary vocational education as well as an opportunity to get free higher education on a competition basis;
• citizens’ right for a distance, electronic, net­work or family learning was legislated for the first time ever;
• the RF indicated its interest in improving inter­national cooperation in education, including the development of academic and student mobility, implementation of joint educational programs, car­rying out joint research, etc.;
• the excessive type segmentation of educational organizations was eliminated and a new structure of higher education was formed;
• the RF’s education level system was adapted to the requirements of the Bologna Declaration and the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED).

Education Levels in the Russian Federation:

• pre-school education (ISCED 0);
• primary general education (ISCED 1);
• basic general education (ISCED 2);
• secondary general education (ISCED 3);
• secondary vocational education: craftsman and skilled worker training (ISCED 4) / mid-ranking spe­cialist training (ISCED 5);
• higher education: Bachelor (ISCED 6);
• higher education: Master (or a five-year Higher Education Specialist) (ISCED 7);
• higher education: academic and teaching staff training, clinical residency, assistantship-intern­ship (ISCED 8).

Changes in the course: some examples

One of the key objectives of the initiated reforms is improving the quality of the Russian educational system. Is it a tangible objective? Definitely, yes. Here are some examples of a positive development of school and vocational pre-tertiary education.

Thus, according to PISA 2015 results (the Program for International Student Assessment) in By 2020 Russia intends to become one of the 15 top performers of the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) as well as to achieve the five top countries in Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) and Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS).

One of the main factors of school education quality improvement is creation of innovative learning environment in 100% of Russian gen­eral education organizations by 2020.   

In 2015 the WSI General Assembly made a deci­sion to hold the WorldSkills Competition-2019 in Kazan, Russia. The results of this WSI Competition will be organized in its Heritage, comprising cases of the best global and Russian skills practices and skilled worker training. WorldSkills Academia Russia will translate the cases into the vocational education system ( here ).

70 countries, Russia has seen slight improvements in all focus areas.

Particularly, in Science the country moved 5 places up from 37th in 2012 to 32nd in 2015.

In Reading Russia was ranked 26th in 2015, that was 16 places up in comparison with its previous performance in 2012.

In the field of Mathematics Russian students also achieved a significant progress: in 2015 Russia occu­pied the 23rd position in Maths, it was an 11-line better performance than in 2012.

The following example can illustrate the develop­ment and achievements of the vocational education system of the Russian Federation. Therefore, at the end of 2012 Russia joined the international non-commercial movement WorldSkills International (WSI) which today unites 75 countries of the world. In 2014 the Russian national team participated in Euroskills, the largest European skills competition for the title Best of Europe, for the first time and was ranked 11th. However, two years later in 2016 the Russian team became the leader of EuroSkills-2016 competitions and won the first place in the team clas­sification among 28 European countries. The similar improvement was demonstrated by the WorldSkills Russia team in the WorldSkills Competitions.

By 2020 it is planned to develop a new model of a highly competitive national system of voca­tional education meeting the needs of modern economy. As a result, advanced hi-tech indus­tries will employ annually up to 50 thousand graduates from secondary vocational education organizations that train skilled workers accord­ing to the WS standards.

The success like this is predictible. The fact is that Russia began an active upgrading of vocational skills training to comply with the international standards of WorldSkills (WS). This objective is declared to be one of essential national strategies in the area of secondary vocational education. Particularly, within this strategy:

• by now the TOP-50 list of the most in-demand and prospective jobs and fastest growing occupations is compiled on the federal level. In order to fit in students will undergo training complying with the best world standards and advanced technologies (the list includes, for example, such skills as air drone operators, mecha­tronics, mobile robotics;
• from 2017 the State Final Certification in voca­tional education organizations will include a demo exam according to the WorldSkills standards in 41 competencies. All the students who have passed the demo exam along with the Diploma of Secondary Vocational Education will be awarded a qualifica­tion recognized by enterprises working according to the WS standards;
• from 2018 specialized Centers of Excellence accredited according to the WS standards will be functioning in the regions of Russia. By 2020 it is expected that 175 such centers will be established in the country;
• from 2020 at least 40% of graduates in the TOP- 50 skills should have qualification certificates or medals of excellence according to the WS standards.

Higher education: new architecture

The strategic goal of a new quality level of Russia’s education which would meet challenges and demands of the XXI century is applied to Russian higher education to its full extent. For the past decade, since 2006, the government introduced a number of large-scale changes in the structure of higher education. The core of these changes is the establishment of a modern effective network of Russian leading HEIs which should become the driving force necessary to attain the strategic goal.

Nowadays such a network is well-established. Originally it included 41 higher education institu­tions: ten federal universities, 29 national research universities, and two oldest universities of the country—Lomonosov Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State University. The latter two got a special status of unique academic organiza­tions of national significance. In 2010 all the above mentioned educational institutions formed the Association of Leading Universities (for more details refer to here ). In 2016 another eleven universities joined this leading HEIs network as they got the status of a key university due to par­ticipation in the contest of the Ministry of Education and Science of the RF. The second stage of the Key University contest takes place in 2017. According to the Ministry, another 19 educational institutions will become key universities.

It should be noted, that most of the leading uni­versities are located in the largest cities of Russia such as Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Kazan, Samara, Yekaterinburg, Novosibirsk, Tomsk, and others.

The brief description of the mentioned HEI cat­egories is as follows.

Federal university. The name federal in this case relates to the mission and the location of such universities. The territory of Russia is divided into macro-regions which are called federal districts. Therefore, the strategic mis­sion of a federal university is creation and develop­ment of competitive human resources in the district as well as ensuring its social, economic and tech­nological progress through advanced intellectual, research and educational opportunities, solutions, and cases. Such solutions and practices should be shaped on the ground of close integration of educa­tion, science and employers representing the main industries of a federal district. Becoming such an innovative institutional integrator is the key strate­gic task of a federal university.

Ten federal universities were established in Russia in the period from 2006 to 2016.

The activity of each federal university is condi­tioned by an individual long-term development program which contains target indicators in HEI’s priorities—educational, scientific, or international (integration of Russian education into the inter­national academic area and export of educational services). It is essential that these indicators are mutually related with strategic indicators set in the programs of socioeconomic development of the macroregions—the federal districts. In addition, the development program of each federal univer­sity complies with the priority growth areas in sci­ence, technology and engineering in the Russian Federation and with the key technology list.

The priority and key technology list (approved by the President Decree in 2011 and amended in 2015) defines the main trends in the scientific, technologi­cal, economic development of the country. It frames the long-term benchmarks for Russian higher edu­cation in general and for the leading Russian uni­versities in particular—what human resources will be necessary for the science and research sector and for the national economy within the coming ten to twenty years.

FACT Over a quarter of the total number of interna­tional educators working in Russiaʼs higher edu­cation institutions are employed by twenty-nine national research universities.

National research university. The project focusing on the establishment of a national research university pool started in 2008. The higher education institution nominated for this category (as well as related budget fund­ing), similar to a federal university, should gener­ate a strategic program of its development for the period of ten years and defend it in the open contest organized by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation. National research uni­versities are selected based on the outcomes of a thorough analysis and the previous development dynamics of the applicant university. The analysis comprises such categories as human resources, an educational and research infrastructure, efficiency of academic and research activities, certificates of international and national recognition as well as the quality, feasibility and expected outcomes of the development program submitted to the contest. Despite the tough selection requirements almost every third state university in Russia applied for participation in the contest procedure. After the two-stage contest held during two years, by May 2010 the Russian network of national research uni­versities had been finally established.

Nowadays the mentioned network includes 29 educational institutions. The mission of a national research university is to a large extend similar to the strategic goals and objectives of a federal university. The difference is in the emphasis put by a federal uni­versity on academic and human resource aspects of the innovative development of Russia’s macroregions, while a national research university plays a specific role in the development of world class high technology, in knowledge creation and in training a new genera­tion of Russian researchers, scientists, and academic staff for higher education. According to this mission every national research university assumes the pro­gram obligations to improve the priority growth areas corresponding to its profile. The comprehensive list of priority growth areas (totally 106 fields) is com­piled with the view of the main objectives of the inno­vative and technological development of the Russian Federation; the priority growth areas are distributed among 29 national research universities.

Key university. Another essential ele­ment of the new up-to-date architecture of Russian higher education is a HEI category which is called key universities (for more details refer to official web-site).

• Russia is one of the global leaders in the development of the worldwide industries of a knowledge-driven economy;
• Russia is in the top 10 exporters of intel­lectual property;
• Russia is in the top 10 of the Global Innovation Index;
• Russia has a positive balance of the talents engaged in the field of science, technology and innovations;
• the average increment rate of the new NTI-economy is 9% per year;
• Russian companies created ten global technology brands.

The universities are selected to this category on a competitive basis, too. The winners of the contest are defined based on their five-year development program. In addition to this program, the applicant university should meet another eligibility requirement: it has to undergo a reorganization procedure and deliberately merge with some other state educational institutions in the same municipality. According to the program initiators, such a transformation will require integra­tion of all resources of the universities which will lead to the improved efficiency and, consequently, in the advanced quality of education in a newly organized university. At least, such expectations are clearly expressed in the government’s requirements to this new category of universities. So, after the implemeta­tion of a five-year development program a key uni­versity should feature seven headline parameters which comprise the following: at least ten thousand full-time students; at least two billion rubles as a uni­versity’s annual revenue; at least twenty majors or profiles in which the university delivers main study programs; the postgraduate and master student ratio in relation to the total number of students—at least 20%; income from research—at least 150,000 rubles per academic researcher; a number of publications indexed in the international Web of Science and Scopus systems—at least ten and twelve, respectively, per hundred of academic researchers annually.

The first stage of this contest was accomplished in 2016. As a result, eleven educational institutions were granted the status of a key university.

In 2017 the initiator of the contest, the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation will hold the second stage—another 19 key universi­ties will be determined. The third stage is planned for 2018.

• scope of research and development per aca­demic researcher—twice as high as the average in the higher education system;
• publication activities—3.5 times as high as the average in the higher education system.

Universities as development centers

According to the Global Innovation Index men­tioned above, Russia is ranked 43rd among 128 coun­tries. The crucial trend found out by this annual survey is the positive dynamics of the country’s innovative development: in comparison with 2012 the Russian Federation went eight positions up. The experts of the Global Innovation Index state that this improvement was attained due to convention­ally high rankings of Russia’s education—particu­larly those of higher education and a research sector.

Indeed, one of the major strategic concerns of Russia is the establishment of the up-to-date National Innovation System (NIS). Creation of such a system could ensure the country a rightful place in the globalized, complicated and fast-developing world of the XXI century. In Russia this understand­ing manifests itself in long-term strategic initiatives and programs developed and being implemented on the national level with a focus on consistent struc­turing of the domestic NIS. Undoubtedly, the ulti­mate fulfillment of the nation’s intellectual and cre­ative potential has a great significance for attaining this goal. Higher education as one of the main social institutions engaged in generating and developing human capital assets plays a crucial role in the imple­mentation of these initiatives and programs. Some of them will be discussed further in this chapter.

National technology initiative (NTI). The idea of the NTI was first articulated by the President of Russia in December 2014 in his Address to the Federal Assembly, “On the basis of long-term fore­casting, it is necessary to understand what chal­lenges Russia will face in 10-15 years, which inno­vative solutions will be required in order to ensure national security, quality of life, development of the sectors of the new technological order.” During the past two years the organizational structure for the NTI implementation was established and the opera­tors and key participants were defined. Namely, the federal Ministry of Education and Science was entrusted with coordinating research, educational, and technological, together with the relevant minis­tries, activities within the NTI. In the framework of several large-scale foresight sessions the experts— representatives of the academic community, hi-tech and venture businesses, governmental authorities and professional associations—created roadmaps containing schedules of the NTI implementation. The NTI directions include nine industry-specific Nets of the Market group as well as thirteen fields of the Technologies group. These Nets, inherently representing fundamentally new advanced technol­ogy markets, focus on developing transnational cor­porations of the Russian origin.

The leading Russian universities are expected to become a scientific and techno­logical foundation for the NTI implementa­tion. On the one hand, the universities’ mission is to train highly qualified professionals in the fields demanded by companies participating in the NTI; on the other hand, the universities to a great extent are becoming the main generators and stakehold­ers of technological innovations while the universi­ties spin-offs should be the NTI market leaders and shape new markets (refer to source).

Since 2004 in Russia the number of research­ers under 39 has increased by one third. This trend is more characteristic of higher education: nowadays young researchers make over 60% of Russian university employees.

At present the representatives of the leading higher education institutions, the expert com­munity, and the companies operating the NTI are model, which is believed to be similar to the concept of University 3.0, as well as in determining forms of the implementation of the NTI projects and pro­grams within universities (for more information on the National Technology Initiative refer to here ).

Russia’s innovative territorial clus­ters should become the global leaders in their investment prospects. The clus­ters play one of the key roles in creation and upgrading of 25 million high-tech work positions in the country by 2025.

For more information on Russia’s inno­vative territorial clusters and on Russia’s cluster policy refer to here and here .

Innovative territorial clusters (ITC). Nowadays clusters playing the role of a driving force for the innovative economy and generators of a new tech­nological paradigm are developing in many coun­tries. The main mission of a cluster is to create con­ditions facilitating the fastest and effective transfer of research and development from laboratories to business. The first cluster projects were initiated in Europe in the 1980s. However, the real cluster boost began worldwide in the 2000s. By 2005 about 1.5 thousand clusters operated in the world, while over 60% of them were established within this five-or-six-year period.

Russia generated and accepted the con­cept of the cluster policy in 2008, and since 2012 after the federal contest 26 pilot innovative territorial clusters have emerged in the country as their development programs have been supported by the state (the total number of clusters in the RF is over 125). The characteristic feature of innovative territorial clusters is their location in the regions traditionally featuring intensive research, engineering, and manufacturing activities.

Many prominent Russian research organizations, universities, and manufacturing companies par­ticipate in the ITCs. According to the experts, by the present time each cluster has developed close partnership relations with at least two or three universities. In Russia the interaction between a cluster and a university can be implmented in three ways: 1) delivering study programs in the cluster’s priority fields, aiming at training, retraining and further education of human resources, especially engineers; 2) doing joint applied research with busi­ness companies; 3) shared use of the HEIs’ innova­tive infrastructure. One of the generally determined algorithms for partnerships, that has already proved its efficiency, can be described as follows: the uni­versity (as a source of innovations and projects) –> the venture fund (as a source of investments) –> the innovative territorial cluster (as a user of the end intellectual product).

Strategy—2035. In December 2016 the Strategy of Russia’s Research and Technological Development was officially enacted; it is a long-term plan until 2035. The goal of the Strategy is the establishment of an effective system for growing and extensive utilization of the nation’s intellectual poten­tial. This novel document is the first to formulate the so-called “grand challenges” for future Russia. They can be explained as “a combination of prob­lems, threats and opportunities,” which already in the near-term prospect will demand large-scale institutional solutions. Among the most signifi­cant “grand challenges” are the following: issues of demography, ecology, energy efficiency, food secu­rity and national security, global competitiveness of the Russian Federation. However, the challenge list begins with the crucial for Russia statement—it deals with “depleted possibilities of the economic growth due to extensive use of primary resources.” The only appropriate solution to this and other “grand chal­lenges” is to replace the extensive national develop­ment model with the innovative one, thus making Russia’s research and technological complex a top-priority in the national development.

The research and development sector of higher education, that left behind the other Russian research and development segments (i.e. academic and corporate), should play an essential role in the fulfillment of the mentioned task. Thus, for twenty years, from 1995 to 2014, the number of higher education institutions engaged in R&D increased almost twice—from 395 up to 700. At the same time, the number of university R&D employees increased by one third—from 35.5 thousand up to 44.3 thou­sand people. Moreover, from 2004 to 2014 the Russian universities increased internal expenses on R&D by 28 times—from 2.77 billion rubles up to 77.66 billion rubles. In addition to it, the Russian university R&D sector has another peculiarity—it comprises the majority of young researchers.

The Strategy focuses on the further development of higher education and R&D. Namely, the fol­lowing directions are outlined: transforming some leading Russian HEIs into entrepreneurial universi­ties; delivering educational programs on technol­ogy entrepreneurship; establishing professional management of research and development sectors at universities; delivering special educational pro­grams for university administrators in compliance with international standards; improving the man­agement of university research laboratories through the implementation of advanced and flexible rules (standards, guidelines) regulating their activities; establishing a special register and a special ranking of research universities in the Russian Federation.

Russian universities should become a base for the system of centers of excellence and centers of com­petence. The objective of centers of excellence is to ensure the universities’ top positions in the inter­national rankings, which are compiled by surveying or engineering organizations, as well as in the bib­liometric systems. Centers of competence are sup­posed to ensure availability of advanced technolo­gies for the Russian manufacturing sector and for other research or educational institutions.

Another idea is to establish in Russia innovative territorial clusters on the base of university cam­puses and “innovative districts” in metroplexes for concentrating research and innovative activi­ties. Some experience of the implementation of this idea has been already gained. Nowadays the coun­try develops such projects as innovative centers— Skolkovo, INO Tomsk, Innopolis, and Vorobyovy Gory science and technology valley of Lomonosov Moscow State University.

An ability to generate new knowledge is one of the determining characteristics of a country pur­suing leadership in the XXI century. Russia has an infrastructure relevant for such generation: today 188 shared knowledge centers, 146 unique research units, 16 supercomputer centers operate in the country. The Russian Federation actively partici­pates in a number of breakthrough international research projects, for instance, in the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN).

The results of the Universities as Centers of Creating Innovation Areas program by 2025

• over 100 university centers of the regions’ innovative, technological and social development are established in Russia;
• at least ten leading Russian universities are ranked in the top 100 of the world uni­versity rankings.

For more information on the status and development of the innovative system of the Russian Federation refer to here .

At the same time the Megascience infrastructure is being established in the territory of the Russian Federation. It involves joint international projects such as IGNITOR—construction of an experimen­tal nuclear fusion reactor; PIK—building of a high flux reactor for the International Center of Neutron Characterization; NICA—construction of a proton and heavy ion collider, etc.

The Strategy of Research and Technological Development also focuses on establishing world-class research megaunits in the territory of Russia. The Russian Megascience projects are considered as one of efficient ways both of attracting interna­tional researchers to Russia and of Russia’s inte­gration into the global science. Thus, currently 30 countries participate in the NICA project, the col­lider is expected to be launched in 2020.

In the fall of 2017 the Russian researchers will make first experiments on the European x-ray free electron laser—European XFEL—in Hamburg. Twelve countries participated in designing, con­structing and equipping this Megascience unique research unit, Russia became one of the largest XFEL investors, beside Germany. For more information on Russia’s Strategy of Research and Technological Development refer to here ; on Russia’s participation in Megascience and the project initiatives refer to here .

Universities as centers of creating innovation areas. It is the name of a new priority action framework for development in Russian higher education.

The document was approved by the RF Presidential Council on Strategic Development and Priority Projects in the fall of 2016. In fact, the new program continuous the large-scale national project Education as it aims at systematic qualitative changes of Russia’s higher education. The imple­mentation of the project Universities as Centers of Creating Innovation Areas will involve all the leading universities of Russia.

The program is supposed to be implemented in stages during a ten-year period—up to 2025. The milestones for each stage are the quantitative and qualitative changes which should be attained in each program directions by a clearly defined deadline. The overall outcome of this program is the global com­petitiveness of Russian higher education and the development of the national network of innovative university systems—an effective action force of the country’s overall innovative transformations.

The Annual International Conference of the Asia- Pacific Quality Network (APQN) “New Horizons: Dissolving Boundaries for a Quality Region” will take place in Russia for the first time. Representatives of expert and accreditation agencies, educational institu­tions and representatives of the Ministries of Education of the Asia-Pacific countries will participate in the Conference hosted by the National Centre for Public Accreditation in Moscow on May 26-27, 2017.

For more information on the APQN Conference in Moscow refer to web-site.

Quality assurance system

The post-Soviet Russia initiated the establish­ment of the higher education assessment and qual­ity assurance system twenty-five years ago, when the Law on Education of 1992 was enacted. During this period the methodology and criteria of state accreditation of higher education institutions have been elaborated, organizational and legal regula­tions for accreditation procedures have been devel­oped as well as enormous practical experience of state accreditation has been gained.

In 2012 the new Law on Education entered into force in the Russian Federation. According to this Law, the modern higher education assessment and quality assurance system is represented by state accreditation and professional public accreditation.

The objective of state accreditation is the com­pliance of an educational program with the Federal State Education Standards (FSESs). Only such com­pliance entitles educational institutions to award state-recognized degrees. After successful comple­tion of the state accreditation procedure the higher education institution is granted an accreditation certificate which is valid for six years. After this term the HEI is to undergo the relevant accreditation pro­cedures again. A Certificate of State Accreditation of an educational program is an obligatory document to be published by the educational institution on its official website. The executive body authorized to conduct state accreditation of higher education institutions is the Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science, a structural division of the Ministry of Education and Science of the RF.

Within the past decade the professional public accreditation system was extensively developing in Russia. In contrast to state accreditation, this procedure is voluntary for higher education institu­tions. Its objective is to reveal significant (advanced) achievements of an educational institution corre­ sponding to the latest trends of the education, sci­ence and manufacturing development in Europe and in the world.

• In 2015 3,439 educational programs from 554 higher education institutions were recognized as the best, it made 13.62% of the total number of programs.
• The percentage analysis of educational programs in the leading universities of the country showed that over 20% of the programs delivered by these universities are popular. Students taking these programs have excellent learning performance.
• According to the specialized Internet survey, the percentage of programs listed in the Best Educational Programs of Innovative Russia in Lomonosov Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State University was 22.35%; in federal universities 29.8% and in national research universities 22.56%.

Nowadays Russia faces the growth of organiza­tions conducting public accreditation. First of all, it deals with large employers’ associations which include the relevant accreditation councils. In this case accreditation criteria correspond to employ­ers’ requirements to educational institutions: for example, a practical focus of educational programs, effectiveness of cooperation with partner employ­ers, demand for graduates on the labor market, etc. Some time earlier, similar organizations were established within the academic community, too. The three oldest and most reputable players in the Russian academia are the following:

• Accreditation Center of the Association for Engineering Education of Russia, AEER;
• Agency for Quality Assurance in Higher Education and Career Development, AKKORK;
• National Centre for Public Accreditation, NCPA.

It should be noted that the Russian coordina­tor of this important international meeting is the National Centre for Public Accreditation. NCPA is a full member of such international networks of quality assurance as: the European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ENQA); the Central and Eastern European Network of Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (CEE Network); the Asia-Pacific Quality Network (APQN); the International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in Higher Education (INQAAHE). Since 2013 NCPA has been a member of the IREG Observatory on Academic Ranking and Excellence (IREG Observatory); in 2014 NCPA was officially registered in the European Quality Assurance Register for Higher Education.

In 2014 the National Centre for Public Accreditation became the coordinator of the Fourth ENQA Members’ Forum which took place in Russia for the first time.

The unique NCPA’s project Best Educational Programs of Innovative Russia is one of the first projects in the country focusing on independent evalua­tion of higher education quality. The project is not a classical ranking, but selection of best programs without assigning any places or arranging any suc­cession. The project hallmark is assessment of pro­grams as other ranking projects existing in Russia focused on assessment of educational institutions differentiating them according to their profiles and types of legal entity. Such information on educa­tional programs is especially requested by prospec­tive students. It is also useful both for HEI’s admin­istration (from the rector to deans and department chairmen) and for HEI’s divisions such as Quality Management.

Distinct advantages of the project are as follows: its periodicity (implemented annually since 2010), independence (performed by the National Guild of Experts in Higher Education, and by the Accreditation in Education journal, wide public participation (over 2,000 evaluations annually), extended dissemina­tion of results (the reference book Best Educational Programs of Innovative Russia is annually published electronically and in hard copies, in 2014 it was published in English).

Other two nationwide rankings of higher educa tion in Russia are the National University Ranking compiled by Interfax and the Echo Moskvy news agency and the RAEX University Ranking. In addi­tion to it, in 2016 the ranking focusing on effective­ness of the innovative activities performed by the leading Russian universities (namely, the national research universities, the Project 5-100 universi­ties, the federal universities) was published for the first time. The project was implemented by ITMO University and Russian Venture Company (RVC) (for more details refer to web-site).

Summarizing the information of this chapter it should be noted that professional associations and public organizations—employers, academic and expert communities, student associations—are taking a more active and significant part in the establishment and development of the Russian pro­fessional education assessment and quality assur­ance system. However, the significant institutional stakeholder of this system is the state itself. In par­ticular, except state accreditation, in 2012 the gov­ernment, represented by the Ministry of Education and Science of the RF, initiated the annual monitor­ing of HEI’s efficiency and the monitoring of train­ing quality in educational institutions delivering programs of secondary vocational education. The information and analytical materials of the moni­toring are annually published on the special website and publicly available.

This procedure focuses on revealing and analyz­ing the compliance of the university activities with the criteria set by the state. The criteria concern the following fields: education, research, international activities, financial and economic activities, aca­demic staff salaries, graduates’ employment, etc. If an educational institution meets less than four out of seven monitoring indicators (i.e. it attained the threshold requirements) then a special inter-institutional commission should be established for elaborating recommendations for the founders of an ineffective educational institution. In each case recommendations can vary; they may contain mea­sures for optimization of a HEI’s activities or, as an extreme measure, a proposal for HEI’s liquidation. Thus, the annual monitoring is a tool for operative analysis of higher education and vocational educa­tion institutions in Russia and for eliminating a low quality sector, if necessary.

From 2007 to 2017 the number of international students in Russia has increased from 102.9 thou­sand up to 156.2 thousand people. According to the survey among international students, the number of responses that the quality of education delivered by Russian universities completely con­formed to their personal expectations increased from 47% in 2001 up to 78% in 2015.

Higher education in Russia: international dimension

The measures taken within the past decade and aimed at the modernization and quality improve­ment of higher education have already resulted in some positive outcomes. It is proved by the increased number of Russian universities presented in differ­ent world education rankings as well as by improv­ing their ranking positions in comparison with the previous ranking surveys (for more information on this topic refer to the article “Rankings: the Leadership Race” in this issue). Nowadays the Project 5-100 is initiated and being implemented in Russia; its goal is the targeted state support of the leading Russian universities’ competitiveness and their promotion in the global education area ( here ).

An additional way of integration of Russian higher education with international partner universities is the establishment of network universities:

• BRICS Network University;
• University SCO (the Shanghai Cooperation Organization);
• the Commonwealth of Independent States Network University.

The significant state project promoting the integration academic processes is the Megagrant Program. The Minister of Education and Science of the RF Olga Vasilyeva called this program “Russia’s business card for international cooperation in sci­ence and technology.” The program initiated in 2010 will be in progress until 2020. Its goal is the establishment of the world-class research laborato­ries on the base of Russian universities and research centers as well as the development of advanced sci­entific schools and research teams. The objective of research laboratories is breakthrough fundamental and applied research, the outcomes of which can be used in the real economy.

Grants are awarded to those who intend to imple­ment their ideas in this country together with Russian expert teams. The grantees are leading interna­tional and Russian scientists, Russian citizens work­ing abroad at the moment. From 2010 to 2016 five Megagrant contests took place, they aroused great interest of the global research community. All in all during this time scientists from 45 countries submitted almost 3,000 applications. All the submitted projects are considered in accordance with international stan­dards. Eventually, 78 foreign and 82 Russian scientists (including 57 researchers living abroad) became the program finalists. The program winner lists include five Nobel laureates, Fields Medalists, Humboldt Prize winners, and other prestigious prize holders.

The establishment of up-to-date environment for life and professional activities as well as most favored conditions for study and research is the main ground which can make Russia a country attracting international researchers, educators, and students. Definitely, it is a large-scale task, and its solution is a long-term project by itself. Not only for selected universities, but also for

the country—soci­ety and the state—as a whole. Will Russia meet this challenge? Let statistics show.

Nowadays within the Megagrant Program 200 world-class research laboratories in the fields of machine building, space exploration, new tech­nology creation, medical product development, diagnostics and treatment, and others are estab­lished on the base of the leading Russian univer­sities and research centers.

Over 50% of laboratory staff are young researchers under 35.

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Comparing the Russian and UK Education Systems: A Comprehensive Guide for Russian Students Thinking About Studying in the UK.

19th March 24

Introduction

Are you a Russian student considering studying in the UK? Understanding the differences between the Russian and UK education systems is crucial for making an informed decision about your academic future. In this guide, we’ll delve deep into each level of education, comparing and contrasting the systems of both countries to help you navigate your options effectively.

Primary Education: Nurturing Young Minds

Russia: Primary General Education

In Russia, primary school, overseen by the Ministry of Education, is compulsory for all children. Primary education in Russia spans grades 1 to 4 , beginning around the age of six . The curriculum emphasises core subjects such as mathematics, Russian language, literature, science, and social studies, laying a solid academic foundation for further learning. Most schools introduce English or German, along with music, physical education, and “the world around us,” covering geography and history. Instruction tends to be teacher-centred, with a focus on rote learning and memorisation.

UK: Key Stage 1 and 2

In the UK, Key Stage 1 (ages 5 to 7) and Key Stage 2 (ages 7 to 11) are taught in a primary school setting. Students study a broad range of subjects, including English, mathematics, science, history, geography, and art, with a focus on developing literacy and numeracy skills. The curriculum promotes a more child-centred approach, with an emphasis on active learning, critical thinking, and creativity.

Upper Secondary Education: Specialisation and Preparation

Russia: Grades 10 to 11

Upon finishing nine compulsory years of education, students have the option to continue for an additional two years in high school. After Year 11, both school and state examinations are taken and successful candidates are granted the Certificate of Secondary General Education (Attestat o srednem obshem obrazovanii) . This, coupled with the results of the Unified State Examinations (USE) , facilitates entry into higher education .

Upper Secondary Education in Russia covers grades 10 to 11 and is not compulsory. Students have the option to specialise in specific subjects, with schools offering both basic and profile (advanced) level courses. The curriculum includes core subjects alongside elective choices, with an increasing focus on preparation for university entrance examinations .

UK: Post-16 Education

In the UK, post-16 education includes a variety of pathways such as A-levels, vocational qualifications (e.g., BTECs),and apprenticeships . Students typically choose subjects aligned with their career aspirations or university goals, leading to further academic or vocational pursuits. Instruction emphasises independent study, critical analysis, and preparation for higher education or the workforce.

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At Abbey DLD we strive to achieve the highest academic standards whilst providing a welcoming, safe and high-quality learning and boarding experience for students from around the world. We aim to help our students achieve the academic success needed to progress to the UK and the world’s top universities, whilst also developing the personal skills and qualities to succeed at university and beyond.

British vs Russian Education System Comparison Table

To provide a clear overview, the comparison table below highlights the key differences between the Russian and British education systems:

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Tertiary Education: Pursuing Higher Learning

Russia: Higher Education System

In Russia, tertiary education typically begins after completion of upper secondary education. The system offers a variety of options, including universities, institutes, and academies. Bachelors degree programmes typically last for four years, while Masters programmes typically last for two additional years.

The curriculum in Russian higher education institutions is often structured around lectures, seminars, and practical exercises. Students are expected to conduct independent research and complete projects as part of their coursework. Assessment methods may include examinations, coursework, presentations, and theses.

UK: Higher Education Landscape

In the UK, higher education is offered by universities and colleges, with degree programs ranging from undergraduate to postgraduate levels. Undergraduate degrees typically take three to four years to complete, while Masters degrees can take one to two years.

The UK higher education system emphasises independent study, critical thinking, and research skills. Teaching methods include lectures, seminars, tutorials, and laboratory sessions. Assessment methods vary but often include examinations, essays, coursework, presentations, and dissertations.

Understanding the nuances of the education systems in Russia and the UK is essential for students contemplating studying abroad. Whether you’re considering the structured approach of the Russian system or the flexible pathways offered in the UK, weighing your options carefully will empower you to make the best decision for your academic journey.

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What is education in Russia like? A U.S. teacher investigates

A truck arrives at your house. A couple you’ve never met before open the back and begin unloading stacks of broken wood, cracked tiles, dried out plaster, bent nails, stripped screws, used electrical wiring, dented sheets of metal, and a hammer made of hopes and dreams. They say, “Build us a house!”

You do your best. For years, you continue in this Kafkaesque nightmare, more people come with more supplies. You fight fires and floods and you build house after house after house. No one thanks you and most of what you build is shipped away unfinished into the scrapyard of life.

This is what it’s like to be a teacher. Except that, lest we forget, you’re also in a grotesque fairy-tale where planks of wood and strips of sheet-metal have mouths that often bite and sometimes tell you to fuck yourself.

If that seems dreary, try to remember what it felt like to be a pile of stripped screws, bent nails, and scrapped lumber.

‘Sometimes they throw puberty at you’

I’ve taught many Russian students over the years, both in and out of a classroom. In this time, I’ve learned one thing: they are just like students all over the world: they are intelligent and funny and hardworking and yes, sometimes they throw puberty at you.

When I reached out to Russians to discuss their education, I found a genuine concern and a great deal of passion. I expected anecdotes, petty complaints, and conflicting ideologies. What I received was a series of very consistent constructive ideas on where the Russian education system has gone wrong that are well worth ruminating over:

Curriculums are focused more on math and science than on humanities

Despite having one of the highest literacy rates in the world, (~100% compared to the U.S. ~86%) Some of the Russians I spoke to criticize their education system for not focusing enough on humanities:

“About the education system itself I think we have more deep learning in exact sciences (physics, biology, and chemistry are separated) so it explains why there are a lot of Russian hackers and mathematicians.” – Zoe, current high school student in Russia.

“Humanities in general are considered to be the despicable fate of those who are incompetent of doing math and physics. Thus, the technical subjects would be superior, while humanities would serve as leftovers.” – Ulia, graduated from high school in 2015.

However, not everyone agrees. One highschool biology teacher has found that students are much more likely to excel in history over math and science:

“Most students do not know biology, chemistry, or physics very well. I am preparing some of them for exams, so I know firsthand. Meanwhile, judging by my experiences with Russian students, they're better in history. It's hard to say on what Russian schools focus. School in the USSR were good in math and geography, but now there are too many old teachers who have problems with computers and the internet. On the other hand, there are some really good schools in cities.” – Evgeny, highschool biology teacher in Russia.

There’s a lack of critical thinking and personal expression:

When I was in high school critical thinking was lauded as an essential aspect of education. I was taught to think and be critical of everything; except my teachers, the textbook, my homework, the school, my parents, the principal – it was most important to be critical of authority that was very far away, or dead.

“Compared with my experience with American universities (I know some people who teach students) — on subjects like social studies, history, etc. we almost never wrote papers that were aimed at expressing our thinking, and Americans do it all the time. We were, like, “This scholar wrote that…,” and here you effectively summarize their opus magnum, or “There are two approaches to this problem: first, …, and as opposed to this, there’s another view...” Very rarely it was required that a student actually expresses their own stance and argue it.” – Nadja, studied in Russia in the early 2000s.

READ MORE: What were Russian kids in the 20th century told about sex?

“Russian education does not seem to facilitate personal or professional development of a child, but rather holds an ambition of bluntly transitioning the facts written in a Soviet textbook into a student’s head…The complete absence of critical thinking is probably the most obvious problem in Russian schools. We are taught what to think, not how to think, which is exactly the opposite of what education should be about.” – Ulia, graduated from high school in 2015.

“Trying to teach you how to think critically is a rare thing, even if a teacher is a young enlightened person, he/she cannot do anything with that due to the staff and curriculum. Trying to make some real sense is a straight path to being fired. So, yeah, the educational system is outdated, it doesn't do its work as it did in the USSR, times have changed.” – Denis, taught biology to Russian students in Grades 5 and 9.

There’s a lack of choice for Russian students to explore new subjects

“In Russian high school you generally can’t pick subjects and make up your own schedule. You have a fixed schedule, with different subjects every day, you have a paper school diary where you write that schedule and write down your homework assignments… In the U.S., I could pick any subjects that I like, as long as combined they give you at least the minimum amount of credit required to pass the term. I liked this approach: I picked AP calculus and AP physics because I liked math, and I didn’t have to torture through chemistry or biology or art or any other subject I find excruciatingly boring.” – Ilya, studied in USA and Russia.

“In my time, Russian school education had little to no subjects by choice, and you had to complete bare minimum courses in math, physics, chemistry, astronomy, and other stuff that you may or may not need. That seems like a waste of time and effort for vertical education evangelists, but actually this basis provides you a better catch-all foundation for broad horizons, system thinking and teaches you to see connections between things.” – Nadja, studied in Russia in the early 2000s.

What are teachers like in Russia?

“The last but not the least – the attitude. The teacher is always right. They can easily call a student an idiot, an imbecile, an incompetent nobody – that is common practice. The children are shown that they can be treated like shit by the more powerful others and do nothing about it. Of course, there are great teachers with true love for education and children, but they are more likely to be an exception rather than the norm. Education is our past, present, and most importantly, our future. It demands a drastic transition.” – Ulia, graduated from high school in 2015.

“Well, it's more about respect as you said, not discipline. Quite often teachers (usually ones from the Soviet era) are really conservative like Putin is the only true leader, women have to care more about the family than the career and stuff, and it’s hard to find the line between respectful disagreement and being a moron.” – Zoe, current highschool student in Russia.

“If we talk about the learning process itself, then in the West the teacher tries to be a friend and person, then in the Russian school teachers are often fenced off from students by the severity and the need to complete tasks.” – Nika, University Student Studying Technology.

Many teachers are underpaid and unmotivated

One of the other most consistent comments I received rings true all over the world: if we continue to pay teachers below-par salaries, future generations will suffer.

“But, the one big ‘but,’ is the salary. Teachers, such important people in people’s lives, still get low salaries. It's just barely possible to stay positive and spread joy in such conditions for a long time, you know. You just must be created for that to carry on like this long-term.” – Denis, taught biology to Russian students in Grades 5 and 9.

“Teaching is not a well-paid job in Russia, so people who really want to earn money don't work in education. Which means those who stay in education, whether they really like it or just want to torture other people. Unfortunately, those who like teaching can't last long at schools or universities and they leave the field, disappointed.” – Daria, graduated high-school in 2007.

READ MORE: Which Russian universities produce the most billionaires?

It fascinates me that policy makers allocate funds to make schools more high-tech without understanding a simple truth about education: a great teacher can impart far more with a stick and a pile of sand than a bad teacher with all of the iPads in the world.

I’m one of those foolish people who believe that education is the key to solving the world’s problems, but this means money needs to be better spent.

In America, we have a yearly budget for education that amounts to $68 billion. In Russia, the yearly budget for education is $10 billion. If we stack these numbers up against American and Russian military budgets, we get a good idea of our countries’ priorities: Russia: $69 Billion. America: $600 billion.

So, here is my wild idea:

Why doesn’t the world spend some of the money it uses to kill each other to compensate compassionate, well-educated teachers who are the only ones who stand a chance at raising a new generation of people who might not want to kill each other as much. Perhaps this would grant the world more parents who admire teachers, rather than think they know better; students who are eager to attend classes and learn, rather than wallow in boredom and resentment; and policy makers who understand the value of a mentor and guide in education, rather than our medley of politicians with their thumbs up their asses.

But what do I know, I graduated from public school.

Benjamin Davis , an American writer living in Russia, explores various topics, from the pointless to the profound, through conversations with Russians. Last time he explored what Russians think of guns . If you have something to say or want Benjamin to explore a particular topic, write us in a comment section below or write us on   Facebook .

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Education in Russia - statistics & facts

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Leading countries by gross research and development (R&D) expenditure worldwide in 2022 (in billion PPP U.S. dollars)

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Top host destination of international students worldwide in 2022, by number of students

International student share of higher-ed population worldwide in 2022, by country

Countries with the largest amount of international students as a share of the total higher education population in 2022

Field of study of international students worldwide 2022, by country

Field of study of international students worldwide in 2022, by country

Pupil-teacher ratio in Russia 2022, by education level

Average number of students per teacher in Russia in 2022, by educational stage

Supplementary professional education market size in Russia 2017-2022

Market volume of supplementary professional education in Russia from 2017 to 2022 (in million academic hours)

Education spending

• Basic Statistic Spending on education in Russia 2019-2022, by source
• Basic Statistic Government spending on education as a GDP share in Russia 2010-2022
• Basic Statistic Government spending on education in Russia 2022, by level
• Basic Statistic Public education spending per student in Russia 2022, by segment
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Spending on education in Russia 2019-2022, by source

Education spending in Russia from 2019 to 2022, by source (in billion Russian rubles)

Share of government expenditure on education in gross domestic product (GDP) in Russia from 2010 to 2022

Government expenditure on education in Russia in 2022, by segment (in billion Russian rubles)

Public education spending per student in Russia 2022, by segment

Government expenditure on education per student in Russia in 2022, by stage (in 1,000 Russian rubles)

Average consumer prices on education services in Russia 2022

Average consumer prices on selected types of education services in Russia in 2022 (in Russian rubles)

Preschool & general education

• Premium Statistic Children enrolled in preschool education in Russia 2015-2022
• Basic Statistic Share of children enrolled in preschool education in Russia 2022, by region
• Basic Statistic Number of school students in Russia 2022/2023, by educational stage
• Basic Statistic Number of school students in Russia 2015-2022, by type of area
• Basic Statistic General education institution count in Russia 2014-2022
• Basic Statistic Number of village schools in Russia 2010-2022, by ownership
• Basic Statistic Leading schools in Russia 2022, by graduate competitiveness
• Basic Statistic Unified State Exam average score in Russia 2022, by subject
• Basic Statistic Unified State Exam participants in Russia 2022, by subject
• Basic Statistic Attitude toward the Unified State Exam in Russia 2009-2023

Children enrolled in preschool education in Russia 2015-2022

Number of children enrolled in preschool institutions in Russia from 2015 to 2022 (in millions)

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Number of children enrolled in preschool education institutions as a share of total children aged 1-6 years in Russia in 2022, by federal district

Number of school students in Russia 2022/2023, by educational stage

Number of students enrolled in general education institutions in Russia as of the beginning of school year 2022/2023, by stage (in 1,000s)

Number of school students in Russia 2015-2022, by type of area

Number of students in state (municipal) schools in Russia from school year 2015/2016 to 2022/2023, by type of area (in millions)

General education institution count in Russia 2014-2022

Number of primary, basic general, and general secondary education institutions in Russia from school year 2014/2015 to 2022/2023 (in 1,000s)

Number of village schools in Russia 2010-2022, by ownership

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Studying in Russia: How Is Higher Education System Different?

No comments · Posted by Alex Smirnov in Education

Thinking about acquiring education in Russia? Though this country has never been a very popular destination for international students, times change. Today, studying in this country is an opportunity to get high-quality education for free or at a very affordable price.

But, what should one be prepared for when applying? There are a number of factors that make the Russian higher education system different from the US or European ones, and we’re here to tell you more!

Language of Instruction

Officially, the language of instruction in the country’s universities is Russian. This fact can turn into a significant stumbling point for international students.

Although many schools offer preparatory language courses to help international students acquire the skills they need to study in Russian, we have to say that this language can be extremely hard to learn. So, if you still decide to test your luck, be ready that you will need some extra help from a professional online essay writing service in order to keep your grades high.

One more thing we have to note is that it is possible to find English-taught programs in Russia. But, there are not too many of those. And, the majority of English-taught programs are available starting from the MA level.

Student Demographics

According to the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation, there were close to 4 million students in Russian higher education facilities at the end of 2020. And, according to the Institute of International Education (IEE) , the number of international students in the same year was 353,331. This is not a large share of the total number of students, especially if you compare it to the indicators of some well-known American and European universities that host a huge number of international students. However, the Russian education system has been pretty actively developing lately to invite more international students.

Higher Education System in Russia

Basically, in every higher education facility, an academic year is divided into two semesters. The first semester traditionally begins on September 1st and goes on to January 25th. Then students have their winter break. After the break, the second semester begins, and students come back on February 9th and continue studying till June 30th. All in all, the academic year lasts for ten months.

What about the finals? In the last month of every semester (i.e., in January and June), students have to take their term exams on the specific subjects they picked for their curriculum.

Now, let’s look closer at the system in general.

Types of Institutions

There are three types of higher education facilities in Russia:

• Universities. This type of institution provides training programs for students of all levels, including graduate, postgraduate, and continuing education.
• Academies. Another type of education facility also offers a wide range of programs for different academic levels. However, unlike universities, academies make a larger focus on developing students’ practical skills in a specific field (e.g., architecture, music, art, etc.) instead of just providing them with knowledge.
• Institutes. Finally, there are independent higher education facilities that are typically branches of larger universities or academies. Institutes offer professional education courses on a variety of disciplines.

Types of Degrees

Let us give you a quick overview of the different degree types that can be pursued in Russian universities:

• Bachelor’s or Specialist’s degree. The two lowest higher education degrees are Bachelor’s or Specialist’s degree. These can be pursued right upon completion of your secondary education. Typically, a Bachelor’s degree takes 4 years to complete, whereas a Specialist’s degree will take a minimum of 5 years to obtain. The core difference between these two types of degrees is that Bachelor’s provides general education, while a Specialist’s degree is more focused on practical experience. Both degrees qualify you to pursue an MA degree later.
• Master’s degree. The next step after a Specialist’s or Bachelor’s degree is a Master’s course. Typically, the duration of this course is two years, one of which is fully dedicated to practice, research, and preparation of a master’s thesis.
• Ph.D. and Doctoral. After graduating from a Master’s program, students can continue their studies by acquiring a Ph.D. degree and then the final Doctoral degree, which is the highest you can get.

Grading System

A significant difference between education in Russia and the US is a different grading system. Unlike habitual A through F letter grades that are used to evaluate students’ progress in American schools and colleges, higher education facilities in Russia use a five-point grading scale.

This grading system in Russian universities has been officially established since the middle of the nineteenth century. The scale is used to evaluate students’ work.

Basically, the five-point scale can be interpreted the following way:

Please note that in the Russian grading system, there are two grades that are considered unsatisfactory. Instead of a D grade, which is generally assumed to be passable, there are grades 1 and 2, which are basically the equivalents of an F grade. Receiving either 1 or 2 means that you didn’t pass. When students graduate, they only get grades from excellent to satisfactory in their college transcripts. Respectively, if you score any of the two lowest grades for a specific subject, you won’t be able to graduate.

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Changes in Educational Ideology and Format: 18th to 20th Century Practices

A Soviet poster describing the importance for all to be productive and help build new schools for the proletariat.

This research guide provides a launching point for further study into the topic of eduction in Russia, specifically focusing on the changes that occurred in education due to the transition from Imperial Russia to Bolshevik and Soviet Russia. The time period for this guide begins during the mid 19th century and follows through the mid 20th century. Education in Russia has always been closely associated with society for example it was an exclusive commodity during Imperial Russia when class barriers were firm but as class barrier were broken down during the Russian Revolution education became available to the masses through the Bolshevik ideal of universal education.

Education during Imperial Russia functioned as a means to limit the social mobility of many while it later would serve as a means of social enlightenment during Bolshevik and Soviet Russia. Official state treatment of education shifted with the economic, political, and military issues of each time period. Both Imperial Russia and Soviet Russia utilized education as a means of social control to promote a state agenda or create cohesion. This state approach towards education as a tool begins to demonstrate the complex relationship between state, educational institution, educator, student, and society. To understand the condition of education during these phases of Russian history illuminates the nature of society for the specific period.

Behind many of the major changes in education were state sponsored prerogatives. For example if one where to ask what form did change occur in the educational system? and why did this change occur? The answer would ultimately be tied into a goal or mission of the state. During the reign of Tsar Peter I, compulsory education was initiated as to enlighten and modernize Russian society due to the desire of Peter I to bring Russia out of the dark. Answering the perviously stated questions becomes increasingly difficult as the Bolsheviks and Soviet take power and reshape education. To explain the purpose of universal education one might conclude that it was inline with socialist values but further analysis into this change in educational practice demonstrates state use of education as a means to quell dissenters by creating social cohesion thus solidifying the socialist state.

While many of the educational changes that have occurred over time in Russia have been executed a state agenda there have also been many genuine attempts to reformat education for the good of society. During the late 17th centuryTsar Fyodor III valued education and felt compassion for the poor, he took action to create a school specifically for the poor resulting in the creation of  The Graeco-Latin-Slavic academy in Moscow. Later on during the mid to late 19th century Count Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy at the author of War and Peace , opened up his own schools for peasant. The schools he operated utilized organic learning which set them apart from the rigid form of education that was popular in Russia and Europe. The history of Russia education is a constant mixing between hopes and realities as visionaries of educational reform would find their ideas come to life but often to reach an alternative end decided on by external individual or group.

A compilation of sources have been collected on the history of Russian education, the changes of practice, format and ideology of Russia education, and the issues surrounding education at the time. Scholarly journal writings, historiographies, and primary sources make up the majority of the complied sources below. The works are organized under three topics; education during Tsarist Russia, education during early Revolutionary Russia, and Education during early Soviet Russia.

Education During Imperial Russia

Education was predominately exclusive, religious, and limited in length during Imperial Russia. No form of universal public education had yet been established leaving only those with financial means the ability to enroll in educational institutions at the secondary and university level. The gymnasium form of education adopted from Germany  provided greater accessibility to education for the elites which contributed to the growth of national culture but  also caused a polarization of the educated elite further separating the group from the majority of Russian society. Conservatism was a major theme of these schools both in curriculum and mission. Common curricula at the time focused on classical works, history, political theory, and economics. The common mission of these primary and secondary schools was to mold the student population into a cohesive, mild group that could not become radicalized and cause revolution like that seen in France in 1789. Universities proved a challenge for the Imperial Government and were never tamed due to the influence of intellectuals over the institutions.

Zaikonospassky Monastery that was transformed into the Slavic Greek Latin Academy

• Pipes, Richard.  Russia Under The Old Regime. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1974.

Richard Pipes provides an overview of education in Tsarist Russia in  Russia Under The Old Regime. He provides valuable insight as he highlights the relationships between peasant, clergy, elite and education. Pipes focuses on the reforms initiated by Peter I in regards to education. Under Peter I a system of mandatory education was created for all young men who upon state inspection would be either sent to school or sent off to service. Peter I had the goal of creating an educated Russian population but his reforms such as compulsory education/state service were some of the most despised of all of the reforms.

• Auty, Robert, and Obolensky, Dimitri.  An Introduction to Russian History: Companion to Russian studies. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976.

Tsar Fyodor III

Tsar Fyodor III possessed an appreciation for Western Europe, this materialized through the creation of a Graeco-Latin-Slavic academy in Moscow. This academic institution was created specifically for the children of poorer classes. Peter I set up ‘cypher’ schools staffed by clergy as part of his compulsory education reform. These schools found little success due to the clergies’ inability to teach secular studies and the elite’s disapproval of mixing of social classes in schools. Other fear of rapid educational expansion most notability included the elite’s fear that a chaotic change of social order would occur. The push for mass education that came from Fyodor III and Peter I continued through the early 20th century increasing literacy from roughly 20% in 1897 to 44% in 1914.

• Freeze, Gregory L.  Russia: A History. New York: Oxford University Press: 2002.

Gregory Freeze writes extensively on the condition of Russia from the 16th century through the 20th century. He emphasis on transitions in Russia allows the reader to follow the changing education system. In 1667 Russia acquired the left bank of Ukraine bringing an influx of educated men into Russia promoting a new level of scholarship. While Peter I visited Western Europe he recruited experts from Europe, some of the most influential recruits were Joseph Nye, John Deane, John Perry, and Henry  Farquharson all who played a role in building Russia’s new navy. With plans drafted by Peter I, The Imperial Academy of Sciences opened in 1725 that would overtime solidify itself as a reputable institution of higher education in Russia.The Spiritual Regulations of 1721 required an educated, literate clergy to do so  a seminary system based on the Jesuit seminary system was adopted and common practice by the 1780s. Alexander I took on the challenge of providing higher education regardless of class for Russian by creating universities in Kharkov, Kazan, and St. Petersburg. The growth of education brought about two forces that would challenge imperialism: nationalism and the desire for participation in politics. During the late 1920s of Russia measures were taken to remove privileged groups from higher education replacing them with working class groups.

• Thaden, Edward.  Conservative Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Russia. Seattle: University of Washington Press,1964.

Conservatism in 19th century Russia can be equated with the phrase Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Nationality. A major proponent of this conservative push in 19th century Russia was Admiral Alexander Shishkov. Shishkov would influence Russia through his work as Minister of Public Instruction. His attempt to promote Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Nationality took the form of educating the upper class of Russia to create social cohesion and moral strength for Russia. To do so he worked to replace educational institutions of non-Russian origin (Polish and Catholic) with truly Russian educational institutions. Edward Thaden professor of Russian studies at Pennsylvania State University chronicles the growth of conservatism in 19th century Russia in his work  Conservative Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Russia . His focus towards education during this period of increased conservatism provides a useful timeline of the evolution of education under Tsarist Russia. His use of officials, scholars, and radicals provides a multitude of angles to view this period of change.

• Ringlee, Andrew.  The Instruction of Youth in Late Imperial Russia: Vospitanie in the Cadet School and Classical Gymnasium, 1863-1894 . University of North Carolina, 2010.

During the final years of Imperial Russia two starkly contrasting groups of students were produced from the state sponsored schools run by the Ministry of War and by the Ministry of Education. Military cadet schools were run by the Ministry of War while the civilian gymnasium was run by the Ministry of education. Graduates of military cadet schools remained loyal their alma mater years after the collapse of Imperial Russia while graduates of the civilian gymnasium typically renounced former educators and schools. Andrew Ringlee compares the educational methods utilized by the Ministry of War and Ministry of Education during the reigns of Alexander II and Alexander III to understand how participants experienced the two types of institution. An electronic copy if this work can be found  h ere .

• Alston, Patrick L.  Education and the State of Tsarist Russia. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1969.

Education under Tsarist Russia progressed through several stages growing in sophistication and autonomy. Peter I brought major changes to the educational system of Russia introducing a new sense of enlightenment to the institutions of education. Towards the late 19th century educators began to push back against the grip of the state on education. These efforts for greater autonomy and legitimacy would become engrained values in educators that would remain through the Russian Revolution. This progression can be seen through Patrick Alston’s work  Education and the State in Tsarist Russia. Alston takes a chronological approach to depict the relationship between education and the state beginning in the 18th century through 1914. He divides his book to demonstrate the gradual but present growth of the influence of educators in Tsarist Russia.

• Brower, Daniel R.  Training the nihilists: education and radicalism in Tsarist Russia . Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1975.

Daniel Brower’s Flow Chart of Radicalism

Daniel Brower’s work  Training the Nihilists: Education and Radicalism in Tsarist Russia explains the role of formal education in the creation and evolution of radicalism in Russia during the mid to late 19th century. The book is broken up into chapters that focus at first on the smaller groups in Russian society like family and then places focus on larger groups concluding with a newly established society of dissenters. Dissent was a key ingredient in Russia during the late 19th century and early 20th century, this book aims at answering where this dissent came from. Two features of Brower’s work that are most helpful in gaining an understanding of dissent in Russia are survey date from 1840-1870s revealing the level of education for Russian radicals and a flow chart of the development of Russian radicals between 1840-1870.

• Kassow, Samuel D.  Students, Professors, and the State in Tsarist Russia . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.

Early 20th century Russia was a period of full of different groups functioning as political actors influencing the nature of the Russian state. In  Students, Professors, and the State in Tsarist Russia, Samuel Kassow focuses on the interactions of students, universities, and professors with the state. Kassow shows that failure of the tsarist Russian state to recognize the legitimacy of student movements based out of Russian universities. Officials of the state had to find a balance between limiting social unrest produced from universities and educational institutions while not completely crushing education as it was recognized the need for an increase of educated laborers. Professors and the Russian government clashed in ideological purpose for universities. Professors saw universities as models of free research and academic freedom while the government saw the establishment as utilitarian in purpose, raising proper civil servants. An electronic copy of the work can be found  here .

• Seregny, Scott.  Russian Teachers and Peasant Revolution . Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1989.

Scott Seregny questions the notion of rural teachers as meek, humble, isolated figures in late 19th century Russia.Using accounts of rural teachers, students, and town officials he reveals that rural teachers while late the blossoming period of professionalism in Russia held particular power in organizing an All-Russian Teacher’s Union with strong political aims. To combat this perception of educators, Russian educators became a politically active minority pushing against the Old Regime of the Tsar. Russian teachers like other professions during the late 19th century and early 20th century desired self-definition and became aware that their desires could not be achieved in the current Tsarist system. The climax of the rural teachers’ political efforts occurred in 1905 with the 1905 Revolution but quickly faded with the passing of the year. Seregny dives into the low levels of respect towards rural teachers due to low pay, modest origins, and high levels of bureaucracy.

• Walker, Franklin A. “Enlightenment and Religion in Russian Education in the Reign of Tsar Alexander I.”  History of Education Quarterly , Vol. 32, No. 3 (Autumn, 1992), pp. 343-360.

Tsar Alexander I sought to educate his countrymen through a plan to expand public education drafted by Catherine II. The initial aim of this expansion of public education in Imperial Russia was to instill enlightenment ideals in the people of Russia but after the threats created during the Napoleonic wars these aims shifted to creating an obedient, moral society to prevent rebellion. During the years after the French Revolution many blamed a lack of religion as the cause of the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution. Franklin A. Walker investigates the balance of religion and enlightenment in education under the reign of Tsar Alexander the I. The need for obedience reinforced the role of religion in education even as ideals of the enlightenment became increasingly popular in education resulting in unique approach to education. An electronic copy of the article can be accessed  here .

• Stillings, Renee. The School of Russian and Asian Studies, “Public Education In Russia from Pete I to the Present.” Last modified December 8, 2005.

Renee Stillings offers a short history of Russian education from the 18th century to the present. Her work provides basic foundational knowledge that aids in later developing a larger understanding of the complexities of the Russia’s educational system. The webpage can be accessed  here .

• Brooks, Jeffery. When Russia Learned to Read . (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2003), 54.

With the end of serfdom in Russia came an explosion of peasant desires for education. Jeffery Brooks presents the growth of peasant education during the late 19th century in his work  When Russia Learned to Read . The basic components of education are covered including schools, teachers and curriculum. One of the most significant aspect of the work is Brooks’ analysis on the effects of peasant literacy, concluding the with greater amounts of literacy, the peasantry grew curious and ambitious, desiring a different life compared to their parents.

• Souder, Eric M. The School of Russian and Asian Studies, “Tolstoy’s Peasant Schools at Yasnaya Polyana.” Last modified November 18, 2010.

Count Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy serves as a example of an early education reformer in Tsarist Russia. Eric M. Souder provides information of Tolstoy’s efforts in education in the article “Tolstoy’s Peasant Schools at Yasnaya Polyana”. Tolstoy became upset with the format of education in Russia and Europe during the mid 19th century as he saw that it was not organic enough and non-conducive to learning. This belief mixed with sympathy for the peasant class of Russia provided Tolstoy the inspiration to form his own school in Yasnaya Polyana. His curriculum expanded further beyond traditional subjects to areas like singing, drafting, and Russian history. Souder’s thorough depiction of Tolstoy’s work in education reveals the attitudes surrounding education and the condition of education during Tsarist Russia. This webpage can be accessed  here .

• Tolstoy, Lev.  The Complete Works of Count Tolstoy: Pedagogical articles; Linen-measurer. Boston: Dana Estes & Company, 1904.

Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy

During his efforts to increase education for Russian peasants, Count Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy published several works on what he believed the be improvements in the field of education that would benefit Russia and in particular the peasants. He compared educational systems around the world to form his own ideal educational system that he asserted would serve Russia better than the current system. The comparative work conducted by Tolstoy was highly critical of the rigid and at times exclusive nature of European educational system. The American public educational system functioned as the embodiment of the ideal of mass education that Tolstoy strove for in Russia. The works of Tolstoy demonstrate a growing disapproval of the current system of education under the Tsars that would later erupt during the Russian Revolution. Many of the concepts put forth in his works would later emerge in experimental Bolshevik schools during the 1920s. The complete compilation of Tolstoy’s works can be found  here .

• McClelland, James C.  Autocrats and Academics: Education, Society, and Culture in Tsarist Russia .Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979.

Inequality in the in quality and accessibility of education during Tsarist Russia is the thematic center of James C. McClelland’s work  Autocrats and Academics: Education, Society, and Culture in Tsarist Russia. He asserts that the adoption of educational techniques like the gymnasium from German schools allowed for the development of a national culture but at the expense of widening the gap between social classes. The elite nature of secondary schools and universities during Tsarist Russia produced an intelligentsia that would be disconnected from the majority of Russian society in terms of level of education. This work reveals Tsarist relations with elite education, the pedagogy of elite academic institutions, and student activism.

Education During Early Revolutionary Russia

Revolution provided many educational reformers a time to shine and bring their experimental schools to reality. New educational ideologies and practices were incorporated into schools as new schools were established to provided education to the masses while others were created specifically for groups like proletariats or peasants. The formal curricula of these schools varied greatly due to many schools that were self administered by faculty and that evolutionary nature of education during Revolutionary Russia that constantly updated and shifted. Emphasis shifted from one area to another the focus one year may be instilling socialist ideals in student and in following years the focus may shift to science and technology.

• Pipes, Richard.  Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime. New York: Vintage Books, 1995.

Anatolii Lunacharskii

Richard Pipe enables readers of   Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime to follow the systematic changes in education brought about by the Bolsheviks through a detailed chronology of educational change. Vladimir Lenin along with Anatolii Lunacharskii defined the mission for all educational institutions as to raise a new group of human beings superior in culture and intelligence. In 1909 an experimental Bolshevik school was established in Capri with help from Maxim Gorky and Fedor Shaliapin. The goal of this school was to created cadres of educated workers who would then assimilate with the rest of workers to spread their recently acquired knowledge. Lenin was a major opponent to this school because he did not believe that workers possessed the creativity needed for the creation of a new society. Soviet Russia viewed education as  vospitanie, meaning upbringing in that  education should serve as a means of developing a society of virtuous beings. The key emphasis of this education was science and technology to set the foundations for a technologically advanced Soviet Russia. By 1918 all education became nationalized under the authority of the Commissariat of Enlightenment. A new education system was established leading to a concise pathway from kindergarten to university. While this was a major change other radical philosophies like the establishment of farm and communal worker schools never came to fruition due to fiscal constraints.

• Gleason, Abbott, Kenez, Peter, and Stites, Richard.  Bolshevik culture: experiment and order in the Russian Revolution . Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985.

Lenin recognized the need for a long term educational process, teaching the themes of socialism and political consciousness to society in order to build a socialist society. In  Bolshevik culture: experiment and order in the Russian Revolution, education is described as a tool of the Bolsheviks to mold Russia.  One means of mass education was printing of propaganda pamphlets but many simply could not read and those who could read responded to the state produced material with disgust. During the Provisional Government, soviet representatives attacked the Ministry of Education for excessive amounts of bureaucracy, lack of progress to increase literacy, failure to increase the status of teachers, and failure to update curriculums to incorporate revolutionary culture. A means of effective communication with the masses came with the popularization of cinema. Authorities were able to produce revolutionary teachings without any words at all through the medium of cinema.

• Rosenberg, William. Bolshevik Vision: First Phase of the Cultural Revolution . (Ann Arbor: Ardis Publishers, 1984), 287.

The Bolshevik ideology is broken down into several sections of society in William Rosenberg’s work  Bolshevik Vision: First Phase of the Cultural Revolution.  His descriptive writing allows for a vivid depiction of Bolshevik ideology. A section of book titled “United Labor Schools: The Nature of a Communist Education” covers the topics of primary, secondary, and higher education with great detail. Several different school models are described at the primary and secondary level including the United Labor School, the factory school, and the polytechnic school. Higher education is also covered as the nationalization of universities is chronicled, exposing great resistance from the professorate against Lunacharsky’s reforms.

• Fitzpatrick, Sheila.  The Cultural Front. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992.

Sheila Fitzpatrick writes on the cultural revolution in Russia by observing the many dynamic groups and forces that transitioned revolutionary Russia to conservative Stalinist Russia. In her work she analytically depicts the troubles faced by the Bolsheviks in establishing a new education system for the newly created socialist society. The two chapters, ‘Professors and Soviet Power’ and ‘Sex and Revolution’ in  The Cultural Front provide deep insight into the struggle for power in education in the new socialist society as intelligentsia were initially removed from education by replaced with frequency. The chapter ‘Sex and Revolution’ uses student health surveys to demonstrate the attitudes of proletariat workers in educational institutions. These attitudes included aversion towards bourgeois professors, apathy towards bookwork, and conservative sexual relationships with peers.

• McClelland, James. “Bolshevik Approaches to Higher Education, 1917-1921.”  Slavic Review . no. 4 (1971): 818-831.

During the years 1917 to 1921 the Bolshevik government faced multiple military threats from Imperial Germany, White Russian armies, and movements for national independence. Despite the numerous amount of issues at hand the Bolshevik government was still able to devote time and energy to  the revolutionary agenda including educational reform. James McClelland researches three major experimental education systems during this revolutionary period.The first of these initiatives was under the authority of Narkompros which aimed to increase accessibility to higher education, increase enrollment of working class students, and utilize a Marxist agenda. Economic, military, and political strains of the Civil War forced the Bolshevik government to approach educational reform from another angle. The new route to reform in education centered on the vocationalization of education and militarization of students. With the New Economic Plan came a third form of educational reform. This third plan sought to centralize higher education under the authority of the government. McClelland focuses on the relationships between the Bolshevik government and the professors of universities to reveal the complex nature of higher education in revolutionary Russia.  An electronic copy of McClelland’s work can be accessed  here .

• Rosenberg, William. Bolshevik Visions: The First Phase of the Cultural Revolution in Soviet Russia. Michigan: Ardis Publishers, 1984.

The drive and enthusiasm Anatoly Vasilyevich Lunacharsky possessed during the early period of Bolshevik Russia is capture in William Rosenberg’s work Bolshevik Visions: The First Phase of the Cultural Revolution in Soviet Russia. The work provides a detailed introduction into aims of a new Soviet school that would break away from all of the pervious bourgeois educational institutions. Factory Schools and United Labor Schools were the educational platform set out by Lunacharsky who was eager to aid in creating the new soviet citizen. The work then continues with several speeches by Lunacharsky including his 1918 “Speech to the First All-Russian Congress on Education”, “Basic Principles of the United Labor School”, and “Students and Counter-revolution”. Each of these writings from Lunacharsky show a genuine conviction to change society through education to create an entirely different culture.

• Finkel, Stuart.  On the Ideological Front : The Russian Intelligentsia and the Making of the Soviet Public Sphere. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008.

Higher education proved to be one of the last institutions to fall to the control of the Soviets as remnants of the intellectuals’ authority remained. The final push came from the “harsh line” mentality towards universities in that all bourgeois figures and institutions must be removed. Narkompros and Anatoly Lunacharsky contributed to the state seizure of higher education by advising the Party Central Committee of the need to reform higher education. In the way of this desired change was Valdimir Lenin, he believed that there was no need for the immediate take over of universities as the proletariat did not need a high level of education. Lenin’s stance towards higher education was replaced by the “harsh line” when in 1921 a committee was established to discuss reforms of universities.

Education During Early Soviet Russia

As the Bolshevik and Soviet control of Russia solidified came an increased need to maintain this current state and to promote state ideologies. Education became a necessity for the proletariat as the need for an educated proletariat was announced by the state. This period of educational development face a multitude of challenges as the student body rapidly changed from elites to proletariat and peasant students. To extend mass education to proletariat and peasant students by giving these groups preference into secondary schools and universities would lower the standard of education which then would result in the product of a workforce that has received a mediocre education. Educational institutions took the form of vocational schools that set students up for higher education aiming to produce an educated workforce like that never seen before in Russian history. A major problem for educational reforms during this period was parental attitudes towards education as many parents felt that the recently deposed form of education that focused on reading, writing, and arithmetic was proper in curriculum.

• Lipset, Harry. “Education of Moslems in Tsarist and Soviet Russia.”  Comparative Education Review . no. 3 (1968): 310-322.

A major shift occurred in the treatment of Muslims in Russia from the Imperial state to Revolutionary and Soviet Russia. Discrimination of minorities during Imperial Russia was commonplace and left Muslims in Russia with insufficient and inadequate education. This limited education for Muslims was improved during Revolutionary and Soviet Russia due to the socialist ideal of universal education. Harry Lipset covers this topic in “Education of Moslems in Tsarist and Soviet Russia”, contrasting the condition of Muslim education under Tsarist Russia and post-Tsarist Russia. To add depth to his work he analyzes the official treatment of other minorities such as Ukrainians and Armenians under each government. Lipset asserts that Muslims were able to make large advances in culture and education through the socialist ideals introduced through the collapse of Imperial Russia. An electronic copy of the article can be accessed  here .

• Fitzpatrick, Sheila.   The Commissariat of Enlightenment; Soviet Organization of Education and the Arts Under Lunacharsky, October 1917-1921 . Cambridge: University Press, 1970.

The Narkompros was Soviet commission on enlightenment tasked with creating and improving art and education in the newly formed socialist Russia.  Sheila Fitzpatrick devotes several chapters to the reformation of education under the authority of the Soviet. Anatoly Vasilyevich Lunacharsky, the commissar of Narkompros set out a multitude of doctrines and declarations that would shape the new educational system in the socialist society. For example, one Lunacharsky’s declarations set up primary and secondary schools so that teachers left to their own devices to organize and operate schools. Fitzpatrick’s work provides a vivid chronology of educational changes that occurred due to the influence of Narkompros.

Education for the Proletariat: To produce more you need to know more.

• Levin, Deana. Soviet Education Today. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1963.

Deana Levin approaches education in the Soviet Union using the historical background of the Russia since 1917. Unlike other works on Soviet education, Soviet Education Today does not compare Soviet education with American education but rather researches the aims and methods of the system. To explain how the Soviet educational system works Levin uses official documents and statements swell as personal observations from trips to the U.S.S.R. where interviews with students, educators, and administrators were conducted. Further insight is provided from Levin’s experience as a school teacher in Moscow for five years before the outbreak of World War Two.

• Fitzpatrick, Sheila. Education and Social Mobility in the Soviet Union 1921-1934. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979.

One of the most comprehensive works on education in socialist Russia,  Education and Social Mobility in the Soviet Union 1921-1934 by Sheila Fitzpatrick provides a wealth of knowledge on the changing educational system in Russia between 1917 and 1934. Her work covers a large spectrum from ideological changes in education to the salaries of educators. The book is structured in a chronological format to follow the new socialist Russian state as it develops and changes. Although a larger variety of topics are covered in her work, Sheila Fitzpatrick centers her writing on education as a means of social mobility in the newly created socialist society.

• Bereday, ed. The Changing Soviet School . Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1960.

The Changing Soviet School provides a wealth of information on education in Russia with chapters devoted to major phases of Russian history beginning with Tsarist Russia and concluding with the Soviet Union. The claims presented in the work are supported by the research of 70 American researchers who visited and toured soviet schools, universities, collective farms, and industrial plants in 1958. To provide complete research of the evolution of education in the U.S.S.R. the book presents education during Tsarist Russia, Revolutionary Russia, and the Soviet Union. The work is divided into three sections that all provide detailed insight into Russia education. Part one focuses on ideological, social, historical, and philosophical characteristics of Russian education to analyze pedagogy. Part two describes the formal institutions of preschool, primary school, secondary school, and university inquiring as to what content was taught, how content was taught, and how teachers were trained. Part three questions the universal nature of universal education by studying marginal groups like talented and handicapped students. The purpose of the work is twofold, first two provide  a detailed image of the Soviet educational system and second to illuminate similarities between the Soviet system with the American educational system.

• Gorsuch, Anne E.  Youth in Revolutionary Russia: Enthusiasts, Bohemians, Delinquents . Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000.

Anne Gorsuch looks into the experiences of youth in Russia during the New Economic Policy. The economic challenges created by NEP left many children with no adult supervision when returning home from school. This situation caused largely by NEP resulted in limited many children to only four years of education before joining their parents in some form of work. Education for girls during this period was seen as too expensive so many parents kept daughters at home to work in the house and help raise younger children. Gorsuch provides insight into the role of gender in education for Russian youth for example,  out of every one hundred days, males had 230 free hours and the females just 169.27. In addition to the role of gender in education she also provides important analysis of the influence of experimental forms of education. Entrance exams from secondary schools and universities demonstrated that students being taught at experimental schools were politically illiterate due to the ineffectiveness of the educators of these experimental institutions. These failures resulted in a relapse in curriculum from social behavior education to traditional history, economics, and political theory.

Scenes of Soviet Education from 1921:

Three communist Dutch school teachers went to Russia to observe the labor schools that had been created in the recently reformed Russia. They observed schools that taught toddlers up to adolescents. In these schools children were taught how to develop photographs, how to spin fabrics, how to use printing presses, how to work in a saw mill, and how to work in a laboratory. Each of the Dutch researchers wrote small biographies that can be found below. The observations of these three socialist educators serves as a gateway into the minds of socialist education.

Jan Cornelis Ceton

Jan Cornelis Ceton : Opposed book oriented education. Favored taking students for nature walks to embrace the world. He opposed Christian education as it only served as a means of maintaing the current social order. He saw no need for administration in education as it created authoritarian figures. In 1919 he co-founded the Communist Teachers Association. He published several works on new education in socialist journals such as The New Era, two of these works are listed below. Both of these works demonstrate Ceton’s desire to incorporate socialist values into the education system in Holland and later around the world.

Ceton, Jan Cornelis. “ Free school or compulsory state school” The New Era , (1902): 37-51, 109-121.

Ceton, Jan Cornelis. “Social Democracy and Education ” The New Era , (1913): 875 – 889.

Jan Cornelis Stam

Jan Cornelis Stam : Born in 1884 he grew up in a Calvinist family that placed heavy emphasis on education. He attended school at Sliedrecht, in South Holland where he was exposed to socialist values from some of his peers and teachers. He began teaching in 1903 and would later join the Social Democrat Party in 1909. He worked as an editor of the party newspaper The Tribune writing on socialist values in education and the neutral or co-ed school.

Wiliemse Willjbrecht

Willemse Wiljbrecht : A school teacher in Amsterdam from 1925 to 1940. Beginning in 1932 onward Willemse was a major figure in the creation and workings of the Marxist Worker Schools. She worked at Montessori Training for Teachers in Utrecht from 1940-1941. Willemse worked as the  editor of Montessori Education from 1939 -1956.  Many of her works were published in Renewal of Education and Montessori Education.

Wiljbrecht, Willemse. “ Our Children Will Be Our Judges ”

Below are scenes captured by Jan Cornelis Ceton, Jan Cornelis Stam, and Wilemse Willjbrecht during their travels to the Russia during 1921. These images expose  the experimental nature of education during revolutionary Russia as students can be seen playing sports, acting in plays, and even chopping wood.

• Ceton, Jan. and Stam, Jan, and Wiljbrecht, Willemse. Soviet Education 1921. The International Institute of Social History. Accessed October 25, 2013.

Education During the Mid 20th Century Soviet Union

• Benton, William.  Teachers and the Taught in the U.S.S.R. Kingsport: Kingsport Press, 1965.

Serving as a detailed analysis of Soviet education, William Benton’s  Teachers and the Taught in the U.S.S.R covers specific areas such as film in education and the structuring of primary and secondary schools. Research from Benton’s 1964 trip to Moscow serves as the data for the majority of his book. The work uses a narrow lens in addressing Soviet education by focusing on particular areas and should be read as a supplement to works that take on the topic of Soviet education from a wider angle.

• Matthews, Mervyn.  Education in the Soviet Union. London: University of Surrey, 1982.

Nikita Khrushchev

With the changing of leadership in the Soviet Union would come changes, some transitions would bring more change than others. In  Education in the Soviet Union, Mervyn Matthews compares education under the administration of Nikita Khrushchev and Leonid Brezhnev. His comparison focuses on general education, technical schools, and higher education looking into characteristics like teachers’ attitudes, student well-being, and problems in administration. Much of this works looks into the societal shifts that occurred after Joseph Stalin’s death.

• Grant, Nigel.  Soviet Education. New York: Penguin Books, 1979.

A brief overview of education in the U.S.S.R. during the 1960s can be found in Nigel Grant’s  Soviet Education. In his work he aims to present the educational system of the Soviet Union using first hand accounts of students and professor from the U.S.S.R. to supplement statistical information, official documents, and scholarly journals. He presents the general characteristics of primary, secondary, and higher education covering ideology, structure, staffing of schools, and discipline. Grant draws connections to other educational systems from other nations in his description of the workings of Soviet education.

• Boston University
• Simon Rabinovitch
• Guided History
• History Department

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