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• Published: 27 April 2017

Technology: The Future of Agriculture

• Anthony King  

Nature volume  544 ,  pages S21–S23 ( 2017 ) Cite this article

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A technological revolution in farming led by advances in robotics and sensing technologies looks set to disrupt modern practice.

Over the centuries, as farmers have adopted more technology in their pursuit of greater yields, the belief that 'bigger is better' has come to dominate farming, rendering small-scale operations impractical. But advances in robotics and sensing technologies are threatening to disrupt today's agribusiness model. “There is the potential for intelligent robots to change the economic model of farming so that it becomes feasible to be a small producer again,” says robotics engineer George Kantor at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

Twenty-first century robotics and sensing technologies have the potential to solve problems as old as farming itself. “I believe, by moving to a robotic agricultural system, we can make crop production significantly more efficient and more sustainable,” says Simon Blackmore, an engineer at Harper Adams University in Newport, UK. In greenhouses devoted to fruit and vegetable production, engineers are exploring automation as a way to reduce costs and boost quality (see ‘ Ripe for the picking ’). Devices to monitor vegetable growth, as well as robotic pickers, are currently being tested. For livestock farmers, sensing technologies can help to manage the health and welfare of their animals (‘ Animal trackers ’). And work is underway to improve monitoring and maintenance of soil quality (‘ Silicon soil saviours ’), and to eliminate pests and disease without resorting to indiscriminate use of agrichemicals (‘ Eliminating enemies ’).

Although some of these technologies are already available, most are at the research stage in labs and spin-off companies. “Big-machinery manufacturers are not putting their money into manufacturing agricultural robots because it goes against their current business models,” says Blackmore. Researchers such as Blackmore and Kantor are part of a growing body of scientists with plans to revolutionize agricultural practice. If they succeed, they'll change how we produce food forever. “We can use technology to double food production,” says Richard Green, agricultural engineer at Harper Adams.

Ripe for the picking

The Netherlands is famed for the efficiency of its fruit- and vegetable-growing greenhouses, but these operations rely on people to pick the produce. “Humans are still better than robots, but there is a lot of effort going into automatic harvesting,” says Eldert van Henten, an agricultural engineer at Wageningen University in the Netherlands, who is working on a sweet-pepper harvester. The challenge is to quickly and precisely identify the pepper and avoid cutting the main stem of the plant. The key lies in fast, precise software. “We are performing deep learning with the machine so it can interpret all the data from a colour camera fast,” says van Henten. “We even feed data from regular street scenes into the neural network to better train it.”

In the United Kingdom, Green has developed a strawberry harvester that he says can pick the fruit faster than humans. It relies on stereoscopic vision with RGB cameras to capture depth, but it is its powerful algorithms that allow it to pick a strawberry every two seconds. People can pick 15 to 20 a minute, Green estimates. “Our partners at the National Physical Laboratory worked on the problem for two years, but had a brainstorm one day and finally cracked it,” says Green, adding that the solution is too commercially sensitive to share. He thinks that supervised groups of robots can step into the shoes of strawberry pickers in around five years. Harper Adams University is considering setting up a spin-off company to commercialize the technology. The big hurdle to commercialization, however, is that food producers demand robots that can pick all kinds of vegetables, says van Henten. The variety of shapes, sizes and colours of tomatoes, for instance, makes picking them a tough challenge, although there is already a robot available to remove unwanted leaves from the plants.

Another key place to look for efficiencies is timing. Picking too early is wasteful because you miss out on growth, but picking too late slashes weeks off the storage time. Precision-farming engineer Manuela Zude-Sasse at the Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy in Potsdam, Germany, is attaching sensors to apples to detect their size, and levels of the pigments chlorophyll and anthocyanin. The data are fed into an algorithm to calculate developmental stage, and, when the time is ripe for picking, growers are alerted by smartphone.

So far, Zude-Sasse has put sensors on pears, citrus fruits, peaches, bananas and apples ( pictured ). She is set to start field trials later this year in a commercial tomato greenhouse and an apple orchard. She is also developing a smartphone app for cherry growers. The app will use photographs of cherries taken by growers to calculate growth rate and a quality score.

Growing fresh fruit and vegetables is all about keeping the quality high while minimizing costs. “If you can schedule harvest to optimum fruit development, then you can reap an economic benefit and a quality one,” says Zude-Sasse.

Eliminating enemies

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates that 20–40% of global crop yields are lost each year to pests and diseases, despite the application of around two-million tonnes of pesticide. Intelligent devices, such as robots and drones, could allow farmers to slash agrichemical use by spotting crop enemies earlier to allow precise chemical application or pest removal, for example. “The market is demanding foods with less herbicide and pesticide, and with greater quality,” says Red Whittaker, a robotics engineer at Carnegie Mellon who designed and patented an automated guidance system for tractors in 1997. “That challenge can be met by robots.”

“We predict drones, mounted with RGB or multispectral cameras, will take off every morning before the farmer gets up, and identify where within the field there is a pest or a problem,” says Green. As well as visible light, these cameras would be able to collect data from the invisible parts of the electromagnetic spectrum that could allow farmers to pinpoint a fungal disease, for example, before it becomes established. Scientists from Carnegie Mellon have begun to test the theory in sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor ), a staple in many parts of Africa and a potential biofuel crop in the United States.

Agribotix, an agriculture data-analysis company in Boulder, Colorado, supplies drones and software that use near-infrared images to map patches of unhealthy vegetation in large fields. Images can also reveal potential causes, such as pests or problems with irrigation. The company processes drone data from crop fields in more than 50 countries. It is now using machine learning to train its systems to differentiate between crops and weeds, and hopes to have this capability ready for the 2017 growing season. “We will be able to ping growers with an alert saying you have weeds growing in your field, here and here,” says crop scientist Jason Barton, an executive at Agribotix.

Modern technology that can autonomously eliminate pests and target agrichemicals better will reduce collateral damage to wildlife, lower resistance and cut costs. “We are working with a pesticide company keen to apply from the air using a drone,” says Green. Rather than spraying a whole field, the pesticide could be delivered to the right spot in the quantity needed, he says. The potential reductions in pesticide use are impressive. According to researchers at the University of Sydney's Australian Centre for Field Robotics, targeted spraying of vegetables used 0.1% of the volume of herbicide used in conventional blanket spraying. Their prototype robot is called RIPPA (Robot for Intelligent Perception and Precision Application) and shoots weeds with a directed micro-dose of liquid. Scientists at Harper Adams are going even further, testing a robot that does away with chemicals altogether by blasting weeds close to crops with a laser. “Cameras identify the growing point of the weed and our laser, which is no more than a concentrated heat source, heats it up to 95 °C, so the weed either dies or goes dormant,” says Blackmore.

Animal trackers

Smart collars — a bit like the wearable devices designed to track human health and fitness — have been used to monitor cows in Scotland since 2010. Developed by Glasgow start-up Silent Herdsman, the collar monitors fertility by tracking activity — cows move around more when they are fertile — and uses this to alert farmers to when a cow is ready to mate, sending a message to his or her laptop or smartphone. The collars ( pictured ), which are now being developed by Israeli dairy-farm-technology company Afimilk after they acquired Silent Herdsman last year, also detect early signs of illness by monitoring the average time each cow spends eating and ruminating, and warning the farmer via a smartphone if either declines.

“We are now looking at more subtle behavioural changes and how they might be related to animal health, such as lameness or acidosis,” says Richard Dewhurst, an animal nutritionist at Scotland's Rural College (SRUC) in Edinburgh, who is involved in research to expand the capabilities of the collar. Scientists are developing algorithms to interrogate data collected by the collars.

In a separate project, Dewhurst is analysing levels of exhaled ketones and sulfides in cow breath to reveal underfeeding and tissue breakdown or excess protein in their diet. “We have used selected-ionflow-tube mass spectrometry, but there are commercial sensors available,” says Dewhurst.

Cameras are also improving the detection of threats to cow health. The inflammatory condition mastitis — often the result of a bacterial infection — is one of the biggest costs to the dairy industry, causing declines in milk production or even death. Thermal-imaging cameras installed in cow sheds can spot hot, inflamed udders, allowing animals to be treated early.

Carol-Anne Duthie, an animal scientist at SRUC, is using 3D cameras to film cattle at water troughs to estimate the carcass grade (an assessment of the quality of a culled cow) and animal weight. These criteria determine the price producers are paid. Knowing the optimum time to sell would maximize profit and provide abattoirs with more-consistent animals. “This has knock on effects in terms of overall efficiency of the entire supply chain, reducing the animals which are out of specification reaching the abattoir,” Duthie explains.

And researchers in Belgium have developed a camera system to monitor broiler chickens in sheds. Three cameras continually track the movements of thousands of individual birds to spot problems quickly. “Analysing the behaviour of broilers can give an early warning for over 90% of problems,” says bioengineer Daniel Berckmans at the University of Leuven. The behaviour-monitoring system is being sold by Fancom, a livestock-husbandry firm in Panningen, the Netherlands. The Leuven researchers have also launched a cough monitor to flag respiratory problems in pigs, through a spin-off company called SoundTalks. This can give a warning 12 days earlier than farmers or vets would normally be able to detect a problem, says Berckmans. The microphone, which is positioned above animals in their pen, identifies sick individuals so that treatment can be targeted. “The idea was to reduce the use of antibiotics,” says Berckmans.

Berckmans is now working on downsizing a stress monitor designed for people so that it will attach to a cow's ear tag. “The more you stress an animal, the less energy is available from food for growth,” he says. The monitor takes 200 physiological measurements a second, alerting farmers through a smartphone when there is a problem.

Silicon soil saviours

The richest resource for arable farmers is soil. But large harvesters damage and compact soil, and overuse of agrichemicals such as nitrogen fertilizer are bad for both the environment and a farmer's bottom line. Robotics and autonomous machines could help.

Data from drones are being used for smarter application of nitrogen fertilizer. “Healthy vegetation reflects more near-infrared light than unhealthy vegetation,” explains Barton. The ratio of red to near-infrared bands on a multispectral image can be used to estimate chlorophyll concentration and, therefore, to map biomass and see where interventions such as fertilization are needed after weather or pest damage, for example. When French agricultural technology company Airinov, which offers this type of drone survey, partnered with a French farming cooperative, they found that over a period of 3 years, in 627 fields of oilseed rape ( Brassica napus ), farmers used on average 34 kilograms less nitrogen fertilizer per hectare than they would without the survey data. This saved on average €107 (US$115) per hectare per year.

Bonirob ( pictured ) — a car-sized robot originally developed by a team of scientists including those at Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences in Germany — can measure other indicators of soil quality using various sensors and modules, including a moisture sensor and a penetrometer, which is used to assess soil compaction. According to Arno Ruckelshausen, an agricultural technologist at Osnabrück, Bonirob can take a sample of soil, liquidize it and analyse it to precisely map in real time characteristics such as pH and phosphorous levels. The University of Sydney's smaller RIPPA robot can also detect soil characteristics that affect crop production, by measuring soil conductivity.

Soil mapping opens the door to sowing different crop varieties in one field to better match shifting soil properties such as water availability. “You could differentially seed a field, for example, planting deep-rooting barley or wheat varieties in more sandy parts,” says Maurice Moloney, chief executive of the Global Institute for Food Security in Saskatoon, Canada. Growing multiple crops together could also lead to smarter use of agrichemicals. “Nature is strongly against monoculture, which is one reason we have to use massive amounts of herbicide and pesticides,” says van Henten. “It is about making the best use of resources.”

Mixed sowing would challenge an accepted pillar of agricultural wisdom: that economies of scale and the bulkiness of farm machinery mean vast fields of a single crop is the most-efficient way to farm, and the bigger the machine, the more-efficient the process. Some of the heaviest harvesters weigh 60 tonnes, cost more than a top-end sports car and leave a trail of soil compaction in their wake that can last for years.

But if there is no need for the farmer to drive the machine, then one large vehicle that covers as much area as possible is no longer needed. “As soon as you remove the human component, size is irrelevant,” says van Henten. Small, autonomous robots make mixed planting feasible and would not crush the soil.

In April, researchers at Harpers Adams began a proof-of-concept experiment with a hectare of barley. “We plan to grow and harvest the entire crop from start to finish with no humans entering the field,” says Green. The experiment will use existing machinery, such as tractors, that have been made autonomous, rather than new robots, but their goal is to use the software developed during this trial as the brains of purpose-built robots in the future. “Robots can facilitate a new way of doing agriculture,” says van Henten. Many of these disruptive technologies may not be ready for the prime time just yet, but the revolution is coming.

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King, A. Technology: The Future of Agriculture. Nature 544 , S21–S23 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/544S21a

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Published : 27 April 2017

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Research progress of hydrogen production technology and related catalysts by electrolysis of water, 1. introduction, 2. brief introduction of hydrogen production technologies, 2.1. alkaline water electrolysis hydrogen production.

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2.1.1. Transition Metal and Alloy Catalysts

2.1.2. transition metal oxide catalyst, 2.1.3. transition metal sulfide catalyst, 2.1.4. transition metal phosphide catalyst, 2.2. proton exchange membrane water electrolysis hydrogen production, 2.3. solid oxide water electrolysis hydrogen production, 3. conclusions, author contributions, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Li, H.; Guo, J.; Li, Z.; Wang, J. Research Progress of Hydrogen Production Technology and Related Catalysts by Electrolysis of Water. Molecules 2023 , 28 , 5010. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28135010

Li H, Guo J, Li Z, Wang J. Research Progress of Hydrogen Production Technology and Related Catalysts by Electrolysis of Water. Molecules . 2023; 28(13):5010. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28135010

Li, Haiyao, Jun Guo, Zhishan Li, and Jinsong Wang. 2023. "Research Progress of Hydrogen Production Technology and Related Catalysts by Electrolysis of Water" Molecules 28, no. 13: 5010. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28135010

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• 24 May 2021

Can Fabric Waste Become Fashion’s Resource?

COVID-19 worsened the textile waste crisis. Now it's time for the fashion industry to address this spiraling problem, say Geoffrey Jones and Shelly Xu. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 20 Oct 2015
• Working Paper Summaries

Internalizing Global Value Chains: A Firm-Level Analysis

Manufacturing activities that used to be performed in close proximity are increasingly fragmented across firms and countries. This paper provides strong evidence that considerations driven by contractual frictions critically shape firms' ownership decisions along their value chains.

• 06 Feb 2012
• Research & Ideas

Kodak: A Parable of American Competitiveness

When American companies shift pieces of their operations overseas, they run the risk of moving the expertise, innovation, and new growth opportunities just out of their reach as well, explains HBS Professor Willy Shih, who served as president of Eastman Kodak's digital imaging business for several years. Key concepts include: Outsourcing ends up chipping away at America's "industrial commons"—the collective R&D, engineering, and manufacturing capabilities that are crucial to new product development. If the United States wants to keep from slipping any further in its ability to compete on the industrial stage, the government must increase its support of scientific research and collaborate with the business and academic world. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 28 Mar 2011

Why Manufacturing Matters

After decades of outsourcing, America's ability to innovate and create high-tech products essential for future prosperity is on the decline, argue professors Gary Pisano and Willy Shih. Is it too late to get it back? From HBS Alumni Bulletin. Closed for comment; 0 Comments.

• 01 Mar 2010

A Golden Opportunity for Ford and GM

With Toyota caught in a downshift, competitors should make aggressive moves to capitalize, says HBS professor Bill George. For starters, they need to improve their auto lineups for the long term. He explains how Ford and GM can best navigate the industry landscape ahead. Key concepts include: For U.S. automakers to accelerate production while Toyota remains wounded is not a long-term strategy for success. The companies should cut costs while simultaneously transforming their organizations and revamping product lineups. Ford and GM could secure market share gains by investing windfall profits into making products more competitive for the next decade. In this regard, Ford has the jump on GM. Chrysler is missing a golden opportunity to revamp, reposition, and reorganize. Closed for comment; 0 Comments.

• 10 Jan 2008
• Sharpening Your Skills

Sharpening Your Skills: Operations Management

Closed for comment; 0 Comments.

• 05 Sep 2006

HBS Cases: Porsche’s Risky Roll on an SUV

Why would a company want to locate in a high-cost, high-wage economy like Germany? Porsche's unusual answer has framed two case studies by HBS professor Jeffrey Fear and colleague Carin-Isabel Knoop. Closed for comment; 0 Comments.

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Technical Reports & Standards Collection Guide

Introduction.

• Technical Reports Collections
• Standards Collection
• American Documentation Institute (ADI)
• Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) Collection
• Synthetic Rubber Project
• Technical Translations (TT) Series
• Locating Technical Reports and Standards
• Research Assistance and Reproductions
• Online Resources and Databases
• Using the Library of Congress
• Jennifer Harbster, Head, Science Section, Researcher Engagement & General Collections Division
• Sean Bryant, Reference Librarian, Researcher Engagement & General Collections Division
• Ashley Fielder,  Librarian for Medicine and Life Science. Science Section, Researcher Engagement & General Collections
• Created:  September 22, 2023

Last Updated: May 7, 2024

Science & Technical Reports : Ask a Librarian

Have a question? Need assistance? Use our online form to ask a librarian for help.

Get connected to the Library’s large and diverse collections related to science, technology, and business through our Inside Adams Blog. This blog also features upcoming events and collection displays, classes and orientations, new research guides, and more.

The Library of Congress is completing a project to update and modernize Library reading room websites. As a part of the process, “The Technical Reports and Standards Collection” is in the process of being updated and migrated to this new platform. The process has not yet been completed and the guide remains subject to change.

Researchers with questions about the collection are encouraged to contact a science or business librarian using the Ask-a-Librarian: Science and Technical Reports or Ask a Librarian: Business online form, by phone, at (202) 707-5639, or in person, at the reference desk, in the Science and Business Reading Room, on the fifth floor of the Library's John Adams Building.

Technical Reports

Technical reports are designed to quickly alert researchers to recent findings and developments in scientific and technical research. These reports are issued for a variety of purposes:

• to communicate results or describe progress of a research project
• to convey background information on an emerging or critical research topic
• to provide lists of instructions or procedures for current practices
• to determine the feasibility of a technology and recommend if research should be continued (and how to evaluate any further progress made)
• to detail technical specifications (materials, functions, features, operation, market potential, etc.)

Technical reports first appeared in the early part of the 20th century. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) published a series of professional papers beginning in 1902, and the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) issued its first report in 1915. But, the format gained importance during World War II, emerged in the postwar era, and remains, to this day, a major tool for reporting progress in science and technology, as well as in education, business, and social sciences research. The names given to series of these publications vary, but are often such generic terms as "technical reports," "working papers," "research memoranda," "internal notes," "occasional papers," "discussion papers" or "gray (or grey) literature." In the physical and natural sciences, "technical report" seems to be the preferred designation. For reports dealing with business, education, and the social sciences, on the other hand, the terms "working paper," "occasional paper," and "memorandum" are often the designations of choice. Other, more specific types of technical reports include "preprints" and "reprints." Preprints generally are versions of papers issued by researchers before their final papers are published by commercial publishers. Preprints allow researchers to communicate their findings quickly, but usually have not been peer reviewed. Reprints are typically released to heighten awareness of the research being conducted in a particular field or at a single institution. The term, "technical report" encompasses all of these designations.

Since many of these publications are intended to provide just a temporary snapshot of current research in a particular field or topic, they may contain the some of following distinctions:

• Rapid communication of new research results
• Dissemination to a targeted audience.
• Detailed methodologies, in order to facilitate review of research results by others
• No peer review, though there is often another selection process for publication (grant, contract, or institutional affiliation)
• Not published by typical commercial publishers (instead reports are issued or sponsored by government agencies, professional associations, societies, councils, foundations, laboratories, universities, etc.)
• Corporate authorship, where present, is typically emphasized

Unfortunately, uncertain availability, limited print runs, and decentralized distribution patterns with little bibliographic information are also often characteristics of this literature.

The Federal Government issues many different types of technical reports. An overview of some of these can be found in a May 2001 GAO report, " Information Management: Dissemination of Technical Reports ." Government issued or sponsored reports contain an additional characteristic - they may be subject to distribution restrictions linked to their classification status. Although references to classified reports may be found in technical reports literature, the security status or limited distribution of reports may make them unavailable to the general public and to the Library as well, as the Library holds only titles in the public domain. Those interested in locating such materials can consult the U.S. Department of Justice's Freedom of Information Act  site for guidance in obtaining these reports.

To enable them to be identified and located, technical reports are assigned report codes by agencies or organizations involved in their production or distribution. These codes may be referred to as "accession numbers," "agency report series numbers," "contract numbers," "grant numbers" or by other names, and include dates and individual report numbers. Typically, reports are assigned multiple codes and these codes help to identify the sponsoring agency, the organization performing the research or the organization disseminating the report.  Most technical reports held by the Library of Congress are not cataloged, and, for these reports, one or more report codes is required for Library staff to check the collections for a report or to locate and retrieve it. For more information about the current Standard Technical Report Number format (STRN) see ANSI/NISO Z39.23- 1997 (S2015) Standard Technical Reports Number Format and Creation . 

Standards are specifications which define products, methods, processes or practices, and are known to have existed as early as 7000 B.C., when cylindrical stones were used as units of weight in Egypt. According to  Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Circular A-119 , as revised in 2016, the term "standard" or "technical standard" refers to:

• common and repeated use of rules, conditions, guidelines or characteristics for products or related processes and production methods, and related management systems practices;
• the definition of terms; classification of components; delineation of procedures; specification of dimensions, materials, performance, designs, or operations; measurement of quality and quantity in describing materials, processes, products, systems, services, or practices; test methods and sampling procedures; or descriptions of fit and measurements of size or strength; and
• terminology, symbols, packaging, marking or labeling requirements as they apply to a product, process, or production method.

Technical standards are not "professional standards of personal conduct; or institutional codes of ethics." (p. 15).

Standards are typically generated by governments or by professional associations and organizations interested in or affected by the subject matter of particular standards. For example, U.S. government standards mandated by the  Fair Packaging & Labeling Act (FPLA)  have standardized the labeling required for packaging in which consumer commodities is sold. Standards set the basis for determining consistent and acceptable minimum levels of reliability and safety, and are adhered to either voluntarily or as mandated by law. For a more complete overview, see the NIST report  " The ABC's of Standards Activities " by Maureen A. Breitenberg (2009).

The Library of Congress standards collection includes military and other federal standards, industry standards, and a few older international standards from Russia, China, and South Africa. Material from the collection is available in various formats, including digital, print, and microform materials. The majority of the Library's standards collection held in the Science Section's Technical Reports and Standards Collection. The collection remains largely uncatalogued, and as a result, most items from this collection are not discoverable in the Library's online catalog. Inquires on Library holdings can be sent to the Science Section using the Science and Technical Reports Ask-a-Librarian form . Some standards, however, are housed in the Library's general collections and discoverable by searching the  online catalog -- the ASTM standards are one example. Other standards are in custody of appropriate specialized research centers, such as the Law Library , which maintains  OSHA standards and some building codes.

About the Science Section

Part of the  Science & Business Reading Room  at the Library of Congress, the Science Section is the starting point for conducting research at the Library of Congress in the subject areas of science, medicine and engineering. Here, reference specialists in specific subject areas of science and engineering  assist patrons in formulating search strategies and gaining access to the information and materials contained in the Library's rich collections of science, medicine, and engineering materials.

• Next: Technical Reports Collections >>
• Last Updated: Jul 3, 2024 11:51 AM
• URL: https://guides.loc.gov/technical-reports

• Get 7 Days Free

Next Hydrogen to Supply Latest Generation Electrolysis Technology for Renewable Energy Ammonia Production Research

MISSISSAUGA, Ontario, Aug. 19, 2024 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- Next Hydrogen Solutions Inc. (the “ Company ” or “ Next Hydrogen “) ( TSXV:NXH ,  OTC:NXHSF ), a designer and manufacturer of electrolyzers, is pleased to announce that it has been awarded a contract by the University of Minnesota (UMN) for its latest generation electrolysis technology to be installed at the UMN West Central Research and Outreach Center (WCROC).

The WCROC project is supported by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA-E) as well as other partners including RTI International (RTI) and will include technologies from Casale, RTI and UMN to demonstrate the production of ammonia from renewable energy targeting emerging energy markets and existing agricultural markets.

Next Hydrogen will be supplying its latest third-generation Alkaline Water Electrolyzers featuring improvements in energy efficiency, current density and operating pressure. Next Hydrogen electrolyzers provide complete and responsive renewable energy load following capability needed to produce hydrogen from intermittent energy sources such as wind and solar. The system is scheduled to be operational in 2025.

The project team also includes Nutrien, GE, Nel Hydrogen, Xcel Energy, Great River Energy, Otter Tail Power Company, Runestone Electric Association, Chemtronergy, Texas Tech University, Pacifica, the Agricultural Utilization Research Institute (AURI) and Shell.

Raveel Afzaal, President and CEO of Next Hydrogen, stated, “We are very honored to be part of this exciting project and working with our existing partners Casale and GE while also forming new industry relationships. Our technology provides a compelling alternative to more expensive options for producing hydrogen from renewable energy.”

About Next Hydrogen Founded in 2007, Next Hydrogen is a designer and manufacturer of electrolyzers that use water and electricity as inputs to generate clean hydrogen for use as an energy source. Next Hydrogen’s unique cell design architecture supported by 40 patents enables high current density operations and superior dynamic response to efficiently convert intermittent renewable electricity into green hydrogen on an infrastructure scale.  Following successful pilots, Next Hydrogen is scaling up its technology to deliver commercial solutions to decarbonize transportation and industrial sectors.

Contact Information

Raveel Afzaal, President and Chief Executive Officer Next Hydrogen Solutions Inc. Email: [email protected] Phone: 647-961-6620 www.nexthydrogen.com

Cautionary Statements This news release contains “forward-looking information” and “forward-looking statements”. All statements, other than statements of historical fact, are forward-looking statements and are based on expectations, estimates and projections as at the date of this news release. Any statement that involves discussions with respect to predictions, expectations, beliefs, plans, projections, objectives, assumptions, future events or performance (often but not always using phrases such as “expects”, or “does not expect”, “is expected”, “anticipates” or “does not anticipate”, “plans”, “budget”, “scheduled”, “forecasts”, “estimates”, “believes” or “intends” or variations of such words and phrases or stating that certain actions, events or results “may” or “could”, “would”, “might” or “will” be taken to occur or be achieved) are not statements of historical fact and may be forward-looking statements. Forward-looking statements are necessarily based upon a number of estimates and assumptions that, while considered reasonable, are subject to known and unknown risks, uncertainties, and other factors which may cause the actual results and future events to differ materially from those expressed or implied by such forward-looking statements. Such factors include, but are not limited to: the risks associated with the hydrogen industry in general; delays or changes in plans with respect to infrastructure development or capital expenditures; the uncertainty of estimates and projections relating to costs and expenses; failure to obtain necessary regulatory approvals; health, safety and environmental risks; uncertainties resulting from potential delays or changes in plans with respect to infrastructure developments or capital expenditures; currency exchange rate fluctuations; as well as general economic conditions, stock market volatility; and the ability to access sufficient capital. There can be no assurance that such statements will prove to be accurate, as actual results and future events could differ materially from those anticipated in such statements. Accordingly, readers should not place undue reliance on the forward-looking statements and information contained in this news release. Except as required by law, there will be no obligation to update the forward-looking statements of beliefs, opinions, projections, or other factors, should they change.

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A review of the current situation and prospects for nanofluids to improve solar still performance

• Open access
• Published: 17 August 2024

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• Farhan Lafta Rashid 1 ,
• Mudhar A. Al-Obaidi 2 , 3 ,
• Hayder I. Mohammed 4 ,
• Hussein Togun 5 ,
• Shabbir Ahmad 6 , 7 &
• Arman Ameen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8349-6659 8  

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Drinking water production has been thrust to the forefront of global issues as a direct result of the critical need for access to clean water and the expanding environmental difficulties. Solar stills are becoming an increasingly popular technology for the purification of water since they provide a greener and more cost-effective alternative to the production of distilled water of a high standard. Recent research has focused on the incorporation of nanofluids, which are suspensions of metallic or non-metallic nanoparticles, into base fluids such as water and oil in the hopes of further increasing the effectiveness of solar distillation. This novel technique intends to improve thermophysical and evaporation parameters, which will eventually lead to greater production in solar stills. In this paper, a complete overview of the most recent developments in the use of nanofluids in solar still technology is presented. This research investigates the potential of nanofluid-filled solar still systems by focusing on their one-of-a-kind qualities. These qualities include increased thermophysical properties, better thermal conductivity, and enhanced thermal absorptivity. The innovative nature of this method is highlighted by the fact that the use of nanofluids in active solar stills has proven a decrease in the amount of pumping power that is required. For instance, it has been ascertained that the inclusion of carbon quantum dots nanofluids to a solar still can expressively improve the water production, boosting the output by 57.9% to 823 mL compared to the 521 mL produced by a conventional still. Also, using a concentration of 0.9%, Al 2 O 3 , TiO 2 , CuO nanofluids and multiwall carbon nanotubes can boost the water production by 11.57%, 7.16%, 6.32%, and 4.66%, respectively, if compared to a solar still without nanofluids. This study serves as a pioneering examination of the future possibilities of nanofluid-enabled solar still systems, shining light on a transformational route toward environmentally friendly and effective water purification technologies. In light of these astonishing discoveries, this research serves as a pioneering exploration of the future prospects of nanofluid-enabled solar desalination units.

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Introduction

As the global population rises, there is a growing need for freshwater, yet only around 0.5% of that supply is accessible, leading to rapid depletion. As a result, there has been a rise in support for developing methods to treat the plentiful salt water so that it may be used for human consumption, and industrial and agriculture applications [ 1 , 2 ]. Solar desalination relies on two plentiful resources practically everywhere on Earth (salt water and sunlight) and is thus one of the effective natural solutions [ 3 , 4 ]. Solar still (SS) is one of the most effective desalination methods because of its cheap operational and maintenance costs, ease of building, and little environmental impact [ 5 , 6 ]. Conventional solar still (CSS) is simply designed to use solar energy to purify water through evaporation and condensation steps. The four constituents of a solar still modules are the basin (a container that holds the saline water), cover (a glass or plastic that allows sunlight to enter the basin), condenser (to condense water vapor into fresh water), and a collection trough (to collect the condensed fresh water) (Fig. 1 ). However, conventional sun stills lose heat to the environment and need heat to successfully heat the basin water, resulting in poor production [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Condensation heat loss to the surrounding air significantly reduces solar power's poor efficiency [ 13 ]. Condensers [ 14 , 15 , 16 ] and multiple effect stills [ 17 ] may be used to eliminate this effect. Reddy et al. (1983) [ 18 ] found that adding a condenser to wick solar increased output productivity by 15–25%. Traditional multi-wick double-slope solar stills were the focus of Pal et al. (2018) [ 19 ] in-depth theoretical investigation. They achieved a 35% energy efficiency and an exergy efficiency of 3.83%. To boost the efficiency of both systems, wick solar stills were fed with water from a humidification and dehumidification desalinating unit [ 20 ]. Nanofluid, in which nanoparticles are mixed with the basic fluid (saline water), is another method for increasing SS output. Specifically, nanofluids are engineered fluids that encompass suspended nanoparticles (typically 1-100 nm in size). Increased evaporation rate and productivity may be attributed to the nanoparticles ability to boost thermal conductivity and heat transmission. The mechanism of enhancement heat transfer in the solar stills with the presence of nanoparticles is basically explained as follows; the nanoparticles have greater thermal conductivities than the basic fluid, which allows for quicker heat transfer from the basin to the water vapor. Also, the existence of nanoparticles can create micro-convection currents within the fluid, which improves heat transfer by increasing the surface area exposed to the heat source. Lastly, some nanoparticles can absorb solar radiation and convert it to heat, which would increase the water temperature [ 21 , 22 , 23 ]. The consequence of these reasons can undoubtedly maximize the utilization of solar energy besides improving the amount of water generated by a solar still. For instance, diesel and biodiesel mix benefit greatly from nanoparticle's improved emission and combustion behavior [ 24 ]. SC1 (supramolecular complex) nanofluid improved diesel engine performance by about 14.8–20.52% due to its effect on the thermal brake. In addition, [ 25 ] discusses a review that demonstrates how various nanoparticles influence the thermal and electrical performance of photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) systems.

A schematic representation of a solar still [ 4 ]

Numerous experimental and computational studies demonstrating the performance of the SS system with various nanoparticles of varying shapes and sizes have been published in recent years. Most of these nanoparticles have high thermal conductivity, and this property has been shown to have beneficial implications on SS performance. The impact of Magnesium Oxide (MgO) and Titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) nanoparticles on the efficiency of stepwise SS was the subject of an experiment achieved by Panchal et al. (2019) [ 26 ]. Nanoparticle concentrations ranging between 0.1 and 0.2% are used in the experiment. MgO and TiO 2 at a concentration of 0.2% were shown to increase still production by 45.8% and 20.4%, respectively.

Reviewing current strategies developed to improve solar still performance, Alenezi and Alabaiadly (2023) [ 27 ] focused on methods that use non-metallic nanofluids as the foundation fluid. Al 2 O 3 , CuO, ZnO, and TiO 2 are the nanomaterials examined here. It was also clear that using ZnO in a solar-still desalination system led to a significant rise in pure water production and prompted gains in efficiency and productivity. Sangeetha et al. (2023) [ 28 ] constructed the review process on nanofluid structures, and phase change material (PCM) is executed in the internal heat transfer process. With the benefit of a global challenge, the PCM nanofluid used in Double slope solar still (DSSS) is concentrated on prospects based on applying persuasive initiatives. It has been perceived that the amount of DSSS distillate produced meaningfully upsurges when using an improvement strategy for PCMNF in conjunction with DSSS.

Recent advances in the use of nano based PCM and pure nanoparticles as a thermal storage medium in solar stills were reviewed by Nagaraju et al. (2022) [ 29 ]. Due to its increased solidification and melting rates, PCM subjected to nanotechnology is attracting and diverting the focus away from the significant critical barrier of PCM's poor heat conductivity in industrial and home applications. The essay highlights the benefits of utilizing nanoparticles and PCM with nanoparticles to improve the thermal performance of solar stills.

The existing literature indicates a notable absence of comprehensive investigations into the integration of nanofluids in solar still systems. Although some categorization of systems utilizing nanofluids, such as pyramid solar stills, single and slope solar stills, traditional solar stills, wick type solar stills, triangle solar stills, and stepped type solar stills, has been undertaken, there remains a shortage of comprehensive studies in this area. This study aims to address this research gap by providing an in-depth analysis of the utilization of nanofluids in solar stills. Through an exhaustive examination of the most recent existing body of literature published between 2019 and 2023, this study seeks to shed light on key challenges and limitations associated with nanofluid integration. By offering detailed descriptions of various technical, research, and development approaches related to nanofluids, this article provides a novel perspective on their potential application in solar still systems. The outcomes of this review serve as a roadmap for future investigations, equipping researchers with crucial insights into the plethora of unanswered questions and challenges associated with nanofluid usage in solar distillation. This research endeavor aspires to pave the way for further exploration and advancements in harnessing nanofluids to augment the efficiency and performance of solar stills, eventually contributing to the sustainable development of water purification and freshwater generation technologies.

Review method

A methodical literature review is directed to deliver an overview of the studies that explored the use of nanofluids for improving the efficiency of solar desalination systems such as the pyramid solar still, desalination units, single-slope solar still, double-slope solar still, conventional solar still, wick type solar still, triangular solar still, and stepped solar still. The review is accomplished by analytically inspecting the existed academic literature. The search was conducted using the terms solar still, desalination, nanofluids, productivity boost, and portable water. Despite there being no limitations on when the articles needed to be published, attention was given to just take account of the most recent articles published between 2019 and 2023 to discourse the most cutting-edge research.

Pyramid solar still

The surface area provided by the solar still directly impacts the rate of evaporation and condensation. Notwithstanding this, pyramid solar still overtakes basin solar because it delivers a greater surface area for the condensation step. The pyramidal form of the top cover of this solar still design gives this system its name.

A sole hybrid system utilizing a modified pyramid solar still, evacuated tubes, and nanofluids was experimentally demonstrated by Sharshir et al. (2019) [ 30 ]. The effectiveness and cost of three separate units were compared: a standard conventional solar still (CSS) as a reference and two types of conventional and modified pyramid solar stills (CPSS and MPSS). Nanofluids of 1.5 mass%. Copper oxide (CuO) and carbon black (CB) were comprised in the MPSS alongside evacuated tubes. Findings indicated that MPSS upgraded water productivity by 4.77% over CPSS and 26.6% over CSS. When comparing MPSS with CB to CPSS and CSS, the enhancement in water productivity was 33.59 and 57.098%, respectively. CSS daily thermal efficiency ranged between 30% to about 50%, CPSS from 47% to 48%, and MPSS from 50%. On the other hand, as shown in Fig. 2 , MPSS comprising CuO and CB nanoparticles enlarged up to 61% and 64.5%, respectively.

Units, daily thermal efficiency [ 30 ]

Through experimental assessment of three suggested enhancements made to the traditional pyramid distiller (TPD), Sharshir et al. (2020) [ 31 ] enhanced the performance of the pyramid distiller (PD). By incorporating v-corrugated absorbers into the developed pyramid distiller (DPD) to rise the surface area of evaporation and wick materials into the DPDW to reduce the feed water rate, productivity was increased to a suitable level. Copper oxide nanofluid with wick and v-corrugated absorbers was added to the third variant (DPDW + CuO) to improve thermal conductivity and absorptivity and reduce the specific heat of the base fluid. The findings show that, in comparison to TPD, the three modified systems provide superior thermo-economic efficiency. Figure  3 displays that compared to TPD, DPD, DPDW, and DPDW + CuO, all increased total freshwater production by around 28.38%, 45.2%, and 72.95 %, respectively.

TPD, DPD, DPDW, and DPDW + CuO thermo-economic performance [ 31 ]

The effect of thermal energy storage material and nanoparticles on distillate production and the improvement of the evaporation rate of square pyramid solar still was considered by Modi et al. (2022) [ 32 ]. The first series of tests compared the efficiency of the square pyramid solar still while employing sodium nitrate (NaNO 3 ) and aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ) nanofluid as thermal energy storage materials. Compared to using Al 2 O 3 nanofluid, the daily average efficiency and total distillate production of the solar still using thermal energy storage material (NaNO 3 ) were 5.50 and 5.58% higher, respectively. Experiment two compared the efficiency of a square pyramid solar still equipped with and without a thermal energy storage material (NaNO 3 ), drawing on data from experiment one. The solar still with thermal energy storage material (NaNO 3 ) produced 2.15% more total distillate and had a 3.20% better average daily efficiency than the solar still without NaNO 3 .

Sharshir et al. (2022) [ 33 ] upgraded the efficiency of pyramid solar still by using an evacuated tube, an external condenser, nanoparticles, and ultrasonic foggers. The effect of adding nanoparticles and ultrasonic foggers to a modified pyramid solar still (MPSS) constructed from evacuated tubes and an external condenser was measured experimentally and compared to adding these components to a standard or conventional pyramid solar still (CPSS). Freshwater output, energy, and exergy efficiencies were all found to be more significant for the MPSS configuration using six evacuated tubes and an external condenser than for the CPSS configuration. These percentages, however, may shift to 132.86%, 28.22%, and 75.43% when 1 mass% carbon black (CB) nanoparticle is added to this MPSS. The percentages of improvement also shifted to 162.15%, 34.26%, and 81.51% with the addition of the three ultrasonic foggers with nanoparticles. According to the cost-benefit analysis, compared to CPSS, the recommended changes may reduce the price of freshwater by as much as 32.04% per liter. According to the environmental study, all suggested changes, greatest environmental parameter (CO 2 emissions) for the MPSS was 1.379 ton-CO 2 /year.

The effect of various heat transfer nanofluids (aqueous Al 2 O 3 , MgO, GO nanofluids) inserted into a pyramid solar still setup was compared and contrasted by Ajit et al. (2023) [ 34 ]. Traditional heat transfer fluids (base fluid) are vastly upgraded in thermo-physical characteristics when nano-sized particles are dispersed in the fluid. When suspended in water at a concentration of 1.0 mass%, Al 2 O 3 nanoparticles increase the thermal conductivity, specific heat, dynamic viscosity, and density by a maximum of about 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%, respectively; when suspended in water at a concentration of 1.0 mass%, MgO nanoparticles increase these properties by a maximum of about 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%, respectively. Distillation water yield may be increased by as much as 38.52% when utilizing a heat transfer fluid composed of 1.0 mass% Al 2 O 3 . The highest increase in distilled water output over water is around 48.91% when MgO mono-nanofluid (1.0 mass%) is utilized as the heat transfer fluid in the setup.

By improving the PSS's evaporation and condensation rates, Liu et al. (2023) [ 35 ] improved the PSS's thermo-economic performance. As a first case study of a developed pyramid solar still (DPSS-I), they integrated evacuated tubes and ultrasonic foggers into the developed pyramid solar still (DPSS) to produce high vapor production and evaluated a range of fogger operation periods. In the second scenario (DPSS-II), Co 3 O 4 nanofluid (1.5 mass%) was introduced to the basin fluid. Finally, glass cooling was utilized to increase the condensation rate in the third scenario (DPSS-III). Not only were the experimental results analyzed, but the energy and energetic efficiency, as well as the cost of freshwater on a per-liter basis, were calculated and analyzed. Therefore, implementing the recommended additives (DPSS-III) might increase freshwater output by 83.87%, energy efficiency by 18.29%, and exergy efficiency by 38.86%.

Table 1 summarizes studies of using nanofluids in pyramid solar still.

Single-slope solar stills

Numerous solar still (SS) system designs have been creatively created and improved over the past few decades to maximize production yield. The right design basis, stainless steel, and thermal storage materials must be chosen if efficiency and consistency are to be improved. Despite being widely used because to its simplicity and ease of production, the single slope SS has a drawback in that it has a rather poor yield. In order to increase the effectiveness and production of SS systems, researchers and engineers have been concentrating on developing multi-slope designs and investigating different materials. There is a lot of opportunity to improve water distillation processes and more effectively solve the problems associated with water scarcity by continuing to push the limits of SS technology.

Copper oxide (Cu 2 O) nanofluid performance in a single slope solar still with an external thermo-electric glass cover cooling channel was clarified by Nazari et al. (2019) [ 36 ]. The cold air that flows over the glass cover is generated by four thermo-electric cooling modules (TEC) installed on the walls of the galvanized exterior channel. And various volume concentrations of copper oxide nanoparticles are used. Based on the data, the modified solar still seems more productive, uses less energy, and produces less waste exergy than the standard solar still. The modified solar's productivity, energy, and exergy efficiency are still greatly improved by adding the copper oxide nanoparticles to the basin brackish water. Adding Cu 2 O nanoparticles at a 0.08 vol.% to an upgraded solar basin water with a thermoelectric cooling channel increases productivity, energy, and exergy efficiency by 81%, 80.6%, and 112.5%, respectively.

In a single slope solar still equipped with an external thermoelectric condensing channel, Nazari et al. (2019) [ 37 ] established the effectiveness of copper oxide (Cu 2 O) nanofluid. To create a cold spot in the vapor flow, the researchers used a Cu 2 O–water nanofluid with variable concentrations and four TEC mounted around the walls of the exterior channel. In July, the researchers at Iran's Razi University in Kermanshah obtained data on the modified solar still's glass cover, basin water, and absorber plate temperatures, in addition to the distilled water output, daily energy, and exergy efficiency. Water productivity, energy, and exergy efficiencies are augmented by 82.4%, 81.5%, and 92.6%, respectively, when Cu 2 O nanoparticles are involved to the basin water at a 0.08 vol.%.

Solar stills (SSs) with different modifications, counting those with heating/cooling and nanofluid, were experienced by Parsa et al. (2020) [ 38 ]. In the first setup, the basin was heated utilizing thermo-electric energy. The second setup was a basin filled with thermoelectric heating (THE) and nanofluid. The third SS, which used both TEH and nanofluid, had an external condenser with a double slope, one side cooled by a layer of water and the other by thermoelectric. The usage of silver nanoparticles with a mass of 0.03% was chosen for their well-established effectiveness in water disinfection. The results showed that SS's daily yield and efficiency with nanofluid/condenser and SS with nanofluid without condenser were around 100.5% and 26.7% better than SS without nanofluid/condenser. Compared to SS with nanofluid without a condenser and SS without nanofluid/condenser, SS with nanofluid/condenser achieved the maximum productivity at 7760 cc m −2 day −1 , with an increase in output from the glass side of around 16.5% and 47.6%, respectively. Figure. 4 also compares the total efficiencies of SSs without nanofluid/condenser (16.58%), with nanofluid (22.01%), and with nanofluid and condenser (25.42%).

Productivity, solar intensity, and efficiency on a typical experiment day for both SSs [ 38 ]

Two nanofluid-based solar stills were tested for the first time by Parsa et al. (2020) [ 39 ] on four consecutive days in July 2018 in Tehran, Iran, and at the summit of Mount Tochal, at over 4000 m. The use of silver nanofluid at a concentration of 0.04% by mass was motivated by its many benefits, including its high thermal conductivity, good optical qualities, and potent antimicrobial effects. The use of nanofluid had a significant effect on the systems from an energy standpoint, whereas altitude had the biggest effect from an energetic one. Tochal-located nanofluid loading yielded the best instantaneous energy and exergy efficiency, respectively, at 55.98% and 9.27%. Solar stills can produce as much as 235 cc(s) of distillate water per hour, 165 cc per hour, 195 cc per hour, and 115 cc per hour without the use of nanofluid, with the corresponding evaporation exergy values being about 23.69 W, 13.55 W, 10.53 W, and 4.81 W, respectively. Figure  5 also shows that the maximum values for both parameters are reached around 14:00 across all platforms.

Evaporation exergy and solar still production [ 39 ]

Experiments employing nanofluid were directed by Subhedar et al. (2020) [ 40 ] to examine the efficiency of a typical single-slope solar still plant (CSP) coupled with a parabolic trough collector (PTC). As a working fluid, the researchers tested the water and Al 2 O 3 /Water nanofluid at 0.05 vol.% and 0.1 vol.% fractions. The findings demonstrated that the clean water output from the integrated still plant is much higher. With a working fluid of 0.1% volume percentage Al 2 O 3 /Water, the highest yield is 1741 mL for a basin with a surface area of 1 m 2 and a depth of 2.5 cm of salt water. This indicated that the yield and thermal efficiency of the Al 2 O 3 /Water nanofluid integrated solar still systems are around 66% and 70% higher than those of the CSP, respectively. When a solar still is connected with a PTC employing nanofluid with a 0.1% volume fraction, as illustrated in Fig. 6 , the thermal efficiency reaches a maximum of 69.48%.

Maximum thermal efficiency for a CSP, b CSP combined with water-based PTC, and c CSP integrated with 0.05% volume fraction Al 2 O 3 –water nanofluid-based PTC. d CSP merged with a 1% volume fraction Al 2 O 3 –water nanofluid-based PTC [ 40 ]

Based on measurements of solar radiation, fan power, ambient temperature, glass temperature, water temperature, basin temperature, and nanoparticle concentration, Bahiraei et al. (2020) [ 41 ] modeled the water production of a novel nanofluid-based solar still. The solar condensing channel is still cooled by four thermoelectric cooling modules. The solar still basin makes use of a Cu 2 O-water nanofluid. To provide accurate predictions of water production, we use a Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) neural network trained with Imperialist Competition Algorithm (ICA) and Genetic Algorithm (GA) for optimizing training parameters. Compared to the standard MLP, the ensemble models (GA-MLP and ICA-MLP) provide more accurate estimates of the target distribution. Both GA and ICA have significant impacts on MLP accuracy, with ICA leading to a more noticeable improvement. The testing phase root mean 40.49% reduced square error with the GA algorithm and 62.01% with the ICA method compared to the standard MLP. The GA and ICA substantially influence the MLP's improved accuracy. Compared to the GA, the improvement achieved using the ICA is superior.

The energy efficiency of single-slope solar still using thermo-electric modules may be accurately predicted according to a model developed by Bahiraei et al. (2021) [ 42 ]. Particle swarm optimization (PSO) and an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) were utilized. Energy efficiency was modeled as a function of time, fan power, solar radiation, temperatures of glass, ambient, water, and basin, in addition to nanoparticle volume fraction throughout utilizing Cu 2 O nanoparticles in a solar still basin. The information gathered from experiments is used to teach the AI techniques. The most accurate predictions may be found in the ANFIS with nine clusters and the Artificial Neural Network (ANN) with three hidden neurons. Using the PSO significantly enhances the accuracy of predictions. The PSO-ANFIS outperforms the PSO-ANN in a head-to-head comparison of the performances of PSO-based ensemble models. PSO-ANFIS model R2 values are 0.9884 on the training set and 0.9906 on the test set. Energy efficiency in terms of time, as calculated by the PSO-ANFIS model, is depicted in Fig. 7 . Clearly, the peak value of energy efficiency comes at 14:00 and then gradually drops.

PSO-ANFIS model energy efficiency versus time [ 42 ]

Bouçanova et al. (2022) [ 43 ] investigated the use of silver, gold, and copper nanofluids (NFs) to improve the efficiency of a solar distiller with a single incline. The spherical nanoparticles in the NFs had a size of around 40 nm and a volume fraction of φ =0.001%, and the NFs were synthesized utilizing chemical methods. Daylong measurements of specific water productivity and base, basin, cover, and ambient temperatures were consistent with values anticipated by energy balance calculations. Using Au, Ag, and Cu, nanofluids increased water productivity by 28.2%, 19.2%, and 22.0%, respectively. Maximum instantaneous thermal energy efficiency was increased by 28.9% in the solar distiller utilizing Au-NF without compromising colloidal stability.

Using the finite element method, Alqsair et al. (2023) [ 44 ] simulated a 2D single-slope desalination (DLN) system. The DLN system is simulated using a hybrid composite of nanodiamond and nickel nanoparticles injected to the chamber using the two-phase mixture model. Through varying the DLN system's glass angle (GAL), wall height (WHT), and ambient temperature (TAMB) over the course of 12 hours, we investigate the system's heat transfer coefficient (HTCT), humidity, mean temperature, and vapor circulation contours. The results demonstrate that the TMN and HTCT of the DLN system peak during the 8th and 9th hour of system operation. The HTCT is decreased when the GAL and chamber height are increased. A TAMB of 10 °C results in the highest HTCT, while raising the TAMB lowers this coefficient. Furthermore, the TAMB of 283.15 K is connected to the max humidity inside the system, and raising the TAMB drastically reduces the humidity level.

Table 2 shows a summary of conducted research on using nanofluids in single-slope solar still.

Double-slope solar stills

Numerous studies have been conducted on double-slope glass, a key component of double-slope solar stills (DSSS), with the goal of enhancing the solar energy capture and water distillation processes. Researchers have discovered substantial advancements in solar energy absorption through several experiments, which has increased rates of condensation and evaporation within DSSS. Due to the increased energy consumption and improved water distillation, DSSS are especially useful in areas with abundant sunlight. Additionally, certain DSSS designs further emphasize the advantages by including a wick. The wick can increase capillary action, which enhances water circulation, heat transfer, and water evaporation rates. Because of this, DSSS with wicks display even better freshwater gathering capability.

The performance and thermos-physical properties of a partially covered series-connected N-photovoltaic thermal (PVT)-compound parabolic concentrator (CPC)-integrated double slope solar still coupled with a helically coiled heat exchanger (HE) containing single wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) and multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNT)-water-based nanofluid were analyzed by Arora et al. (2020) [ 45 ]. SWCNT-based nanofluid has been shown to improve HTCs in the PVT-CPC collector by about 46.4%, in the helically coiled aluminum HE by approximately 46.7%, and in the DSSS section by approximately 76.7%. SWCNT and MWCNT are found to increase overall yield by 65.7% and 28.1%, respectively. With more glass covering the west side of the DSSS section, there is a greater temperature difference between the basin fluid (salt water) and the inner surface of the west side of the DSSS section, leading to a slightly higher daily yield from the west side slope compared to the east side slope. As shown in Fig. 8 , the addition of SWCNT nanoparticles to the base fluid yields better results than the addition of MWCNT NPs.

Daily yield (east, west, and total) of the projected system using water (base fluid), SWCNT, and MWCNT-water-based nanofluid [ 45 ]

Shoeibi et al. (2021) [ 46 ] studied the performance of solar stills to determine how using a thermo-electric cooling and heating application with different nanofluids affected the system. Al 2 O 3 , TiO 2 , CuO, and MWCNT nanofluids were tested at concentrations of 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9% to see how they affected the temperature differential between the salt water and the glass. Solar stills using 0.9% concentrations of Al 2 O 3 , TiO 2 , CuO, and MWCNT nanofluids exhibited increases in water production of 11.57, 7.16, 6.32, and 4.66% compared to solar stills not using nanofluids. In addition, the findings demonstrated that raising the nanoparticle concentration in the base fluid enhanced solar still water production, thermal efficiency, and CO 2 mitigation. The findings demonstrated that adding nanoparticles to the basic fluid at varying concentrations enhanced the convective heat transfer within the water and heat exchanger. In addition, the findings demonstrated a constant behavior of the evaporative heat transfer coefficient over periods. Figure. ( 9 ) displays that the evaporative heat transfer rate for MWCNT nanofluid increased by 6.12% in a comparison against to a thermoelectric solar still without nanofluids.

Solar still hourly evaporative heat transfer coefficient with various nanofluids at 0.9% [ 46 ]

Glass cooling in a double-slope solar still with a 0.4% Al 2 O 3 –TiO 2 hybrid nanofluid was numerically assessed by Shoeibi et al. (2022) [ 47 ]. The cover temperature is lowered, and freshwater production is increased thanks to the flow of a hybrid nanofluid (Al 2 O 3 –TiO 2 ) over the glass. The hybrid nanofluid cover cooling increases the temperature differential between the evaporation and condensation regions. Natural convection heat transmission inside the solar was improved using hybrid nanofluid glass cooling. The solar's glass top and water surfaces still are modeled using a convective heat transfer coefficient and a fixed temperature. The simulation findings showed that hybrid nanofluid glass cooling improved the water productivity and energy efficiency of solar desalination by 11.09% and 28.21%, respectively, in a comparison to solar desalination without a hybrid nanofluid. Referring to the Computational Fluid dynamics (CFD) model, the optimum concentration of nanoparticles is 0.45%. Solar desalination that uses hybrid nanofluid glass cooling also improved environmental and exergo-environmental parameters by 12.45% and 3.71 times, respectively.

The effectiveness of a double-effect solar distiller (DESD) was proven by Kumar et al. (2023) [ 48 ] utilizing TiO 2 /Jackfruit peel nanofluids (TJPN) with silver-colored balls at concentrations of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30%. The TJPN has the maximum efficiency (20%) based on the 0.8 cm water depth used in the single and double slope solar stills (SDESS) calculations. The overall SDESS efficiency result is 7.35 kg m −2  day −1 with a water depth of 0.8 cm throughout 12 hours of observation and TJPN for 30%. Exergy analysis for SDESS averages 3.35, whereas energy analysis averages 4.71%. SDESS focuses on 797 tons of CO 2 emissions per centimeter of water depth and weather analysis for optimal life cycle units. Optimizing TJPN using SDESS involves considering potential water productivity at greatest water temperature and water depths of 0.6, 0.8, 1, and 1.2 cm for 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30%.

Table 3 summarizes studies of using nanofluids in double-slope solar still

Conventional solar still

The principal energy source for the water distillation process in conventional passive solar stills has historically been the sun's radiant heat. The solar still collects solar energy when exposed to sunlight, which is subsequently transmitted to the water, increasing its temperature, and starting the phase change from liquid to vapor. This vital energy exchange causes water to evaporate, leaving contaminants behind, and for the vapor to condense into pure distilled water. Researchers have been investigating novel strategies to improve the effectiveness of conventional solar stills recently. The practice of nanofluids in the distillation process is one stimulating area for further investigation. The ability to augment heat transfer and absorption properties is delivered by nanofluids, which are designed suspensions of nanoparticles in a basic fluid. Researchers want to rise the rate of heat absorption in the conventional solar still setup, principal to faster heating and evaporation of the water. This enhancement in energy transfer has the prospective to boost the production of distilled water, making it an exciting topic for research to discourse the issue of water scarcity.

Hashemi et al. (2020) [ 49 ] investigated the usefulness of a nanofluid-based solar still with a dual-axis solar tracker system (STS) from many angles, counting for the freshwater production during the day and night, efficiency and cost during the day and night, and hourly performance. The projected solar still has three Fresnel lens concentrators, an active automated STS, and a conventional solar (CSS). In addition, the results of using two different mass fractions of MWCNTs/water nanofluid (0.15 and 0.3%) as the heat transfer fluid (HTF) were evaluated. However, the CSS combined with the STS and the Fresnel lens can create 5310 mL m −2  day −1 , 1080 mL m 2  night −1 , and 6390 mL m −2  day −1 of fresh water. In addition, the findings show that a mass fraction of 0.3% MWCNTs/water nanofluid improves freshwater productivity over pure water as HTF by 31.6, 7.4, and 27.5%, respectively. The results indicated that the daily average efficiency can be increased by 9.56 and 17.85% utilizing the nanofluid with a mass fraction of 0.15 and 0.3%, respectively, compared to water as HTF.

The use of a hybrid nanofluid in a desalination system was simulated by El-Gazar et al. (2021) [ 50 ], and the results were given. We compare the fractional model's predictions with those of the classical model and experimental data collected in Upper Egypt under various climatic circumstances. Each nanoparticle in the Al 2 O 3 –CuO hybrid nanofluid used to implement the model has a concentration of 0.025%. The findings reveal that compared to control still without nanoparticles, utilizing a hybrid nanofluid increases daily production by 27.2% in the summer and 21.7% in the winter, reaching 5.5239 and 3.1079 kg m −2 , respectively. The still's average energy efficiency rises to 49.54% in the summer and 23.212% in the winter, with increases of 12.6% and 11.8% in hot and cold climates, respectively. An average of 22.5% increases exergy efficiency in the summer and 13.4% in the winter when employing a hybrid nanofluid.

By implementing several of their suggestions, Kandeal et al. (2022) [ 51 ] improved the solar's thermo-economic efficiency. First, two types of condensers, type-A (using active water and active vapor) and type-B (using passive water and active vapor), were used and compared to improve the condensation process. Each had different combinations of runtime, speed, and power evaluated to see what worked best. In contrast to a standard solar still, type-B performed marginally better, increasing yield, energy efficiency, and exergy efficiency by 31, 30, and 12.56%, respectively. However, the improved solar equipped with a type-A condenser increased those values by 21.3%, 26.1%, and 8.79%. CuO nanofluid (1 mass%) was injected into the solar still basin after determining the ideal condenser (type-B) and fan operating parameters. Finally, three ultrasonic foggers were installed in the basin to produce mist and speed up the pace at which water evaporated. The use of nanofluids improved performance over standard solar still in terms of yield (by 42.8%), energy efficiency (by 46%), and exergy efficiency (by 54.85%).

Highly stable carbon quantum dots (CQDs) nanofluids were suggested by Chen et al. (2023) [ 52 ] to be made using a gentle production process including microwave technology coupled with a simple dilution. After a thorough analysis of their stability in salt water, researchers found that almost all CQDs nanofluids were unaffected by a range of NaCl concentrations (from 0 to 50 g L −1 ) and other salt ions and organic compounds. After analyzing their optical characteristics, researchers found that nanofluids containing 10% CQDs could absorb virtually all of the sun's energy. The findings reveal that the water productivity is increased by 57.9% when using the CQDs nanofluids in the solar still, going from 521 mL to 823 mL throughout the experiment. The average energy efficiency of a solar still using CQDs nanofluids is 34.23%, whereas it is just 21.52% without them.

Mustafa et al. (2023) [ 53 ] simulated a solar still in three dimensions using the finite element approach. The still's tank had aluminum nanoparticles and a coating of N-auxin Phase Change Material (PCM) at the bottom. The problem's parameters comprised the angle of the still's front glass plate (283.15–318.15 K) and the ambient temperature (293–330 K), which varied during the day. Max PCM temperature, max air temperature, and PCM volume fraction were all shown to be most affected by sun radiation. The PCM inside the solar still caused the highest air temperature to be reached somewhat later in the day than in the morning. If the ambient temperature was also 330 K and the sun radiation was at its peak, the glass might attain a maximum temperature of 330 K. A decrease in the angle of the solar still's front plate in the last hours of the investigation resulted in a decrease in the volume percentage of the molten PCM. In addition, as the temperature outside dropped, the PCM froze more quickly at the 10° angle of the still's front plate.

Table 4 summarizes studies of using nanofluids in conventional slope solar still.

Wick-type solar still

In the energy dynamics of water circulation within the wick of a solar still, the capillary action phenomenon is crucial. Due to the capillary forces at play, some energy is unavoidably transformed into heat when water flows through the wick's porous structure. The wick's surface and the glass cover of the solar still are where the heat energy is transferred next. Another crucial stage in the heat transfer mechanism is encountered once the heat has reached the glass cover. By serving as a medium, the glass cover makes it easier for heat energy to be conducted to its surrounds. As a result, the solar still begins to accumulate a significant quantity of heat. The proper operation of the solar still depends on the retention of heat inside the still's walls. The still maintains the high temperatures required for efficient water evaporation and condensation operations by utilizing this trapped heat energy. As a result, this procedure enhances the creation of distilled water.

Under identical circumstances, Essa et al. (2021) [ 54 ] looked at two revolving wick solar stills models. The L-shape-rotating wick solar still (L-RWSS) is a solar still with a wicked belt made of black jute fabric that is meant to be rotated along an “L”-shaped route within the still to extract the most heat possible. The second configuration, LC-RWSS, has the wick belt rotating along a route shaped like a letter “L” with a chamfered end. The wick belt rotates for 5 minutes during the ON period and for zero, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, or 60 min during the OFF periods. The influence of quantum dots nanofluid on LC-RWSS efficiency is also investigated. In addition, LC-RWSS outperforms L-RWSS in terms of total cumulative daily productivity by 19% and 17% with and without nanofluid, respectively. L-RWSS and LC-RWSS achieved maximum production levels of 8200 and 9600 mL m −2 day. Figure 10 displays that under a 30 minute OFF time, LC-RWSS achieves a thermal efficiency of 88% with nanofluid and 86% without it.

Distillers, thermal efficiency varies [ 54 ]

Five different combinations, put on and beneath the still basin, were used by Abdelaziz et al. (2021) [ 55 ] to improve the efficiency of tubular solar still. To begin, we will use a v-corrugated aluminum basin. Second, we must fill the v-corrugated aluminum basin with wicking material. Finally, we localize the heat by placing a carbon black (CB) nanofluid on the wick material in the v-corrugated aluminum basin. Finally, a 1.5 mass% carbon black nanofluid is used with wicks and a v-corrugated aluminum basin containing phase transition materials (pure paraffin wax). The optimal setup is a v-corrugated basin with an attached wick, 1.5 mass% CB nanofluid, and 3 mass% CB nanoparticles dissolved in paraffin wax. Productivity increases of 21.4%, 42.77%, 58.58%, 73.56%, and 88.14% were seen for the previously ordered instances. In the best-case scenario (case 5), compared to standard tubular solar still, the thermal energy and exergy efficiency are increased by 82.16 and 221.8%, respectively, while the cost is reduced by 22.47%. Because of PCM, developed tubular solar still (DTSS's) peak freshwater production occurred an hour later than in conventional tubular solar still (CTSS) at the same time. Figure 11 shows that the combined freshwater production of CTSS and DTSS was 3.14 kg m −2 and 5.92 kg m −2 , respectively.

Hourly and cumulative freshwater productivity [ 55 ]

Two modified designs for solar stills with spinning wicks were evaluated by Abdullah et al. (2023) [ 56 ]. Each still had a spinning wick belt, but one followed the form of the letters “LC” (LC-RWSS) while the other followed the shape of the letter “L” (L-RWSS). Black cotton and jute wicks were also examined for their wicking material. We tried a range of wick belt rotation periods (ON = 5 min and OFF = 0–10, 20–30, 40–50, and 60 min). According to the findings, the distillate produced by the jute wick was higher than that of the cotton cloth. Further, under all OFF conditions, the productivity of LC-RWSS was higher when the wick belt rotated anticlockwise. Furthermore, while running the wick belt under 30 min OFF and 5 min ON intervals, the LC still had a daily distillate higher than the L still by 17%, and the greatest output yield of LC-RWSS (at 0.1 rpm with jute wick-counterclockwise) was attained. The greatest output yield of LC-RWSS was achieved with reflectors, exhaust fan, and nano while running the belt under 10 minutes of off time and 5 minutes of on time. With a higher thermal efficiency of 87%, the LC still produced a total yield that was 28% greater than that of the L still.

Two distinct redesigned distillers of the rotating-wick kind were put to the test by Abdullah et al. (2023) [ 57 ]. Both stills had revolving wick belts, but one's belt followed an “L” trajectory (L-RWSS), and the other's an “LC” one (LC-RWSS). Black jute and cotton wicks of several wick types were also studied. We tried out a variety of rotation periods for the wick belt (ON = 5 min and OFF = 0–10, 20–30, 40–50, and 60 min). The effect of a nanofluid made of graphene quantum dots on distiller efficiency was also studied. According to the findings of the experiments, the jute wick was more effective at capturing the distillate than the cotton fabric. The freshwater productivity of the LC-RWSS (jute wick, anticlockwise, 0.1 rpm) was around 17% greater than that of the L-RWSS. Additionally, compared to L-RWSS, total daily productivity was greater for LC-RWSS by 19% with nanofluid and 17% without it.

Table 5 summarizes studies of using nanofluids in wick-type solar still.

Triangular solar still

An economical way to create drinkable water is to use solar energy for distillation. Pyramidal solar stills (PSS) technology has come under scrutiny from experts in the field of freshwater quality improvement. To increase water evaporation rates and ensure effective purification, PSS makes use of sun radiation. Experts from all over the world have been researching and refining PSS designs, which has led to better water yields and improved water quality. An important development in sustainable water supply technology, PSS research presents a possible answer to mitigate water shortage and increase access to safe drinking water.

In a 3D triangular solar still, Alsehli (2022) [ 58 ] simulated a graphene nanoplatelet/platinum hybrid nanofluid with variable volume percentages. The governing equations are stated in three dimensions, and the finite volume approach is used for discretization. Nanofluids comprise 0%, 0.05%, and 0.1% of the total volume. There is also a range of 103–106 for the Rayleigh number. The Sherwood number, which represents the relationship between the rate of mass transfer by convection and the permeability of a material, is one of the factors investigated in this research. The Nusselt number, which measures the heat transmission rate, was another factor investigated in this paper. This research demonstrated that the Sherwood number rises while using nanofluids compared to the baseline of pure water and the Nusselt number. Water cooling on glass was also proven to improve efficiency in another section of this investigation.

A three-dimensional numerical investigation of the air-vapor mixture's doubly diffusive convection within a triangular solar still was depicted by Maatki et al. (2022) [ 59 ]. The results of adding nanofluids to a novel seawater feed design are analyzed. Based on the three-dimensional formulation of the potential-vorticity vector, the model's governing equations are developed and discretized using the finite element technique. The length, Lp, of a second seawater feed stage was varied between 0.1 and 0.5, the volume percentage of the nanoparticles was varied between (0 ≤  φ  ≤ 10%), and the buoyancy ratio was varied from 103 to 106. The primary findings demonstrate that the new design enhances certain dimensions, heat and mass transfer rates. The thermal performance at the evaporating and condensing surfaces increased by 38% and 55%, respectively, when the second-stage seawater supply dimensions of height = 0.2 and length = 0.5 were used.

Table 6 shows studies using nanofluids in triangular solar still.

Stepped solar still

Comparing the stepped solar to its conventional equivalent, it still has a distinctive and distinctive appearance. The stepped solar still uses a distinct design strategy from conventional stills, which normally have a glass dome and an insulated box. It features a stepping basin as the main element rather than a glass dome. This basin, which is frequently the same size as the ordinary still's lid, can be used in place of the usual design. The ability of the tiered solar system to keep stagnant water at each stage that is continuously exposed to solar radiation is still its fundamental principle. This exposure to sunlight makes sure that there is always adequate water in each step for the still to operate effectually. The interaction of the sun's rays with the water in the basin causes the liquid to evaporate and the vapor to condense, a process necessary to the operation of the still. The capacity of the stepped solar still to adjust and vary the number of steps it can tolerate is one of its defining qualities. The layout of many steps is flexible with the stepped solar still, in contrast to conventional stills, which frequently have a fixed design. The number of steps can be altered depending on elements such the amount of space available, the strength of the sun's rays, and the still's wanted water productivity. The stepped solar still has the potential to be a very active and environmentally friendly way to extract fresh water from brackish or salty sources in real-world applications. Because of its creative construction, it receives prolonged sunshine exposure, which speeds up the evaporation process and raises the water production. Additionally, the system is more adaptable because to the utilization of a tiered basin, making it a desirable choice for a variety of geographic regions and water scarcity scenarios.

To investigate the influence of the CuO/GO nanocomposite mass%, nanoparticle volume ratio, existence of paraffin wax as a PCM, and input brine flow rate on the water productivity, glass, brine, and bottom temperatures, Ajdari and Ameri (2022) [ 60 ] assembled an inclined stepped solar still with baffles. CuO and GO at 0.03 mass% increased the water production, albeit by different amounts (48.12% and 81.59%, respectively). The volume of the freshwater was enhanced by 81.59% thanks to using a nanocomposite with a volume ratio of 30/70 for CuO/GO. It was also exposed that lowering the brine flow rate from 30 to 8 L h1 resulted in a rise in freshwater output while rising it to 68 L h −1 reduced the water productivity. The last stage, using paraffin wax as PCM beneath the solar still's phases, upgraded water productivity by 32.8%. In general, the CuO/GO nanocomposite is shown to be a talented option for use in solar stills to increase output.

The goal of the experimental study conducted by Toosi et al. (2023) [ 61 ] was to determine whether or not the use of supplementary materials may increase the output rate of the modified stepped solar still (SSS). The SSS has been evaluated and optimized in four states—State I, a basic SSS; State II, an SSS with phase change material (PCM); State III, a hybrid Nano phase change material (NPCM); and State IV, a hybrid NPCM subjected to a magnetic field—to raise the daily production rate. Thermal energy is stored in rectangular chambers beneath each step using PCM and hybrid NPCM to keep desalinating water even after the sun goes down. Experiments indicated that, compared to State I, the distillate production increased by 37% in State II, 75% in State III, and 98% in State IV. Using hybrid NPCM in a magnetic field increases daily efficiency to 13.6% from 6.9% for State I, 9.6% for State II, and 12.3% for State III.

Table 7 shows a summary of studies for using nanofluids in stepped solar still.

Utilization of nanofluids in solar stills. A critical analysis

The revised studies throughout this review have addressed the utilization of nanofluids in various types of solar stills. Across all the different types of solar stills, this review has ascertained the improvement of heat transfer and overall efficiency due to the use of nanofluids compared to water. Generally, nanoparticles have higher thermal conductivities if compared to the basic fluid (water). Also, the existence of nanoparticles also enables to provide more contact area between the fluid and contact surfaces. The consequence of these mechanism is a faster heat transfer from the basin to the water vapor, which leads to a greater evaporation rate and a higher performance rate of the solar still. A critical analysis of the obtained results, presented in Tables 1 – 7 , can introduce the fact that the improvement of evaporation rate is dependent on the specific still design. Referring to the results, pyramid and stepped solar stills have exhibited the highest performance, with some studies reporting an improvement of evaporation rate that exceeds 50%. Furthermore, the type and concentration of nanoparticles can also influence the overall water productivity. For example, carbon black nanofluids often introduce encouraging results in pyramid stills, while Al 2 O 3 and CuO nanofluids per-form well in single-slope and double-slope configurations. The combination of different types of nanoparticles can upgrade the evaporation rate compared to using a single nanoparticle. For example, the associated studies of hybrid Al 2 O 3 –TiO 2 and CuO/GO nanofluids illustrate an improved efficiency in double-slope and stepped stills, respectively. Based on the revised studies, one can order the types of solar still from the highest performance to the lowest one as (pyramid solar stills, stepped solar stills, and double-slope solar stills).

Conclusions

The performance of solar distillers is an area that has seen much research in the literature. Different wick and energy-storing materials were utilized in the traditional distiller's corrugated and finned basin to keep excess energy during inclement weather. In addition, using nanofluids as heat transfer fluid, in conjunction with an external collector, solar pond, and internal reflector at variable degrees of inclination, may improve the efficiency of a solar distiller. The effects of using nanofluid on a solar's thermal properties were investigated in this review. Precisely, the focus was on the latest developments, inventions, and their results. Exactly, this review collected and analyzed three, nine, five, eight, and nine associated studies published in 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, and 2023, respectively. The following are some inferences that may be made:

All DPSS-III additions can potentially increase freshwater output by 83.87%, energy efficiency by 18.29%, and exergy efficiency by 38.86%.

The total amount of water produced by a typical solar still is 521 mL, whereas the amount produced by a solar still treated with carbon quantum dots nanofluids is 823 mL, an increase of 57.9%.

Results for water productivity, energy and exergy efficiencies were all augmented over standard solar still by as much as 54.85%, thanks to nanofluids.

Within a 1 cm penetration distance, tungsten carbide nanofluids of 0.3 mass% can collect 99% of the incoming solar energy.

Using Au, Ag, and Cu nanofluids increased productivity by 28.2%, 19.2%, and 22.0%, respectively.

The freshwater yield was increased by 48.12% and 81.59%, respectively, when 0.03 mass% CuO and GO were added.

Hybrid nanofluid glass cooling improved solar desalination by 12.45% on environmental and 3.71 times on exergo-environmental parameters.

Compared to pure water and the Nusselt number, the Sherwood number rises when nanofluids are utilized; adding nanoparticles to the base fluid substantially expands.

Compared to Al 2 O 3 nanofluid, the daily average efficiency and total distillate production of the solar still using NaNO 3 were 5.50 and 5.58% higher, respectively.

Solar still water production was increased by 11.57%, 7.16%, 6.32%, and 4.66% when using Al 2 O 3 , TiO 2 , CuO, and MWCNT nanofluids at a concentration of 0.9% as compared to solar still water production without nanofluid.

CB nanofluid at 1.5 mass% and CB nanoparticles at 3 mass% were added to paraffin wax beneath the basin to create the best-case scenario.

Recommendations for future directions

The results of this review research have broad ramifications and possible applications. This research's results may be used to develop more efficient solar stills. This allows for increased freshwater production in previously unreachable locations. As a result of their enhanced performance, several nanofluids provide viable options for decentralized desalination and water purification systems. An example of such a compilation is the list of suggestions for further study that follows:

Utilizing novel nanoparticles, such as MnO 2 , Au, or others not before used in solar stills. Silver nanofluids of varying concentrations are also used in solar stills.

Solar stills, exergy efficiency and cost-effectiveness may be further studied by examining the impact of varying nanofluid parameters.

Research is encouraged in nanofluid composition (such as nanoparticle material and size) and thermal properties.

The effects of hybrid-nano solar systems, which combine passive and active solar technologies, might be investigated experimentally or conceptually.

Nanofluid compositions might be improved in future research. Factors such as nanoparticle concentration, particle size, and surface modification might all be considered for optimization.

Scientists may investigate combining non-metallic nanofluid-based solar stills with cutting-edge technologies like phase-change materials or solar concentrators.

Data availability

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system

Artificial neural network

Carbon black

Carbon quantum dots

Computational fluid dynamics

Compound parabolic concentrator

Conventional pyramid solar still

Conventional or traditional solar still

Conventional tubular solar still

Double-effect solar distiller

Developed tubular solar still

Double slope solar still

Finite element method

Glass angle

Humidifier dehumidifier desalination

Heat transfer coefficient

Heat transfer fluid

Imperialist competition algorithm

L-shape-rotating wick solar still

L-shape-rotating wick solar still with a chamfered end

Multi-layer perceptron

Modified pyramid solar still

Multiwall carbon nanotubes

Nano-enhanced phase change material

Phase change material

Phase change material-nanofluid

Pyramid distiller

Particle swarm optimization

Pyramidal solar stills

Parabolic trough collector

Photovoltaic-thermal

Single and double slope solar stills

• Solar still

Solar tracker system

Single-wall carbon nanotubes

Ambient temperature

Thermoelectric cooling modules

Thermoelectric heating

TiO 2 /Jackfruit peel nanofluids

Traditional pyramid distiller

Wall height

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Petroleum Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Kerbala, Karbala, 56001, Iraq

Farhan Lafta Rashid

Technical Institute of Baquba, Middle Technical University, Baquba, Diyala, 32001, Iraq

Mudhar A. Al-Obaidi

Technical Instructor Training Institute, Middle Technical University, Baghdad, 10074, Iraq

Department Of Cooling And Air Conditioning Engineering, Imam Ja’afar Al-Sadiq University, Baghdad, 10011, Iraq

Hayder I. Mohammed

Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq

Hussein Togun

Institute of Geophysics and Geomatics, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China

Shabbir Ahmad

Department of Basic Sciences and Humanities, Muhammad Nawaz Sharif University of Engineering and Technology, Multan, 60000, Pakistan

Department of Building Engineering, Energy Systems and Sustainability Science, University of Gävle, 80176, Gävle, Sweden

Arman Ameen

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Conceptualization, F.L.R., M.A.A., H.I.M., S.A., H.T.; Methodology, F.L.R., M.A.A., H.I.M., S.A., H.T.; Formal analysis, F.L.R., M.A.A., H.I.M., S.A., H.T., A.A.; Investigation, F.L.R., M.A.A., H.I.M., S.A., H.T.; Resources, A.A.; Data curation, F.L.R., M.A.A., H.I.M., S.A., H.T.; Writing – original draft preparation, F.L.R., M.A.A., H.I.M., S.A., H.T.; Writing – review &editing, F.L.R., A.A.; Visualization, F.L.R., M.A.A., H.I.M., S.A., H.T.; Project administration, F.L.R and A.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Rashid, F.L., Al-Obaidi, M.A., Mohammed, H.I. et al. A review of the current situation and prospects for nanofluids to improve solar still performance. J Therm Anal Calorim (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-024-13465-1

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Received : 20 December 2023

Accepted : 08 July 2024

Published : 17 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-024-13465-1

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