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Published on April 24, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on December 8, 2023.
Good academic writing requires effective planning, drafting, and revision.
The writing process looks different for everyone, but there are five basic steps that will help you structure your time when writing any kind of text.
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Step 1: prewriting, step 2: planning and outlining, step 3: writing a first draft, step 4: redrafting and revising, step 5: editing and proofreading, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the writing process.
Before you start writing, you need to decide exactly what you’ll write about and do the necessary research.
If you have to come up with your own topic for an assignment, think of what you’ve covered in class— is there a particular area that intrigued, interested, or even confused you? Topics that left you with additional questions are perfect, as these are questions you can explore in your writing.
The scope depends on what type of text you’re writing—for example, an essay or a research paper will be less in-depth than a dissertation topic . Don’t pick anything too ambitious to cover within the word count, or too limited for you to find much to say.
Narrow down your idea to a specific argument or question. For example, an appropriate topic for an essay might be narrowed down like this:
Once you know your topic, it’s time to search for relevant sources and gather the information you need. This process varies according to your field of study and the scope of the assignment. It might involve:
From a writing perspective, the important thing is to take plenty of notes while you do the research. Keep track of the titles, authors, publication dates, and relevant quotations from your sources; the data you gathered; and your initial analysis or interpretation of the questions you’re addressing.
Especially in academic writing , it’s important to use a logical structure to convey information effectively. It’s far better to plan this out in advance than to try to work out your structure once you’ve already begun writing.
Creating an essay outline is a useful way to plan out your structure before you start writing. This should help you work out the main ideas you want to focus on and how you’ll organize them. The outline doesn’t have to be final—it’s okay if your structure changes throughout the writing process.
Use bullet points or numbering to make your structure clear at a glance. Even for a short text that won’t use headings, it’s useful to summarize what you’ll discuss in each paragraph.
An outline for a literary analysis essay might look something like this:
Once you have a clear idea of your structure, it’s time to produce a full first draft.
This process can be quite non-linear. For example, it’s reasonable to begin writing with the main body of the text, saving the introduction for later once you have a clearer idea of the text you’re introducing.
To give structure to your writing, use your outline as a framework. Make sure that each paragraph has a clear central focus that relates to your overall argument.
Hover over the parts of the example, from a literary analysis essay on Mansfield Park , to see how a paragraph is constructed.
The character of Mrs. Norris provides another example of the performance of morals in Mansfield Park . Early in the novel, she is described in scathing terms as one who knows “how to dictate liberality to others: but her love of money was equal to her love of directing” (p. 7). This hypocrisy does not interfere with her self-conceit as “the most liberal-minded sister and aunt in the world” (p. 7). Mrs. Norris is strongly concerned with appearing charitable, but unwilling to make any personal sacrifices to accomplish this. Instead, she stage-manages the charitable actions of others, never acknowledging that her schemes do not put her own time or money on the line. In this way, Austen again shows us a character whose morally upright behavior is fundamentally a performance—for whom the goal of doing good is less important than the goal of seeming good.
When you move onto a different topic, start a new paragraph. Use appropriate transition words and phrases to show the connections between your ideas.
The goal at this stage is to get a draft completed, not to make everything perfect as you go along. Once you have a full draft in front of you, you’ll have a clearer idea of where improvement is needed.
Give yourself a first draft deadline that leaves you a reasonable length of time to revise, edit, and proofread before the final deadline. For a longer text like a dissertation, you and your supervisor might agree on deadlines for individual chapters.
Now it’s time to look critically at your first draft and find potential areas for improvement. Redrafting means substantially adding or removing content, while revising involves making changes to structure and reformulating arguments.
It can be difficult to look objectively at your own writing. Your perspective might be positively or negatively biased—especially if you try to assess your work shortly after finishing it.
It’s best to leave your work alone for at least a day or two after completing the first draft. Come back after a break to evaluate it with fresh eyes; you’ll spot things you wouldn’t have otherwise.
When evaluating your writing at this stage, you’re mainly looking for larger issues such as changes to your arguments or structure. Starting with bigger concerns saves you time—there’s no point perfecting the grammar of something you end up cutting out anyway.
Right now, you’re looking for:
For example, in our paper on Mansfield Park , we might realize the argument would be stronger with more direct consideration of the protagonist Fanny Price, and decide to try to find space for this in paragraph IV.
For some assignments, you’ll receive feedback on your first draft from a supervisor or peer. Be sure to pay close attention to what they tell you, as their advice will usually give you a clearer sense of which aspects of your text need improvement.
Once you’ve decided where changes are needed, make the big changes first, as these are likely to have knock-on effects on the rest. Depending on what your text needs, this step might involve:
You can go back and forth between writing, redrafting and revising several times until you have a final draft that you’re happy with.
Think about what changes you can realistically accomplish in the time you have. If you are running low on time, you don’t want to leave your text in a messy state halfway through redrafting, so make sure to prioritize the most important changes.
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Editing focuses on local concerns like clarity and sentence structure. Proofreading involves reading the text closely to remove typos and ensure stylistic consistency. You can check all your drafts and texts in minutes with an AI proofreader .
When editing, you want to ensure your text is clear, concise, and grammatically correct. You’re looking out for:
In your initial draft, it’s common to end up with a lot of sentences that are poorly formulated. Look critically at where your meaning could be conveyed in a more effective way or in fewer words, and watch out for common sentence structure mistakes like run-on sentences and sentence fragments:
To make your sentences run smoothly, you can always use a paraphrasing tool to rewrite them in a clearer way.
When proofreading, first look out for typos in your text:
Use a grammar checker , but be sure to do another manual check after. Read through your text line by line, watching out for problem areas highlighted by the software but also for any other issues it might have missed.
For example, in the following phrase we notice several errors:
There are several issues in academic writing where you can choose between multiple different standards. For example:
Unless you’re given specific guidance on these issues, it’s your choice which standards you follow. The important thing is to consistently follow one standard for each issue. For example, don’t use a mixture of American and British spellings in your paper.
Additionally, you will probably be provided with specific guidelines for issues related to format (how your text is presented on the page) and citations (how you acknowledge your sources). Always follow these instructions carefully.
If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!
(AI) Tools
Revising, proofreading, and editing are different stages of the writing process .
Whether you’re publishing a blog, submitting a research paper , or even just writing an important email, there are a few techniques you can use to make sure it’s error-free:
If you want to be confident that an important text is error-free, it might be worth choosing a professional proofreading service instead.
If you’ve gone over the word limit set for your assignment, shorten your sentences and cut repetition and redundancy during the editing process. If you use a lot of long quotes , consider shortening them to just the essentials.
If you need to remove a lot of words, you may have to cut certain passages. Remember that everything in the text should be there to support your argument; look for any information that’s not essential to your point and remove it.
To make this process easier and faster, you can use a paraphrasing tool . With this tool, you can rewrite your text to make it simpler and shorter. If that’s not enough, you can copy-paste your paraphrased text into the summarizer . This tool will distill your text to its core message.
If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.
Caulfield, J. (2023, December 08). The Writing Process | 5 Steps with Examples & Tips. Scribbr. Retrieved August 29, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-writing/writing-process/
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Knowing how to write an essay can help you out significantly in both, your academic and professional life. An essay is a highly versatile nonfiction piece of writing that not only tests your knowledge of a topic but also your literary and argumentative skills.
Each essay requires the same basic process of planning, writing, and editing. Naturally, we’ve used these stages to group our steps on how to write an essay. So w ithout further ado, let’s get into it! Here are the eight steps to write an essay:
Stage 1: Planning
In certain cases, your teacher or professor may assign you a topic. However, in many cases, students have the freedom to select a topic of their choice. Make sure you choose a topic that you’re well versed in and have significant knowledge of.
Having prior knowledge of the topic will help you determine the subsequent steps to write an essay. It will also make your research process considerably easier.
A thesis statement is the central idea or premise your essay is based on. It is usually a sentence or two long and is included in the introduction of the essay. The scope of your thesis statement depends on the type of your essay and its length.
For instance, the scope of the thesis statement for a 500–1000 word school essay will be narrower than a 1000–5000 word college essay. A rule of thumb is that your essay topic should be broad enough to gather enough information, but narrow enough to address specific points and not be vague. Here’s an example:
The invention of the airplane by the Wright Brothers in 1903 revolutionized transportation and paved the way for modern aviation. It represents a monumental achievement in human history that forever changed the course of human civilization.
Creating a well-organized essay outline not only gives structure and flow to your essay but also makes it more impactful and easy to understand. The idea is to collect the main points of information that support or elaborate on your thesis statement. You can also include references or examples under these main points.
For example, if your thesis statement revolves around the invention of the airplane, your main points will include travel before the invention of the airplane, how it was invented, and its effects on modern-day travel. Take a look:
The Wright Brothers’ invention had a massive impact on modern-day travel. The subsequent growth of the aviation industry led to increased accessibility of air travel to the general public.
Stage 2: Writing
After creating the basic outline, it is important to know how to write an essay. Begin your essay by introducing your voice and point of view to the reader. An introduction is usually a paragraph or two long and consists of three main parts:
Let’s better understand this with the help of an example:
The Wright Brothers’ invention of the airplane in 1903 revolutionized the way humans travel and explore the world. Prior to this invention, transportation relied on trains, boats, and cars, which limited the distance and speed of travel. However, the airplane made air travel a reality, allowing people to reach far-off destinations in mere hours. This breakthrough paved the way for modern-day air travel, transforming the world into a smaller, more connected place. In this essay, we will explore the impact of the Wright Brothers’ invention on modern-day travel, including the growth of the aviation industry, increased accessibility of air travel to the general public, and the economic and cultural benefits of air travel.
Let’s understand how to construct each of these sections in more detail.
The opening sentence of an essay, also known as the hook, should include a powerful or startling statement that captures the reader’s attention. Depending on the type of your essay, it can be an interesting fact, a surprising statistic, or an engaging anecdote.
While writing the introduction, it’s important to provide context or background information before including the thesis statement. The background information may include the time before a groundbreaking invention, the pros and cons of a significant discovery, or the short- and long-term effects of an event.
If you’ve constructed your thesis statement during the outlining stage, it’s time to edit it based on the background information you’ve provided. Observe the slight changes we’ve made to the scope of the thesis statement in the example above. This accommodates the bits of information we’ve provided in the background history.
Body paragraphs play a crucial role in supporting and expanding the central argument presented in the thesis statement. The number of body paragraphs depends on the type of essay as well as the scope of the thesis statement.
Most school-level essays contain three body paragraphs while college-level essays can vary in length depending on the assignment.
A well-crafted body paragraph consists of the following parts:
Let’s understand this with the help of an example.
The Wright Brothers’ invention of the airplane revolutionized air travel. They achieved the first-ever successful powered flight with the Wright Flyer in 1903, after years of conducting experiments and studying flight principles. Despite their first flight lasting only 12 seconds, it was a significant milestone that paved the way for modern aviation. The Wright Brothers’ success can be attributed to their systematic approach to problem-solving, which included numerous experiments with gliders, the development of a wind tunnel to test their designs, and meticulous analysis and recording of their results. Their dedication and ingenuity forever changed the way we travel, making modern aviation possible.
Here’s a detailed overview of how to construct each of these sections.
A topic sentence is the title of the body paragraph that elaborates on the thesis statement. It is the main idea on which the body paragraph is developed. Ensure that each topic sentence is relevant to the thesis statement and makes the essay flow seamlessly.
The order of topic sentences is key in creating an impactful essay. This order varies depending on the type of essay you choose to write. These sentences may be arranged chronologically, in the order of importance, or in a cause-and-effect format.
It is necessary to provide relevant supporting information and evidence to validate your topic statement. This may include examples, relevant statistics, history, or even personal anecdotes.
You should also remember to cite your sources wherever you use them to substantiate your arguments. Always give researchers and authors credit for their work!
After presenting the appropriate evidence, the next step is to conduct an in-depth analysis. Establish connections and provide additional details to strengthen the link between your topic sentence and the supporting information.
Depending on the type of essay, this step may also involve sharing your subjective opinions and key takeaways.
In case you plan to create multiple body paragraphs, it is crucial to create a seamless transition between them. Transitional statements not only make the essay less jarring to read but also guide the reader in the right direction.
However, these statements need not be too lengthy and complicated. Use words such as “however”, “in addition to”, and “therefore” to convey transitions.
An impactful conclusion creates a lasting impression on the mind of the reader. Although it varies in length depending on the specific essay, the conclusion is typically a paragraph long.
It consists of
Here’s an example of a well-structured conclusion:
The Wright Brothers’ invention of the airplane forever changed history by paving the way for modern aviation and countless aerospace advancements. Their persistence, innovation, and dedication to problem-solving led to the first successful powered flight in 1903, sparking a revolution in transportation that transformed the world. Today, air travel remains an integral part of our globalized society, highlighting the undeniable impact of the Wright Brothers’ contribution to human civilization.
Let’s take a closer look at how to construct each of these sections.
Your conclusion should call back to your original argument or thesis statement.
However, this does not mean repeating the thesis statement as is. The essence of your argument should remain the same, but it should also be modified and evolved as per the information presented in your essay.
A powerful conclusion not only lingers in the reader’s mind but also provokes thought. You can create a strong impression on the reader by highlighting the most impactful points of your essay.
End your essay with the most powerful and impactful part: the larger perspective. This can include a question you’d like to leave the reader with, the broader implications and impact of your thesis statement, or the long-term, lingering effects of your experience.
Make sure to include no new evidence or arguments, or to undermine your findings in any way.
Stage 3: Editing
Knowing how to write an essay is just one part of essay writing. Properly reviewing and editing your essay is just as important. Make sure to spend enough time going over your essay and adding any bits of information that you’ve missed.
This is also a good time to make minor structural changes in your essay.
After making the necessary structural changes, recheck your essay word by word. It is important to not only correct major grammatical and spelling errors but also minor errors regarding the phrasing or tone of voice.
You can either choose to do this by yourself, ask a friend for assistance, or hire an essay proofreading service to go over your writing. To construct a fool-proof, error-free essay, it is helpful to have a trained pair of eyes go over it. Professional proofreaders can spot errors that are not visible to most people and set the right tone for your essay.
Now that you know the basics of how to write an essay, it’s time to learn about the specifics. Feel free to dig into the articles below and keep reading!
What are the steps to write an essay, what is the best essay writing style, how do i start an essay introduction, what are the tips for effective essay writing, what makes a good essay.
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A recent admit to Wharton's MBA program talks about his application, including how to tackle the Wharton essays, the Wharton TBD, the GMAT vs. GRE decision, the letters of recommendation, and more.
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Introduction: meet trevor.
I’m Trevor Higginson, originally from Salt Lake City, Utah. I studied finance at the University of Utah and started my career in finance at Ernst & Young. After that, I transitioned to investment banking at a Japanese bank called Mizuho and then moved into secondary private equity investing at Lexington. More recently, I joined a tech startup in Salt Lake City called Aumni, which served the VC space by helping monitor investments and manage legal and economic terms. Last year, Aumni was acquired by J.P. Morgan, and I ended up there as a PM before deciding to pursue my MBA at Wharton.
The application process was grueling and intense, but with the massive help of the Leland community, particularly my coach Chas , along with support from friends and family, I was able to get into Wharton after applying to Harvard, Stanford, and Wharton!
See other admit stories:
How i got into stanford gsb as a deferred applicant – an interview with dj fernandez.
Why did you choose to pursue an mba and why wharton.
Many people think of an MBA only in terms of its short-term benefits, like switching industries or climbing the ranks in their current field. But I believe the value of an MBA stretches much further, impacting your career over the next 10, 20, or even 30 years. I wanted to transition from working in a startup that got acquired to a big tech company, specifically in product management. I’ve seen what it’s like to work in a startup, and now I want to experience working in a large organization. Ultimately, I also have ambitions to start my own tech company in the future.
When it came to choosing a school, I only applied to Harvard, Stanford, and Wharton. My mindset was that if I didn’t get into one of these three, I’d continue advancing in my career as a product manager without an MBA. I was drawn to Wharton because of its strong academics, robust recruiting opportunities, and vibrant social and extracurricular scene. I appreciated Wharton’s mix of lecture-style classes, team-based learning, and case studies. This blended approach worked well for me as an undergrad and was something I wanted in my MBA experience.
Read: The Wharton School — MBA Program & Application Overview
For me, it was about quality over quantity. Having gone through various roles at different companies, from consulting at EY to investment banking and private equity, I had a clearer sense of where I wanted to go. I was already in product management, and I was happy with that path. So, it made sense to only aim for the top three schools that I felt would give me the best brand, network, and future opportunities. I wasn’t desperate for an MBA; it was more about enhancing my path, not defining it.
Read: How to Choose an MBA Program: The Discerning Student's Guide
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Did you take the gmat or gre how did you decide.
I initially considered taking the GMAT right after undergrad, which is pretty common for people with finance backgrounds. However, I was overwhelmed and decided to wait. When I did start the test prep process, I chose the GRE over the GMAT. This decision came down to my strengths. I realized quickly that the GMAT’s focus on integrated reasoning and certain quant sections didn’t play to my strengths, whereas the GRE had a stronger emphasis on verbal skills and vocabulary, which I was more comfortable with.
I highly recommend taking practice tests for both the GMAT and GRE to see which one aligns better with your strengths. There’s no reason to choose the GMAT just because it’s the traditional route for business school. Play to your strengths and pick the test that suits you best.
Read: GMAT vs. GRE for an MBA—Which Should You Take (and How to Ace Both)
First, I spent a lot of time getting to know Wharton because it’s very student-driven, with many clubs and other initiatives led by students. I looked at Wharton’s website to understand the clubs , courses , and other opportunities they offered. I also spoke to alumni and current students to understand the culture and how it aligned with my goals. This research helped me craft essays that were specific to my background and aspirations, showing how Wharton could bridge the gap between where I am and where I want to be.
Read: Wharton MBA Application Essays: Prompts & Expert Tips
To decide on my recommenders, I worked with my coach and created a short list of people from my last two jobs who I had worked closely with and who understood my abilities. I chose two recommenders from different employers to provide varied perspectives. With the help of my coach, Chas , I prepared a prompt document for my recommenders, outlining key attributes and anecdotes they could highlight. This made the process easier for them and ensured that their letters complemented my application narrative.
Read: MBA Recommender Questions and Criteria for the Top 10 Business Schools and How to Get the Perfect MBA Letter of Recommendation—With Examples
Template and example prep doc to help you guide your recommenders
Wharton’s Team-Based Discussion (TBD) interview is quite different from other MBA interviews. You’re grouped with other applicants to discuss a prompt, and the admissions team observes how you interact. To prepare, I participated in a mock TBD through Leland, which was invaluable. We received detailed feedback on how to handle different roles, like being a timekeeper or ensuring everyone had a chance to speak. Wharton values collaboration, so they want to see you work well in a team, not just dominate the conversation.
Make sure to sign up for Leland to stay in the loop for future mock Wharton TBDs and lots of free events.
Read: Wharton MBA Interview Guide: The Team-Based Discussion (TBD)
What were the biggest challenges you faced during the application process.
Every part of the process was challenging in its own way. The GRE preparation was grueling, and writing essays that effectively conveyed my story and motivations was tough. Having a coach and a support system made a huge difference. The introspection required to write compelling essays that were true to me and highlighted my unique qualities took a lot of effort and multiple iterations.
The best advice I can give is to start early and give yourself enough time to go deep into the process. Be intentional about why you want an MBA and be prepared to articulate that clearly. A great coach is invaluable—they provide guidance, feedback, and support that can make a real difference.
For Wharton specifically, really understand what makes the program unique. Get to know the culture, the student experience, and how you can contribute. Wharton values a collaborative community, so make sure that comes across in your application.
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Brainstorming, don't forget, sample prompts.
A personal statement is a narrative essay that connects your background, experiences, and goals to the mission, requirements, and desired outcomes of the specific opportunity you are seeking. It is a critical component in the selection process, whether the essay is for a competitive internship, a graduate fellowship, or admittance to a graduate school program. It gives the selection committee the best opportunity to get to know you, how you think and make decisions, ways in which past experiences have been significant or formative, and how you envision your future. Personal statements can be varied in form; some are given a specific prompt, while others are less structured. However, in general a personal statement should answer the following questions:
A personal statement is not:
Keep in mind that your statement is only a portion of the application and should be written with this in mind. Your entire application package will include some, possibly all, of the materials listed below. You will want to consider what these pieces of the application communicate about you. Your personal statement should aim to tie everything together and fill in or address any gaps. There will likely be some overlap but be sure not to be too repetitive.
For a quick overview of personal statements, you might begin by watching this "5 Minute Fellowships" video!
If you are writing your first personal statement or working to improve upon an existing personal statement, the video below is a helpful, in-depth resource.
A large portion of your work towards completing a personal statement begins well before your first draft or even an outline. It is incredibly important to be sure you understand all of the rules and regulations around the statement. Things to consider before you begin writing:
Below is a second 5 Minute Fellowships video that can help you get started!
Before you start writing, take some time to reflect on your experiences and motivations as they relate to the programs to which you are applying. This will offer you a chance to organize your thoughts which will make the writing process much easier. Below are a list of questions to help you get started:
For those applying to Medical School, if you need a committee letter for your application and are using the Medical Professions Advisory Committee you have already done a lot of heavy lifting through the 2017-2018 Applicant Information Form . Even if you aren't using MPAC the applicant information form is a great place to start.
Another great place to start is through talking out your ideas. You have a number of options both on and off campus, such as: Career Education advisors and mentors ( you can set up an appointment here ), major advisor, family, friends. If you are applying to a graduate program it is especially important to talk with a faculty member in the field. Remember to take good notes so you can refer to them later.
When you begin writing keep in mind that your essay is one of many in the application pool. This is not to say you should exaggerate your experiences to “stand out” but that you should focus on clear, concise writing. Also keep in mind that the readers are considering you not just as a potential student but a future colleague. Be sure to show them examples and experiences which demonstrate you are ready to begin their program.
It is important to remember that your personal statement will take time and energy to complete, so plan accordingly. Every application and statement should be seen as different from one another, even if they are all the same type of program. Each institution may teach you the same material but their delivery or focus will be slightly different.
In addition, remember:
The prompts below are from actual applications to a several types of programs. As you will notice many of them are VERY general in nature. This is why it is so important to do your research and reflect on your motivations. Although the prompts are similar in nature the resulting statements would be very different depending on the discipline and type of program, as well as your particular background and reasons for wanting to pursue this graduate degree.
Your chance of acceptance, your chancing factors, extracurriculars, application process for military colleges.
Okay, so I've decided I want to apply to military colleges. But, I'm kinda lost. Is the application process any different than for civilian colleges? How competitive are these schools?
The application process to military colleges can be a little more involved compared to standard civilian colleges. In addition to the common application, an essay, teacher recommendations, and high school transcript, you'll often need to pass a physical fitness exam and secure a nomination from a Congressman or Senator in your state. It's a good idea to start this process early.
How competitive these schools are can vary, but in general, they can be quite selective. For example, the United States Military Academy (West Point) and the United States Naval Academy have acceptance rates of around 10%, making them as competitive as many Ivy League institutions.
Keep in mind that these schools are not just looking for academic prowess, but also physical strength and leadership potential. Therefore, your extracurriculars can play a significant role — particularly those that demonstrate teamwork, leadership, or athletic endeavors.
Furthermore, West Point and the Naval Academy each require a commitment of several years of active service after graduation, so it's important to be sure about your decision to pursue this path. It's not just about the education, but also about your future career and obligations to serve in the military after graduation.
Overall, if you're passionate about serving your country and prepared for the physical and leadership demands of the program, military colleges can be an excellent choice. Just be aware that the application process is unique and requires early preparation and commitment.
CollegeVine’s Q&A seeks to offer informed perspectives on commonly asked admissions questions. Every answer is refined and validated by our team of admissions experts to ensure it resonates with trusted knowledge in the field.
Numbers, Facts and Trends Shaping Your World
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Confidence in U.S. public opinion polling was shaken by errors in 2016 and 2020. In both years’ general elections, many polls underestimated the strength of Republican candidates, including Donald Trump. These errors laid bare some real limitations of polling.
In the midterms that followed those elections, polling performed better . But many Americans remain skeptical that it can paint an accurate portrait of the public’s political preferences.
Restoring people’s confidence in polling is an important goal, because robust and independent public polling has a critical role to play in a democratic society. It gathers and publishes information about the well-being of the public and about citizens’ views on major issues. And it provides an important counterweight to people in power, or those seeking power, when they make claims about “what the people want.”
The challenges facing polling are undeniable. In addition to the longstanding issues of rising nonresponse and cost, summer 2024 brought extraordinary events that transformed the presidential race . The good news is that people with deep knowledge of polling are working hard to fix the problems exposed in 2016 and 2020, experimenting with more data sources and interview approaches than ever before. Still, polls are more useful to the public if people have realistic expectations about what surveys can do well – and what they cannot.
With that in mind, here are some key points to know about polling heading into this year’s presidential election.
Probability sampling (or “random sampling”). This refers to a polling method in which survey participants are recruited using random sampling from a database or list that includes nearly everyone in the population. The pollster selects the sample. The survey is not open for anyone who wants to sign up.
Online opt-in polling (or “nonprobability sampling”). These polls are recruited using a variety of methods that are sometimes referred to as “convenience sampling.” Respondents come from a variety of online sources such as ads on social media or search engines, websites offering rewards in exchange for survey participation, or self-enrollment. Unlike surveys with probability samples, people can volunteer to participate in opt-in surveys.
Nonresponse and nonresponse bias. Nonresponse is when someone sampled for a survey does not participate. Nonresponse bias occurs when the pattern of nonresponse leads to error in a poll estimate. For example, college graduates are more likely than those without a degree to participate in surveys, leading to the potential that the share of college graduates in the resulting sample will be too high.
Mode of interview. This refers to the format in which respondents are presented with and respond to survey questions. The most common modes are online, live telephone, text message and paper. Some polls use more than one mode.
Weighting. This is a statistical procedure pollsters perform to make their survey align with the broader population on key characteristics like age, race, etc. For example, if a survey has too many college graduates compared with their share in the population, people without a college degree are “weighted up” to match the proper share.
Pollsters are making changes in response to the problems in previous elections. As a result, polling is different today than in 2016. Most U.S. polling organizations that conducted and publicly released national surveys in both 2016 and 2022 (61%) used methods in 2022 that differed from what they used in 2016 . And change has continued since 2022.
One change is that the number of active polling organizations has grown significantly, indicating that there are fewer barriers to entry into the polling field. The number of organizations that conduct national election polls more than doubled between 2000 and 2022.
This growth has been driven largely by pollsters using inexpensive opt-in sampling methods. But previous Pew Research Center analyses have demonstrated how surveys that use nonprobability sampling may have errors twice as large , on average, as those that use probability sampling.
The second change is that many of the more prominent polling organizations that use probability sampling – including Pew Research Center – have shifted from conducting polls primarily by telephone to using online methods, or some combination of online, mail and telephone. The result is that polling methodologies are far more diverse now than in the past.
(For more about how public opinion polling works, including a chapter on election polls, read our short online course on public opinion polling basics .)
All good polling relies on statistical adjustment called “weighting,” which makes sure that the survey sample aligns with the broader population on key characteristics. Historically, public opinion researchers have adjusted their data using a core set of demographic variables to correct imbalances between the survey sample and the population.
But there is a growing realization among survey researchers that weighting a poll on just a few variables like age, race and gender is insufficient for getting accurate results. Some groups of people – such as older adults and college graduates – are more likely to take surveys, which can lead to errors that are too sizable for a simple three- or four-variable adjustment to work well. Adjusting on more variables produces more accurate results, according to Center studies in 2016 and 2018 .
A number of pollsters have taken this lesson to heart. For example, recent high-quality polls by Gallup and The New York Times/Siena College adjusted on eight and 12 variables, respectively. Our own polls typically adjust on 12 variables . In a perfect world, it wouldn’t be necessary to have that much intervention by the pollster. But the real world of survey research is not perfect.
Predicting who will vote is critical – and difficult. Preelection polls face one crucial challenge that routine opinion polls do not: determining who of the people surveyed will actually cast a ballot.
Roughly a third of eligible Americans do not vote in presidential elections , despite the enormous attention paid to these contests. Determining who will abstain is difficult because people can’t perfectly predict their future behavior – and because many people feel social pressure to say they’ll vote even if it’s unlikely.
No one knows the profile of voters ahead of Election Day. We can’t know for sure whether young people will turn out in greater numbers than usual, or whether key racial or ethnic groups will do so. This means pollsters are left to make educated guesses about turnout, often using a mix of historical data and current measures of voting enthusiasm. This is very different from routine opinion polls, which mostly do not ask about people’s future intentions.
When major news breaks, a poll’s timing can matter. Public opinion on most issues is remarkably stable, so you don’t necessarily need a recent poll about an issue to get a sense of what people think about it. But dramatic events can and do change public opinion , especially when people are first learning about a new topic. For example, polls this summer saw notable changes in voter attitudes following Joe Biden’s withdrawal from the presidential race. Polls taken immediately after a major event may pick up a shift in public opinion, but those shifts are sometimes short-lived. Polls fielded weeks or months later are what allow us to see whether an event has had a long-term impact on the public’s psyche.
The answer to this question depends on what you want polls to do. Polls are used for all kinds of purposes in addition to showing who’s ahead and who’s behind in a campaign. Fair or not, however, the accuracy of election polling is usually judged by how closely the polls matched the outcome of the election.
By this standard, polling in 2016 and 2020 performed poorly. In both years, state polling was characterized by serious errors. National polling did reasonably well in 2016 but faltered in 2020.
In 2020, a post-election review of polling by the American Association for Public Opinion Research (AAPOR) found that “the 2020 polls featured polling error of an unusual magnitude: It was the highest in 40 years for the national popular vote and the highest in at least 20 years for state-level estimates of the vote in presidential, senatorial, and gubernatorial contests.”
How big were the errors? Polls conducted in the last two weeks before the election suggested that Biden’s margin over Trump was nearly twice as large as it ended up being in the final national vote tally.
Errors of this size make it difficult to be confident about who is leading if the election is closely contested, as many U.S. elections are .
Pollsters are rightly working to improve the accuracy of their polls. But even an error of 4 or 5 percentage points isn’t too concerning if the purpose of the poll is to describe whether the public has favorable or unfavorable opinions about candidates , or to show which issues matter to which voters. And on questions that gauge where people stand on issues, we usually want to know broadly where the public stands. We don’t necessarily need to know the precise share of Americans who say, for example, that climate change is mostly caused by human activity. Even judged by its performance in recent elections, polling can still provide a faithful picture of public sentiment on the important issues of the day.
The 2022 midterms saw generally accurate polling, despite a wave of partisan polls predicting a broad Republican victory. In fact, FiveThirtyEight found that “polls were more accurate in 2022 than in any cycle since at least 1998, with almost no bias toward either party.” Moreover, a handful of contrarian polls that predicted a 2022 “red wave” largely washed out when the votes were tallied. In sum, if we focus on polling in the most recent national election, there’s plenty of reason to be encouraged.
Compared with other elections in the past 20 years, polls have been less accurate when Donald Trump is on the ballot. Preelection surveys suffered from large errors – especially at the state level – in 2016 and 2020, when Trump was standing for election. But they performed reasonably well in the 2018 and 2022 midterms, when he was not.
During the 2016 campaign, observers speculated about the possibility that Trump supporters might be less willing to express their support to a pollster – a phenomenon sometimes described as the “shy Trump effect.” But a committee of polling experts evaluated five different tests of the “shy Trump” theory and turned up little to no evidence for each one . Later, Pew Research Center and, in a separate test, a researcher from Yale also found little to no evidence in support of the claim.
Instead, two other explanations are more likely. One is about the difficulty of estimating who will turn out to vote. Research has found that Trump is popular among people who tend to sit out midterms but turn out for him in presidential election years. Since pollsters often use past turnout to predict who will vote, it can be difficult to anticipate when irregular voters will actually show up.
The other explanation is that Republicans in the Trump era have become a little less likely than Democrats to participate in polls . Pollsters call this “partisan nonresponse bias.” Surprisingly, polls historically have not shown any particular pattern of favoring one side or the other. The errors that favored Democratic candidates in the past eight years may be a result of the growth of political polarization, along with declining trust among conservatives in news organizations and other institutions that conduct polls.
Whatever the cause, the fact that Trump is again the nominee of the Republican Party means that pollsters must be especially careful to make sure all segments of the population are properly represented in surveys.
The real margin of error is often about double the one reported. A typical election poll sample of about 1,000 people has a margin of sampling error that’s about plus or minus 3 percentage points. That number expresses the uncertainty that results from taking a sample of the population rather than interviewing everyone . Random samples are likely to differ a little from the population just by chance, in the same way that the quality of your hand in a card game varies from one deal to the next.
The problem is that sampling error is not the only kind of error that affects a poll. Those other kinds of error, in fact, can be as large or larger than sampling error. Consequently, the reported margin of error can lead people to think that polls are more accurate than they really are.
There are three other, equally important sources of error in polling: noncoverage error , where not all the target population has a chance of being sampled; nonresponse error, where certain groups of people may be less likely to participate; and measurement error, where people may not properly understand the questions or misreport their opinions. Not only does the margin of error fail to account for those other sources of potential error, putting a number only on sampling error implies to the public that other kinds of error do not exist.
Several recent studies show that the average total error in a poll estimate may be closer to twice as large as that implied by a typical margin of sampling error. This hidden error underscores the fact that polls may not be precise enough to call the winner in a close election.
Transparency in how a poll was conducted is associated with better accuracy . The polling industry has several platforms and initiatives aimed at promoting transparency in survey methodology. These include AAPOR’s transparency initiative and the Roper Center archive . Polling organizations that participate in these organizations have less error, on average, than those that don’t participate, an analysis by FiveThirtyEight found .
Participation in these transparency efforts does not guarantee that a poll is rigorous, but it is undoubtedly a positive signal. Transparency in polling means disclosing essential information, including the poll’s sponsor, the data collection firm, where and how participants were selected, modes of interview, field dates, sample size, question wording, and weighting procedures.
There is evidence that when the public is told that a candidate is extremely likely to win, some people may be less likely to vote . Following the 2016 election, many people wondered whether the pervasive forecasts that seemed to all but guarantee a Hillary Clinton victory – two modelers put her chances at 99% – led some would-be voters to conclude that the race was effectively over and that their vote would not make a difference. There is scientific research to back up that claim: A team of researchers found experimental evidence that when people have high confidence that one candidate will win, they are less likely to vote. This helps explain why some polling analysts say elections should be covered using traditional polling estimates and margins of error rather than speculative win probabilities (also known as “probabilistic forecasts”).
National polls tell us what the entire public thinks about the presidential candidates, but the outcome of the election is determined state by state in the Electoral College . The 2000 and 2016 presidential elections demonstrated a difficult truth: The candidate with the largest share of support among all voters in the United States sometimes loses the election. In those two elections, the national popular vote winners (Al Gore and Hillary Clinton) lost the election in the Electoral College (to George W. Bush and Donald Trump). In recent years, analysts have shown that Republican candidates do somewhat better in the Electoral College than in the popular vote because every state gets three electoral votes regardless of population – and many less-populated states are rural and more Republican.
For some, this raises the question: What is the use of national polls if they don’t tell us who is likely to win the presidency? In fact, national polls try to gauge the opinions of all Americans, regardless of whether they live in a battleground state like Pennsylvania, a reliably red state like Idaho or a reliably blue state like Rhode Island. In short, national polls tell us what the entire citizenry is thinking. Polls that focus only on the competitive states run the risk of giving too little attention to the needs and views of the vast majority of Americans who live in uncompetitive states – about 80%.
Fortunately, this is not how most pollsters view the world . As the noted political scientist Sidney Verba explained, “Surveys produce just what democracy is supposed to produce – equal representation of all citizens.”
Scott Keeter is a senior survey advisor at Pew Research Center .
Courtney Kennedy is Vice President of Methods and Innovation at Pew Research Center .
How public polling has changed in the 21st century, what 2020’s election poll errors tell us about the accuracy of issue polling, a field guide to polling: election 2020 edition, methods 101: how is polling done around the world, most popular.
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ABOUT PEW RESEARCH CENTER Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .
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Hook sentence. Background information. Thesis statement. Step 1: Begin with the basics. Describe the initial steps or preparations required. Explain any tools, materials, or ingredients needed. Provide safety precautions if necessary. Step 2: Break Down the Process. Divide the process into clear, sequential steps.
A process essay is a type of essay that explains a process step by step and gives guidance for a certain process, working mechanism, procedure, etc. Process essays range from very simple ones, such as instructions for how to ride a bicycle, to more complex ones, such as a chemistry lab report of an oxidative reaction experiment.
Be accountable. 2. How something works. By contrast, this is an informative type of writing that aims to achieve one goal - explain the principle of work behind some process. Unlike the mentioned above type, this process essay type does not encourage a reader to take an action and do something step by step. However, you must make sure that by ...
Start by Brainstorming. The first step in writing your how-to essay is brainstorming. Here are tips to help you: Draw a line down the middle of a sheet of paper to make two columns. Label one column "materials" and the other column "steps." Write down every item and every step you can think of that will be needed to carry out your task.
5 Process Essay Examples. Written by Chris Drew (PhD) | January 18, 2024. A process essay is a type of essay that explains a process in detail. Good process essays don't just explain the process but provides details about common mistakes to avoid as well as tips and methods to achieve success. Below are some example essays:
A process essay is a step-by-step guide on how to do or make something. It is important to include every step of the process, even if something appears self-explanatory. Your audience might not be as familiar on the topic as you are. What may be equally important, and is often overlooked, is what not to do. For example, the process of making ...
2. Make a list of the materials needed. Go through the process from start to finish and write down every single item that someone would need to complete the task. Include everything from the common to the unusual. Then, keep the list by you as you write and check off each item as you mention it.
Process Essay. Process is a rhetorical style that provides step-by-step directions or guidance. You may encounter quite a few process essays of various types in academic writing—everything from a traditional process essay in which you choose a topic and describe the process to a lab report in which you describe the process of conducting a lab ...
Definition. A process essay is a typical "how-to" paper that describes some process or workflow, hence the name. The primary idea behind this type of essay is to give a step-by-step explanation of a process that leads to a planned or expected outcome. The paper may revolve around a concrete or precise and an abstract process.
Learn how to describe a process clearly and concisely with these process analysis essay examples and tips for structuring your essay.
Process Essay Examples. If you want some practice at writing your own process essays, here are some example topics: How to train your dog to sit. How to send a text message. How to start a small business online. How to change the oil in your car. If you don't know how to do any of these things, you'll need to research first.
The process essay is writing that explains how to do something or how something works by giving a step-by-step explanation. There are three keys to a process essay: present the essential steps in the process, explain the steps in detail, and present the steps in logical order (usually chronological).
1. Focus on Simplicity. As a guide on doing something, most probably for the first time, a process essay should be easy to follow and understand. Use simple language with clear directions on how to perform all the processes. The choice of words and the construction of sentences must meet the reader's understanding.
For example, you may write in your process paper: "Making sushi takes 30 minutes of preparation time and 10 minutes of cooking.". The next action is to write a thesis statement. It is one sentence that describes the research problem to be considered in the paper. It can be the last sentence of the introduction.
A process essay gives reader a sense of complete how-to-do process of making or creating some objects or things. Readers, after going through the essay, are able to create and make things. Although it is not like imperative instructions, it gives full details in a descriptive or prescriptive mode. It is because its major objective is not to ...
A process analysis essay is a kind of expository essay that explains the process or actions someone needs to take to complete a task. You can think of it like a recipe, stating all of the necessary ingredients and steps, allowing the reader to follow along in logical order. A process analysis essay can be written about a wide scope of topics, from highly technical processes to cleaning and ...
The topic of a process analysis essay needs to be as specific as possible, and the tone of the essay must be clear and straightforward. A writer's main goal when crafting a process analysis essay should be to make a process easy to follow. ... Examples of Great Introductory Paragraphs. How to Write a Descriptive Paragraph. 50 Argumentative ...
Before you even begin to write your essay, you have to understand the parts that comprise an essay. For example, a process essay intended for professional chefs could probably skip a description of how to chop carrots and just say, "Finely chop the carrots," instead. 2. Make a list of the materials needed.
Step 2: Crafting the Thesis Statement. Crafting a strong thesis statement is a crucial step in the process of writing a process essay. Your thesis statement serves as the roadmap for your essay, guiding readers on what to expect and helping you maintain focus throughout the writing process.
When you read over the list of how-to examples below you will realize that you do know many things in depth, some well enough to teach. Typically, your inspiration will be based on lateral thinking. For example, from the list below, you may decide to write an essay on how to cook a Scottish egg after you see "Crack an egg" in the list. Or you ...
A process essay is an essay that explains or outlines the process for making something or completing a process or activity. Process essays are most often organized in a chronological or step-by-step manner, such that the reader is lead through the process of making something or completing an activity.. Because of the step-by-step nature of a process essay, transition words are critically ...
Table of contents. Step 1: Prewriting. Step 2: Planning and outlining. Step 3: Writing a first draft. Step 4: Redrafting and revising. Step 5: Editing and proofreading. Other interesting articles. Frequently asked questions about the writing process.
Make sure you choose a topic that you're well versed in and have significant knowledge of. Having prior knowledge of the topic will help you determine the subsequent steps to write an essay. It will also make your research process considerably easier. 2. Form an appropriate thesis statement.
Your essay should have one central theme or focus. You should provide examples and anecdotes that link to the central theme. Structuring the Essay . You should create an essay outline consisting of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Set more free-writing timers to write the body and conclusion.
The GRE preparation was grueling, and writing essays that effectively conveyed my story and motivations was tough. Having a coach and a support system made a huge difference. The introspection required to write compelling essays that were true to me and highlighted my unique qualities took a lot of effort and multiple iterations.
A personal statement is a narrative essay that connects your background, experiences, and goals to the mission, requirements, and desired outcomes of the specific opportunity you are seeking. It is a critical component in the selection process, whether the essay is for a competitive internship, a graduate fellowship, or admittance to a graduate school program.
How to Start Writing a Law School Essay To get started on a personal statement, brainstorm your best stories and don't stunt the writing process. Gabriel Kuris Aug. 5, 2024
The application process to military colleges can be a little more involved compared to standard civilian colleges. In addition to the common application, an essay, teacher recommendations, and high school transcript, you'll often need to pass a physical fitness exam and secure a nomination from a Congressman or Senator in your state. It's a good idea to start this process early.
All good polling relies on statistical adjustment called "weighting," which makes sure that the survey sample aligns with the broader population on key characteristics. Historically, public opinion researchers have adjusted their data using a core set of demographic variables to correct imbalances between the survey sample and the population.