water pollution in kazakhstan essay

• Get involved

The climate change impact on water resources in Kazakhstan

October 26, 2021.

Water in all its forms is the primary medium through which climate impacts on humans and nature, on livelihoods and on the well-being of society. The state of water resources directly responds to changes in air temperature and precipitation and their extreme manifestations. Kazakhstan is already beginning to experience shortages of water resources. According to forecasts, by 2040 the country may face significant shortfalls amounting to 50 percent of its needs. Since almost all sectors of the economy depend on water, due to its deficiency in the regions GDP water availability may decrease by 6 percent by 2050.

According to experts, the reasons for the shortage of water  resources in Kazakhstan are due to natural conditions (90 percent of river runoff takes place during spring); to the formation of about half of the runoff on the territory of neighbouring countries; and to the extensive use of irrigation water consumption and water losses. Thus, irrigation water productivity in Kazakhstan is six to eight times lower compared to other countries.  

More than 44 percent of Kazakhstan’s river flow is formed on the territory of other countries, so the deficit will occur primarily due to intensive water use in neighboring countries. Unfortunately, the extent of Kazakhstan’s own irrational water use is similar to that of other countries. Climate change magnifies its consequence which results in a reduction in the availability of river water. The ramifications are severalfold: the average annual air temperature increases; in winter, the number and duration of thaws increases and the depth of ground freezing decreases, causing melted water to escape into the soil instead of filling the rivers; and a warm spring causes water to evaporate and, instead of pouring into reservoirs, enters the atmosphere. This causes the regimes of rivers to change. We are already seeing the shoaling of such rivers as the Ural (Zhaiyk), Tobol, Ili, Irtysh and Yesil.

For example, the Ural River water level has dropped three times over the last 15 years. Two years ago, the river experienced record shallowing. On 23 August 2019, residents of several districts of Uralsk city woke up without any drinking water supply. The city uses 60 percent of the water from the river and 40 percent from surface water intake. Climate change is not the only reason for the shoaling of the Ural River. The Iriklinskoye reservoir accumulates water from the upper reaches of  the Ural River but fails to release it into its lower reaches. Today, there are 12 large water reservoirs in the river basin, in addition to Iriklinskoe, each with at least than 10 million cubic metric volumes of water. Since the Ural is a transboundary river, Kazakhstan and Russia need to cooperate to solve the problem.

At another point, the undrained Lake Balkhash, which depends on the glacier-fed transboundary Ili River for 80 percent of its capacity, is most vulnerable to runoff and climate change. The area and volume of the lake are highly variable experiencing both long-term and short-term fluctuations in water levels. The flow of the Ili River from northwest China has been steadily declining since the 1970s, while the land area for agriculture use and harvesting along the Ili River in China has increased by 30 percent in the past two decades. Intensive water use is also occurring within Kazakhstan. More than 90 percent of the water intake from the Ili River is used for irrigated agriculture, for the Kapchagai Hydroelectric Power Plant and for municipal and industrial water supply.

Since 1970, it took 39 km³ of the river to fill the Kapchagai water reservoir, which led to a two-thirds decrease in the flow and a decrease in the level of the lake. An additional negative environmental impact -- the Balkhash Mining and Metallurgical Plant discharges about 600,000 tons of industrial waste annually, including lead, zinc and copper. Four factors are placing the unique ecosystem of Lake Balkhash under critical threat: increasing demand for water resources in the transboundary Ili-Balkhash basin, increased evaporation due to an arid climate, the rapid melting of glaciers and pollution.

Indeed, glaciers play a critical role in the availability of water resources throughout the year. Even in those river basins where the contribution of water from melting glaciers to runoff does not exceed 5 percent, such water can be very important for irrigation in the summer when precipitation is low. The melting of glaciers is currently compensating for the deficit in river runoff, but as soon as the runoff reaches its peak values by 2030-2050, their water availability is expected to decline. Over the past 60 years, the glaciers of Ile-Alatau and of other outer ranges of the Central Asian mountains have been decreasing at an average rate of 0.73-0.76 percent per year in area and about 1 percent per year in ice volume. If these rates persist, in the future the vast majority of glaciers may completely melt by the end of this century. The Dzungarian glacier system may disappear by 2080, the North-Ileia and Altai glaciers by 2085.

Expert Assessment and Timely Initiatives

In addition, the development of the urban water supply in Kazakhstan has resulted in a serious load on the hydrosphere in the region. For example, the supply of water to the capital, which is growing rapidly, may be limited, because  a water shortage up to 75.0 million m³/year is predicted by 2030. Consumption is growing, while simultaneously the water inflow into the Astana (Vyacheslav) reservoir is decreasing.

UNDP experts believe that basin management should be strengthened, including the work of small basin councils, so that they can develop the requisite conditions to implement their decisions and the provisions of basin agreements. Integrated water resources management and the transition to an assessment of the social, economic and ecological value of water resources in the production of goods and services will lead to an increase in the efficient and rational use of natural resources. When making decisions members of the basin councils should take the increasing pressure of climate change on water resources into account.

It is necessary to envisage the implementation of measures to reduce the rate of development of the main water consumers and the use of modern technologies to decrease the consumption fresh water in industry, agriculture and communal services; and also to regulate the water resources available for use by regulating river flows and by the correct territorial distribution of water resources.

It should be noted that UNDP,  jointly with its partners, has also developed a series of sectoral checklists to help climate change experts and decision-makers identify water-related issues that need consideration when developing nationally determined contributions under the Paris Agreement. This guidance is available at this link.

Readers are reminded that the delegation of Kazakhstan will participate in the COP 26 United Nations Climate Change Conference from 31 October  to 12 November 20201, where a pavilion of the Central Asian Republics will be presented for the first time. Water and climate change are the key priority areas of the global meeting of experts and country leaders.

Related Content

Stockholm+50: a healthy planet for the prosperity of all – our responsibility, our opportunity

Project background                 The UN General Assembly has agreed through two Resolutions to convene an international meeting entitled “Stockholm+50: a healt...

A healthy planet for the prosperity for all: Stockholm +50 national consultations launched in Kazakhstan

Today, with the support of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Stockholm+50 national dialogue was launched. It aims to engage communities in disc...

Press Releases

The official launch of the stockholm +50 national consultations took place in kyzylorda as part of sdgs voluntary national review discussions.

Photo: UNDP Kazakshtan 29 March 2022, Kyzylorda – Today, with the support of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Stockholm+50 National dialogue ...

For every dollar pledged to tackle climate crisis for world’s poor, four dollars are spent on fossil fuel subsidies that keep the climate crisis alive according to new UNDP research

Photo: UNDP October 27 - New York City - The world spends an astounding US$423 billion annually to subsidize fossil fuels for consumers – oil, electricity that i...

Kazakhstan’s vision to achieve carbon neutrality presented at high-level conference in Nur-Sultan

Photo credit: UNDP Kazakhstan, High-Level Event "Ways to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement and Kazakhstan’s carbon neutrality", Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan, 13...

Climate change: What is the role of the media?

Photo credit: UNDP Kazakhstan On September 7, the winners of the media contest dedicated to climate change were announced at Central communications service of Ka...

Water Resource Policy of Kazakhstan

• First Online: 16 October 2018

Cite this chapter

• Sergey S. Zhiltsov 8 , 9 ,
• Igor S. Zonn 10 , 11 ,
• Adelina S. Nogmova 8 &
• Vladimir V. Shtol 8  

Part of the book series: The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry ((HEC,volume 85))

For the Central Asian countries, the problems of water resources – their adequate volume and free access – were historically the key issue which is connected with the hydrographic position of the region and the climate typical of continental territories. The permanently quickly growing population is also a factor here.

In Kazakhstan the situation with water resources had aggravated after the breakup of the Soviet Union. Kazakhstan borders on Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Russia, and China. Kazakhstan strongly depends on the policy of neighboring countries in the water and energy fields because many rivers crossing its territory take their origin outside of the country. And the more so, the neighboring states often disregard the requirements of Kazakhstan keeping in mind only their own interests. As a result, out of all Central Asian countries, Kazakhstan has the lowest indicator by water supply per a unit of land.

In the early 1990s apart from the growing contradictions with the Central Asian countries over water, Kazakhstan faced pressing from China that launched economic programs for development of its western territories. Accomplishment of these programs required more water, and China started taking more water from rivers shared with Kazakhstan. And Kazakhstan locating in the lower reaches of transboundary rivers had no means to influence China. This touchy issue in water relationships with neighboring countries has survived to the present. The unequal conditions of upstream and downstream countries are the source of serious conflicts. China, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan being the upstream countries control over 80% of all fresh water supplies. At the same time, the agrarian interests of the downstream countries (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan) are in conflict with the upstream countries. In other words, one group of countries is targeted to industrial development, power generation, and increase of hydrocarbon production, while the other needs water for development of irrigated farming. The Interstate Kazakhstan-China Commission was established as a platform for negotiations, but it turned out ineffective. The commission failed to elaborate the mutually acceptable options to address the issue of transboundary water resources use.

But Kazakhstan still pursues the policy aimed at continuation of negotiations with the Central Asian countries on sharing the transboundary river flow. If no progress is attained in coping with this issue, Kazakhstan may face considerable difficulties as the economy of the country and the social situation in some of its regions directly depend on availability of water resources, including of transboundary rivers.

This issue remains acute for Kazakhstan due to the following factors typical of all Central Asian countries: availability of zones of environmental disaster – drying out of the Aral Sea, salinization, desertification, and others; the disbalance between the number of population and the volume of available resources; acceleration of climate changes; and growing pollution of water sources which results in deterioration of sanitary conditions.

Fair and sustainable management of joint water resources requires establishment of effective institutes capable to ensure the integral approach to this issue. Unilateral actions of countries neighboring on Kazakhstan aimed at using transboundary water only for their own needs give rise to conflict situations which will invariably affect the development of interstate cooperation and regional stability in Central Asia.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime
• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Durable hardcover edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Problems with water use in countries of East, South and Central Asia

Water Security in Rio de Janeiro State

Water Policy in Jordan

Sarsembekov T, Mironenkov A (2007) Two in one: is it possible to divide water and water power. World Energy 8:50–51 (in Russian)

Google Scholar  

Grinyaev SN, Fomin AN (2009) Relevant issues of application of the exchange trade mechanisms for addressing the water-energy issues in the Central Asian countries. Analytical report, Center for Strategic Assessments and Forecasts, Moscow, p 3 (in Russian)

Zhiltsov SS (2001) Post-Soviet space: development tendencies. Edel-M, Moscow, 199 pp (in Russian)

Petrov G (2010) Conflict of interests between hydropower and irrigation in Central Asia. Causes and ways to overcome, vol 3. Central Asia and Caucasus, Sweden, pp 59–72

Borishpolets CP (2010) Water as perpetuum mobile in the Central Asian policy. Series 12: political sciences, vol 5. Bulletin of the Moscow University, Moscow, p 29 (in Russian)

Amanzholov ZM (2007) Multilateral international agreements on water security in Central Asia. Moscow J Int Law 4:226–244 (in Russian)

Borisova E (2011) Tajikistan-Uzbekistan struggle for water resources. History and Modern Times, Moscow, pp 93–106 (in Russian)

Nazarbaev NA (2018) No political bargaining in water problem. http://www.inform.kz/ru/v-vodnom-voprose-ne-dolzhno-byt-politicheskogo-torga-nursultan-nazarbaev_a3185780 (in Russian)

Nazarbaev NA (2017) The era of independence. KAZaknarat, Almaty, p 467 (in Russian)

Kipshakbaev NK (2013) Two decades of water cooperation of Central Asian countries: past experience and future problems. Water Econ Kazakhstan 2(52):15–20 (in Russian)

Abishev IA, Medey AR, Malkovsky IM, Toleubaeva LS (2016) Water resources of Kazakhstan and their use. In: Water resources of Central Asia and their use (International scientific and practical conference summing up the results of the UN decade “Water for Life”, Almaty, Kazakhstan, 23–24 September 2016, Book 1). Institute of Geography, Almaty, pp 9–18 (in Russian)

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

The Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia

Sergey S. Zhiltsov, Adelina S. Nogmova & Vladimir V. Shtol

Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russia

Sergey S. Zhiltsov

Engineering Research Production Center for Water Management, Land Reclamation and Ecology “Soyuzvodproject”, Moscow, Russia

Igor S. Zonn

S.Yu. Witte Moscow University, Moscow, Russia

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sergey S. Zhiltsov .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Diplomatic Academy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia

Engineering Res. Prod. Center for Water, Management, Land Reclamation and Ecology, Moscow, Russia

Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia

Andrey G. Kostianoy

Aleksandr V. Semenov

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Zhiltsov, S.S., Zonn, I.S., Nogmova, A.S., Shtol, V.V. (2018). Water Resource Policy of Kazakhstan. In: Zhiltsov, S., Zonn, I., Kostianoy, A., Semenov, A. (eds) Water Resources in Central Asia: International Context. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, vol 85. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/698_2018_366

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/698_2018_366

Published : 16 October 2018

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-11204-2

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-11205-9

eBook Packages : Earth and Environmental Science Earth and Environmental Science (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Water Quality, Climate Change and Kazakhstan - Exploring Future Scenarios

• Whitford, Anna

Anna Whitford (1), H. C. Greenwell (1), Zhanay Sagintayev (2), Gulmira Sergazina (3) (1)Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University (2)Nazarbayev University, Kazakhstan (3)Climate Change Coordination Centre (CCCC), Kazakhstan There is an emerging need in Kazakhstan for water for irrigation, to underpin recent upscaling of agriculture for domestic and external markets. This need for irrigation water competes with the need for process water for the substantial mining sector, with mineral wealth a key part of the Kazakh economy, and also the need for potable water, especially for increasing populations in urban areas. With Kazakhstan facing a situation of widespread water scarcity, water quality has also been recognised as a serious issue, particularly in rural areas where in 2009 only 35% of the population had access to clean water (Bekturganov, et al., 2016) (Granit, et al., 2010). The country has a legacy of water pollution from extensive metal mining and industry outputs, arising from the Soviet era (Bekturganov, et al., 2016). The combined effects of both water availability and quality will be critical in long-term planning and management of water resources in Central Asia trans-boundary catchments. This project aims to begin identifying the likely impacts of future climate change on water quality in the northern region of Kazakhstan. Through working with the CCCC a picture of the network of influences on water quality in Kazakhstan will be developed, using data on mining at both present and predicted levels alongside information on current agricultural policies on water use. Various scenarios of future climate change in this region will be studied, including alterations in winter/summer rainfall and temperature extremes, based on literature data combined with original environmental data from Kazakhstan. A review of the potential impacts of these changes on the release of pollutants from mining and agricultural activities, through leaching of metals, fine particle wash out, run off and mine water adit discharges into water sources will then be conducted. The results from this study are to be presented at a workshop in Astana, Kazakhstan to be held in 2019, which is aimed at providing essential information to guide future climate change and water policy decisions at corporate and governmental levels. The information gathered during this four-month study will complement the data currently being gathered on water resources across the country, helping to generate a broader base of understanding for future development. References Bekturganov, Z. et al., 2016. 'Water related health problems in central Asia - A review', Water (Switzerland), 8(6), pp. 1-13. Granit, J. et al., 2010. Regional Water Intelligence Report, Central Asia, Stockholm: UNDP Water Governance Facility at Stockholm International Water Institute.

No Sources Found

Challenging issues of fresh water within the territory of East Kazakhstan and adjacent areas of central Kazakhstan

• 2(434):15-20
• This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.

Discover the world's research

• 25+ million members
• 160+ million publication pages
• 2.3+ billion citations

No full-text available

To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

• Gulzhan Makhmudova
• NAT RESOUR FORUM

• Albina Jetybayeva

• M A Mukhamedzhanov
• L M Kazanbaev
• I K Rakhmetov
• I K Arystanbaev
• Y A Kazanbaeva
• A A Nurgazieva
• A G Satpaev
• V I Poryadin
• S K Kabdrakhmanova
• E Shaimardan
• A M Zhilkashinova
• A V Troeglazova
• Y U Arystanbaev
• N A Dimakova
• R V Sharapov
• R R Ismagilov
• A M Andoralov
• M K Absemetov
• S Sydykov Zh
• K K Toguzbayeva
• L S Niyazbekova
• Recruit researchers
• Join for free
• Login Email Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google Welcome back! Please log in. Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? Sign up

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Mine water use in kazakhstan: data issues, risks, and regulations.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

• Lakshman, S.; World Resources Institute. More Critical Minerals Mining Could Strain Water Supplies in Stressed Regions. Available online: https://www.wri.org/insights/critical-minerals-mining-water-impacts (accessed on 10 February 2024).
• Meißner, S. The Impact of Metal Mining on Global Water Stress and Regional Carrying Capacities—A Gis-Based Water Impact Assessment. Resources 2021 , 10 , 120. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Liu, Y.; Wang, P.; Gojenko, B.; Yu, J.; Wei, L.; Luo, D.; Xiao, T. A Review of Water Pollution Arising from Agriculture and Mining Activities in Central Asia: Facts, Causes and Effects. Environ. Pollut. 2021 , 291 , 118209. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Spitz, K.; Trudinger, J. Mining and the Environment: From Ore to Metal , 2nd ed.; CRC Press: London, UK, 2019. [ Google Scholar ]
• Jain, R.K. Environmental Impact of Mining and Mineral Processing: Management, Monitoring, and Auditing Strategies ; Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, UK, 2015. [ Google Scholar ]
• Acharya, B.S.; Kharel, G. Acid Mine Drainage from Coal Mining in the United States—An Overview. J. Hydrol. (Amst) 2020 , 588 , 125061. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wang, Y.; Dong, R.; Zhou, Y.; Luo, X. Characteristics of Groundwater Discharge to River and Related Heavy Metal Transportation in a Mountain Mining Area of Dabaoshan, Southern China. Sci. Total Environ. 2019 , 679 , 346–358. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration. Mining and Water Quality. Available online: https://www.smenet.org/What-We-Do/Technical-Briefings/Mining-Water-Quality (accessed on 10 February 2024).
• Lee, J.; Bazilian, M.; Sovacool, B.; Greene, S. Responsible or reckless? A critical review of the environmental and climate assessments of mineral supply chaines. Environ. Res. Lett. 2020 , 15 , 103009. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kearney, C.; Matson, K. Responsible Mine Water Management: Water and Mass Balance Modeling, and Creative Mine Water Management Solutions. In Responsible Mining: Case Studies in Managing Social and Environmental Risks in the Developed World ; Society for Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration: Englewood, CO, USA, 2015; p. 433. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gunson, A.J.; Klein, B.; Veiga, M.; Dunbar, S. Reducing Mine Water Requirements. J. Clean. Prod. 2012 , 21 , 71–82. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Menshikova, E.; Fetisov, V.; Karavaeva, T.; Blinov, S.; Belkin, P.; Vaganov, S. Reducing the Negative Technogenic Impact of the Mining Enterprise on the Environment through Management of the Water Balance. Minerals 2020 , 10 , 1145. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Northey, S.; Haque, N.; Mudd, G. Using Sustainability Reporting to Assess the Environmental Footprint of Copper Mining. J. Clean. Prod. 2013 , 40 , 118–128. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Northey, S.A.; Mudd, G.M.; Werner, T.T.; Haque, N.; Yellishetty, M. Sustainable Water Management and Improved Corporate Reporting in Mining. Water Resour. Ind. 2019 , 21 , 100104. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• International Council on Mining and Metals. Water Reporting: Good Practice Guide , 2nd ed.; Mining with Principles; International Council on Mining and Metals: London, UK, 2021; Available online: https://www.icmm.com/website/publications/pdfs/environmental-stewardship/2021/guidance_water-reporting.pdf (accessed on 9 December 2022).
• Invest Chile. Sustainable Mining? Chile Wants to Make It Happen. 2022. Available online: https://blog.investchile.gob.cl/sustainable-mining-chile-wants-to-make-it-happen (accessed on 1 March 2024).
• Salbu, B.; Burkitbaev, M.; Strømman, G.; Shishkov, I.; Kayukov, P.; Uralbekov, B.; Rosseland, B.O. Environmental Impact Assessment of Radionuclides and Trace Elements at the Kurday U Mining Site, Kazakhstan. J. Environ. Radioact. 2013 , 123 , 14–27. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• United States Geological Survey. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2023: U.S. Geological Survey ; U.S. Geological Survey: Reston, VA, USA, 2023. Available online: https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/mcs2023 (accessed on 19 February 2024).
• Atakhanova, Z.; Azhibay, S. Assessing Economic Sustainability of Mining in Kazakhstan. Miner. Econ. 2023 , 36 , 719–731. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• European Commission. EU-Kazakhstan Strategic Partnership Becomes Operational. 2023. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_2815 (accessed on 19 February 2024).
• Kazakhstan Government. On Approval of the Comprehensive Plan for the Development of the Rare and Rare Earth Metals Industry for 2024–2028. 2023. Available online: https://legalacts.egov.kz/npa/view?id=14768590 (accessed on 19 February 2024).
• Howie, P.; Atakhanova, Z. Heterogeneous Labor and Structural Change in Low- and Middle-Income, Resource-Dependent Countries. Econ. Chang. Restruct. 2020 , 53 , 297–332. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rivotti, P.; Karatayev, M.; Mourão, Z.S.; Shah, N.; Clarke, M.L.; Dennis Konadu, D. Impact of Future Energy Policy on Water Resources in Kazakhstan. Energy Strategy Rev. 2019 , 24 , 261–267. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Radelyuk, I.; Zhang, L.; Assanov, D.; Maratova, G.; Tussupova, K. A State-of-the-Art and Future Perspectives of Transboundary Rivers in the Cold Climate—A Systematic Review of Irtysh River. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. 2022 , 42 , 101173. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zheleznova, I.; Gushchina, D.; Meiramov, Z.; Olchev, A. Temporal and Spatial Variability of Dryness Conditions in Kazakhstan during 1979–2021 Based on Reanalysis Data. Climate 2022 , 10 , 144. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Farooq, I.; Shah, A.R.; Sahana, M.; Ehsan, M.A. Assessment of Drought Conditions Over Different Climate Zones of Kazakhstan Using Standardised Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index. Earth Syst. Environ. 2023 , 7 , 283–296. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• World Economic Forum. 25 Countries Face Extremely High Water Stress, Study Finds. 2023. Available online: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/08/countries-extremely-high-water-stress/ (accessed on 19 February 2024).
• Atakhanova, Z. Kazakhstan’s Oil Boom, Diversification Strategies, and the Service Sector. Miner. Econ. 2021 , 34 , 399–409. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Karatayev, M.; Kapsalyamova, Z.; Spankulova, L.; Skakova, A.; Movkebayeva, G.; Kongyrbay, A. Priorities and Challenges for a Sustainable Management of Water Resources in Kazakhstan. Sustain. Water Qual. Ecol. 2017 , 9–10 , 115–135. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Karatayev, M.; Clarke, M.; Salnikov, V.; Bekseitova, R.; Nizamova, M. Monitoring Climate Change, Drought Conditions and Wheat Production in Eurasia: The Case Study of Kazakhstan. Heliyon 2022 , 8 , e08660. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Atakhanova, Z. Water Impacts and Effluent Quality Regulations of Canadian Mining. Sustainability 2023 , 15 , 16086. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hrkal, Z.; Gadalia, A.; Rigaudiere, P. Will the River Irtysh Survive the Year 2030? Impact of Long-Term Unsuitable Land Use and Water Management of the Upper Stretch of the River Catchment (North Kazakhstan). Environ. Geol. 2006 , 50 , 717–723. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Sustainable Business Models for Water Supply and Sanitation in Small Towns and Rural Settlements in Kazakhstan. 2016. Available online: https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/sustainable-business-models-for-water-supply-and-sanitation-in-small-towns-and-rural-settlements-in-kazakhstan_9789264249400-en#page1 (accessed on 19 February 2024).
• Food and Agriculture Organization. AQUASTAT—FAO’s Global Information System on Water and Agriculture: Overview. Available online: https://www.fao.org/aquastat/en/overview/methodology/water-use (accessed on 19 February 2024).
• Kuzma, S.; Bierkens, M.F.P.; Lakshman, S.; Luo, T.; Saccoccia, L.; Sutanudjaja, E.H.; Van Beek, R. Aqueduct 4.0: Updated Decision-Relevant Global Water Risk Indicators ; World Resources Institute: Washington, DC, USA, 2023. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• World Wildlife Fund. WWF Water Risk Filter. 2023. Available online: https://cdn.kettufy.io/prod-fra-1.kettufy.io/documents/riskfilter.org/WaterRiskFilter_Methodology.pdf (accessed on 19 February 2024).
• Bureau of National Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Mining and Quarrying in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Available online: https://stat.gov.kz/ru/industries/business-statistics/stat-industrial-production/ (accessed on 10 February 2024).
• Zinoviev, A.T.; Kosheleva, E.D.; Galakhov, V.P.; Golubeva, A.B.; Rybkina, I.D.; Stoyashcheva, N.V.; Kurepina, N.Y. Current State of Water Resources and Problems of Their Use in Border Regions of Russia (the Ob-Irtysh Basin as a Case Study). In Handbook of Environmental Chemistry ; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2020; Volume 105. [ Google Scholar ]
• Huang, W.; Duan, W.; Nover, D.; Sahu, N.; Chen, Y. An Integrated Assessment of Surface Water Dynamics in the Irtysh River Basin during 1990–2019 and Exploratory Factor Analyses. J. Hydrol. (Amst) 2021 , 593 , 125905. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bureau of National Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Indicators of Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. Available online: https://stat.gov.kz/ru/ecologic-indicators/28428/water_consumption%5Cn/ (accessed on 15 February 2024).
• Food and Agriculture Organization. AQUASTAT—FAO’s Global Information System on Water and Agriculture: Databases. Available online: https://www.fao.org/aquastat/en/databases/maindatabase/metadata (accessed on 5 January 2024).
• Bealessio, B.A.; Blánquez Alonso, N.A.; Mendes, N.J.; Sande, A.V.; Hascakir, B. A Review of Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Methods Applied in Kazakhstan. Petroleum 2021 , 7 , 1–9. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kazakhstan Energy Association. The National Energy Report. 2023. Available online: https://www.kazenergy.com/upload/document/energy-report/NationalReport23_en.pdf (accessed on 19 February 2024).
• Radelyuk, I.; Klemes, J.J.; Jia, X.; Yelubay, M. Implementation of Circular Economy in the Water Sector in the Industrial Region of Kazakhstan. Chem. Eng. Trans. 2023 , 103 , 13–18. [ Google Scholar ]
• Radelyuk, I.; Tussupova, K.; Zhapargazinova, K.; Yelubay, M.; Persson, M. Pitfalls of Wastewater Treatment in Oil Refinery Enterprises in Kazakhstan—A System Approach. Sustainability 2019 , 11 , 1618. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Share and Cite

Atakhanova, Z.; Meirambayeva, M.; Baigaliyeva, M. Mine Water Use in Kazakhstan: Data Issues, Risks, and Regulations. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 2456. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16062456

Atakhanova Z, Meirambayeva M, Baigaliyeva M. Mine Water Use in Kazakhstan: Data Issues, Risks, and Regulations. Sustainability . 2024; 16(6):2456. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16062456

Atakhanova, Zauresh, Mira Meirambayeva, and Marzhan Baigaliyeva. 2024. "Mine Water Use in Kazakhstan: Data Issues, Risks, and Regulations" Sustainability 16, no. 6: 2456. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16062456

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

Kazakhstan: Institutional reform in the water sector to implement the IWRM plan (#342)

In Kazakhstan, the issue is not one of scarcity but of management, a problem that can be solved through applying the principles of IWRM. The government of Kazakhstan consequently initiated a water resources management project aiming at strengthening water management organisations and by instituting the practice of IWRM. In this process, training, workshops and dialogues both within and outside the water sector are crucial. 

Description

In Kazakhstan the agricultural sector consume 78 % of the country's total water supply and a significant amount is lost through inefficient water use (e.g. leakages through old infrastructure account for 30 % of losses and pollution caused by insufficient treatment of wastewater and industrial waste dumping). A decade of budget and staffing cuts has had a dramatic effect on the authorities’ ability to manage water. 

In Kazakhstan there are not water resources problems but a management problem which can be solved through applying the principles of IWRM. In spite that organizational reforms in water management sector were recognized at high political level (new Water Code was adopted in 2003), no actual reforms had taken place at that point.

The facilities located in water basin were governed by different management systems though they were bound by unified nature complex and linked to each other through technological processes.

Action taken

The government of Kazakhstan embarked on a water resources management project aimed at strengthening water management organizations and by instituting the practice of IWRM. With support from UNDP and GWP they drafted the IWRM plan. River Basin Councils (RBC) were established in all eight river basins of Kazakhstan.

At the beginning there was a negative attitude to creating river basin councils but they managed to overcome and set up a platform for discussion and decision making at basin level. The duration of the project was three years orchestrated by the Water Resources Committee of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan together with 29 government ministries and agencies.

Before the final draft was sent to the Government of Kazakhstan for approval, there was a long process with series of stakeholder’s forums with experts and the public to present and obtain feedback on the work plan.

In December 2008, the IWRM Plan was endorsed by the Kazakhstan cabinet., thus the RBCs now have stronger position to enforce and implement the national water policy.

Lessons learned

• Training courses, workshops, dialogues, and meetings both within water authorities and outside of “water sector specialists” are important to create an understanding of what an IWRM plan is and how it can be implemented within the country. • Establishment of RBCs is the beginning rather than the end of the process. A regular training and capacity building of staff is a must. • The size, shape and structure of RBCs depend on the needs of the river basin and the ideas of the participants and members of the RBC rather than to require uniform arrangements in each river basin.

Photo credit: Ken & Nyetta

• DOI: 10.20542/0131-2227-2024-68-5-117-124
• Corpus ID: 269999124

Water Security Policy of Kazakhstan

• Z. Orynbayev , N. Muminov
• Published in World Economy and… 2024
• Environmental Science, Political Science

15 References

Water security in the syr darya basin, appraisal of water security in asia: the pentagonal framework for efficient water resource management, water security as shared security challenges: a comparison of kazakhstan and uzbekistan security discourse towards the aral sea, water security in central asia and southern caucasus, energy security of hydropower producing countries—the cases of tajikistan and kyrgyzstan, water diplomacy and its strategic significance for sustainable development goals and global security architecture, evaluating vulnerability of central asian water resources under uncertain climate and development conditions: the case of the ili-balkhash basin, water quality problems analysis and assessment of the ecological security level of the transboundary ural-caspian basin of the republic of kazakhstan, the water-energy-food nexus in kazakhstan: challenges and opportunities, seeing beyond negotiations: the impacts of the belt and road on sino-kazakh transboundary water management, related papers.

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers

Kazakhstan: Residents suffer from lack of water

Since May 2023, the capital of Kazakhstan is suffering from a severe water crisis, as a result residents are now facing a shortage of drinking water. According to the government, across the country there are more than 600,000 Kazakhstanis that do not have access to drinking water. By 2050 the Republic of Kazakhstan may join the category of countries “ in dire need of water. ” President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev has proposed holding an anti-crisis summit in Kazakhstan under the backing of the UN to solve the water problem.

• Environment

cbabakoulov   ascripka  

Translated by Abby Scripka

• water shortage

Since May 2023, the capital of Kazakhstan is suffering from a severe water crisis, as a result residents are now facing a shortage of drinking water. According to the government, across the country there are more than 600,000 Kazakhstanis that do not have access to drinking water. By 2050 the Republic of Kazakhstan may join the category of countries “ in dire need of water. ” President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev has proposed holding an anti-crisis summit in Kazakhstan under the backing of the UN to solve the water problem.

According to the monitoring group “Energyprom” – migration influx, rapid population growth and large-scale construction in the capital of Kazakhstan has exceeded the available capacity of the pumping stations. Therefore, on March 28, 2023, the city water supply service “ Astana Su Arnasy ” resorted to introducing an hourly water schedule to citizens. On May 23, residents of a residential complex expressed their dissatisfaction due to the lack of water by blocking the road.

On June 10 the situation was resolved and authorities assured that the problem would be solved by the 30 of June as they are launching a new pumping and filtering system. Meanwhile the publication “KazTAG” reported that the water source for Astana is designed for only 500,000 people while the city has 1.3 million inhabitants. The mayor of Astana has connected the water shortage with the population growth and the active irrigation of agricultural land.

The whole of Central Asia in your inbox Subscribe to our free weekly newsletter

Aset Kaliyev, Directory of the Water Security Centre at the international scientific complex “Astana,” told “Inbusiness.kz,” that one of the causes of the water shortage in the capital was the failure of developers to follow the general plan for city construction, “ Having departed from the general plan, in Astana, with the approval of officials, densification and infill construction began. In turn, the infill developments began to cut into existing neighbourhoods, which already had their own load on the engineering networks. Since then, everything went “crooked and tangled”.

According to Nursultan Kerimkulov, head of the Water Supply and Sanitation Department, the lack of water will affect the development of construction in the city, but the quality of drinking water will not be affected.

Read more on Novastan: The recession of the Tian Shan glaciers and other recent studies

On April 19, 2023, at a meeting on socio-economic development of the country President of Kazakhstan Kassym-Jomart Tokayev noted , that by 2050 Kazakhstan may enter the category of countries in dire need of water. The President said that the infrastructure of large cities is not able to meet the increasing demand each year.

“Even in Astana itself, there has begun to be a shortage of water. One of the main reasons is the increase in construction. If we are not frugal, we will not be able to eliminate the deficit, even if we launch new facilities that provide clean water, ” Kassym-Jomart Tokayev was quoted by the Kazakhstani news outlet “Tengrinews.”

Read more on Novastan: A disappearing river: the fate of the Ural

The problem of water shortages in Astana is not only related to the lack of design capacity of networks and pumping stations, but also to the direct shortage of water sources. Apart from the Astana reservoir, there are no alternative water supply options. Currently, the Ministry of Ecology of Kazakhstan is considering several options to solve the problem: construction of facilities to replenish the reservoir, laying a water pipeline and taking water from the Irtysh-Karaganda water canal.

The crisis of water scarcity in the cities and provinces of Kazakhstan will only get worse

According to the deputy director of public utilities of Kazakhstan, the provision of centralized water supply in Kazakhstan in 2022 was 96.8%. At the same time, more than 600,000 people, meaning the remaining 3.2%, are in need of drinking water.

Experts draw attention to bureaucratic complications that arise between government agencies at different levels and hinder the timely resolution of problems. For example, the government’s Geology Committee is responsible for water resources in Kazakhstan, while the Water Resources Committee controls pipeline infrastructure. Other local executive bodies manage network design and construction. However, not every region does the necessary work without delays. Marat Karabayev, Minister of Industry and Infrastructure Development of Kazakhstan, made a statement at a recent government meeting.

Read more on Novastan: Climate change could lead to ever more fluctuated temperatures in Central Asia

The water sector also faces significant problems of deterioration of main pipelines and urban water pipelines. Overall, the degree of wear and tear on the country’s water supply networks is 43% . However, this figure does not reflect the scale of problematic networks in all regions. The highest level of infrastructure wear is seen in Almaty (58%), East Kazakhstan (54%), Akmola (52%), Abay (51%) regions and Almaty region (57%). In contrast, Atyrau region boasts the lowest level of pipeline wear and tear – 29%.

In 2023, a significant budget of 544 million Euros was allocated by the authorities for the construction and reconstruction of water supply and sewerage systems throughout Kazakhstan. The government of Kazakhstan plans to provide water to 1,395 villages and 25 cities that do not have full access to water by 2025.

Summit in Kazakhstan with back from the UN to solve the water problems

On June 8 and 9, 2023, the Astana International Forum was held in the capital, which was attended by the President of Kazakhstan Kassym-Jomart Tokayev and the heads of several other states, including the Emir of Qatar Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al-Thani and President of Kyrgyzstan Sadyr Japarov. At the meeting, the President of Kazakhstan proposed to hold a regional climate summit in Kazakhstan in 2026, under the supervision of the UN and other international organizations.

“Our country offers tremendous opportunities for a green economy and become a centre for renewable energy. However, time is not on our side. To decarbonize and create a green economy at the necessary speed, we need resources and partnerships ,” the official website of the head of state “Akorda” quotes Tokayev’s proposal.

Read more on Novastan: Kazakhstan: replenishing the Aral Sea’s fish stocks

To prevent an environmental catastrophe in the region, the country is calling for increased international support for the Aral Sea Rescue Fund.

“The problem of water and climate change are closely linked. Central Asia is a region where water security can only be achieved through close cooperation and effectively selected joint measures,” concluded the President.

For more news and analysis from Central Asia, follow us on Twitter , Facebook , Telegram , Linkedin or Instagram .

Your comment will be revised by the site if needed.

Read also from this section

Saving Snow Leopards: how scientists fight for the survival of a species

Cleaning up after FTX: Kazakhstan aims to regulate the crypto industry

• Engineering
• Write For Us
• Privacy Policy

Essay on Water Pollution

Here we have shared the Essay on Water Pollution in detail so you can use it in your exam or assignment of 150, 250, 400, 500, or 1000 words.

You can use this Essay on Water Pollution in any assignment or project whether you are in school (class 10th or 12th), college, or preparing for answer writing in competitive exams. 

Topics covered in this article.

Essay on Water Pollution in 150-250 words

Essay on water pollution in 300-400 words, essay on water pollution in 500-1000 words.

Water pollution is a pressing environmental issue that poses a significant threat to ecosystems and human health. It occurs when harmful substances, such as chemicals, industrial waste, or sewage, contaminate water bodies, including rivers, lakes, oceans, and groundwater sources.

Water pollution has devastating consequences on aquatic life. Toxic pollutants can disrupt the balance of ecosystems, leading to the decline of fish and other marine species. Additionally, contaminated water can spread diseases to animals and humans who depend on these water sources for drinking, irrigation, and recreation.

Industrial activities, improper waste disposal, agricultural runoff, and urbanization contribute to water pollution. Efforts to reduce water pollution include stricter regulations on waste disposal, the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices, and the development of advanced wastewater treatment technologies.

Awareness and individual responsibility are crucial in combating water pollution. Simple actions like properly disposing of waste, conserving water, and avoiding the use of harmful chemicals can make a significant difference. Education and advocacy are essential to raising public awareness about the importance of protecting water resources and implementing sustainable practices.

In conclusion, water pollution is a grave environmental issue that threatens aquatic ecosystems and human well-being. It is a global challenge that requires collective action and responsible behavior. By implementing effective regulations, adopting sustainable practices, and promoting awareness, we can safeguard our water resources and ensure a healthier and more sustainable future for all.

Title: Water Pollution – A Growing Threat to Ecosystems and Human Well-being

Introduction :

Water pollution is a grave environmental issue that arises from the contamination of water bodies by harmful substances. It poses a significant threat to aquatic ecosystems and human health. This essay explores the causes and consequences of water pollution, as well as the measures required to address and prevent it.

Causes of Water Pollution

Water pollution can be attributed to various human activities and natural factors. Industrial discharge, improper waste disposal, agricultural runoff, oil spills, sewage, and chemical pollutants are among the leading causes. Rapid urbanization, population growth, and inadequate infrastructure for waste management contribute to the problem. Additionally, natural phenomena like sedimentation and erosion can exacerbate water pollution.

Consequences of Water Pollution

Water pollution has far-reaching ecological and human health implications. Contaminated water disrupts aquatic ecosystems, leading to the decline of fish and other marine species. It affects biodiversity, disrupts food chains, and damages habitats. Moreover, polluted water sources pose significant health risks to humans. Consuming or coming into contact with contaminated water can lead to waterborne diseases, gastrointestinal issues, skin problems, and even long-term health impacts.

Prevention and Remediation

Addressing water pollution requires a multi-faceted approach. Stricter regulations and enforcement regarding industrial discharge and waste management are essential. Promoting sustainable agricultural practices, such as reducing the use of chemical fertilizers and implementing proper irrigation techniques, can minimize agricultural runoff. Developing and implementing advanced wastewater treatment technologies is crucial to ensure that domestic and industrial effluents are properly treated before being discharged into water bodies.

Individual and Collective Responsibility:

Preventing water pollution is a shared responsibility. Individuals can contribute by practicing responsible waste disposal, conserving water, and avoiding the use of harmful chemicals. Public awareness campaigns and education programs play a vital role in promoting responsible behavior and fostering a culture of environmental stewardship.

Conclusion :

Water pollution is a critical environmental issue that jeopardizes the health of ecosystems and humans. It demands collective action and responsible behavior. By addressing the root causes of water pollution, implementing effective regulations, and promoting individual and collective responsibility, we can safeguard water resources and ensure a sustainable future for generations to come.

Title: Water Pollution – A Looming Crisis Threatening Ecosystems and Human Well-being

Water pollution is a pressing environmental issue that poses a significant threat to ecosystems, biodiversity, and human health. It occurs when harmful substances contaminate water bodies, making them unfit for their intended uses. This essay delves into the causes, consequences, and potential solutions to water pollution, emphasizing the urgent need for collective action to address this global crisis.

Water pollution arises from various sources, both human-induced and natural. Human activities play a significant role in polluting water bodies. Industrial discharge, untreated sewage, agricultural runoff, oil spills, mining activities, and improper waste disposal are among the leading causes. Industrial wastewater often contains heavy metals, toxic chemicals, and organic pollutants, which can have devastating effects on aquatic ecosystems and human health. Agricultural runoff, laden with pesticides, fertilizers, and animal waste, contaminates water bodies and contributes to eutrophication, depleting oxygen levels and harming aquatic life.

The consequences of water pollution are far-reaching and encompass ecological, economic, and health impacts. Aquatic ecosystems bear the brunt of pollution, with devastating consequences for biodiversity and food chains. Pollutants disrupt aquatic habitats, decrease water quality, and lead to the decline of fish and other marine species. This ecological imbalance has ripple effects throughout the ecosystem, affecting the entire food web.

Water pollution also has severe implications for human health. Contaminated water sources pose significant risks, as they can transmit waterborne diseases, including cholera, typhoid, dysentery, and hepatitis. Communities that rely on polluted water for drinking, cooking, and bathing are particularly vulnerable. Prolonged exposure to polluted water can lead to various health issues, such as gastrointestinal problems, skin irritations, respiratory illnesses, and even long-term health effects like cancer.

Furthermore, water pollution has economic ramifications. Polluted water bodies reduce the availability of clean water for agriculture, industry, and domestic use. This leads to increased costs for water treatment, agricultural productivity losses, and economic disruptions in sectors that rely heavily on water resources, such as fisheries and tourism.

Solutions and Mitigation Strategies

Addressing water pollution requires comprehensive strategies and collaborative efforts. Governments, industries, communities, and individuals all have a role to play in mitigating pollution and safeguarding water resources.

a. Regulatory Measures

B. wastewater treatment, c. sustainable agriculture, d. waste management, e. education and awareness.

Effective regulations and enforcement mechanisms are essential to control and prevent water pollution. Governments should establish stringent standards for industrial effluents and enforce penalties for non-compliance. Laws should be enacted to ensure proper waste disposal and treatment practices. Additionally, zoning regulations can help prevent pollution by restricting industrial activities near sensitive water bodies.

Investing in advanced wastewater treatment infrastructure is crucial. Industries should implement appropriate treatment technologies to remove pollutants from their effluents before discharge. Municipalities must prioritize the treatment of domestic sewage to prevent contamination of water bodies. Developing countries, in particular, need support and resources to build and upgrade their wastewater treatment facilities.

Adopting sustainable agricultural practices can significantly reduce pollution from agricultural activities. Encouraging the use of organic farming methods, integrated pest management, and precision irrigation can minimize the reliance on harmful pesticides and fertilizers. Proper manure management and implementing buffer zones along water bodies can also mitigate nutrient runoff and protect water quality.

Improper waste disposal is a major contributor to water pollution. Implementing comprehensive waste management systems that include recycling, proper landfill management, and promotion of waste reduction strategies is crucial. Communities should have access to adequate waste collection services, and educational campaigns can raise awareness about the importance of responsible waste disposal.

Public education and awareness programs play a vital role in addressing water pollution. Promoting water conservation practices, encouraging responsible behavior, and highlighting the link between water pollution and human health can empower individuals to take action. Educational campaigns should target schools, communities, and industries to foster a culture of environmental stewardship.

Water pollution is a critical global issue that poses severe threats to ecosystems, biodiversity, and human well-being. It demands collective action and sustainable practices to safeguard water resources. Through stringent regulations, advanced wastewater treatment, sustainable agriculture, proper waste management, and education, we can mitigate water pollution and preserve this vital resource for future generations. By recognizing the urgency of this crisis and working collaboratively, we can ensure a healthier, cleaner, and more sustainable water future.

Related Articles More From Author

What is pharmacognosy, essay on community service, essay on plagiarism.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Ann Glob Health
• v.85(1); 2019

Air Pollution in Kazakhstan and Its Health Risk Assessment

D. kenessary.

1 “Kenesary Company” LLP, Almaty, KZ

A. Kenessary

Z. adilgireiuly, n. akzholova, a. erzhanova, a. dosmukhametov, d. syzdykov, abdul-razak masoud.

2 National Laboratory Astana, Nazarbayev University, Astana, KZ

Timur Saliev

3 B. Atchabarov Scientific Research Institute of Fundamental Medicine, Almaty, KZ

Background:

Air pollution in Kazakhstan is caused by many factors and poses serious threats to public health. Ambient air in the cities of Kazakhstan is polluted due to mining and processing of mineral resources, oil and gas production, gasoline and diesel fuel motor vehicles, industrial enterprises.

The study aim is to assess the air pollution degree in most significant settlements of Kazakhstan and define risk levels for the population health. Ambient air monitoring was conducted in 26 cities. Air pollution severity was assessed by the analysis results and processing of air samples taken at the stationary observation posts. Health risk assessment due to chemical factors was calculated according to the approved risk assessment methodology.

There is high risk of acute adverse effects risk from suspended particles, oxides and dioxides of nitrogen and sulfur in almost all of the studied cities. The most unfavorable situation is in Ust-Kamenogorsk. Also, there is the adverse chronic effects risk caused by suspended particles exposure in majority of the studied cities. Extremely high chronic effects risk as a result of heavy metals exposure was detected in Ust-Kamenogorsk, Shymkent, Almaty, Taraz and Balkhash. Unacceptable carcinogenic risk levels have been determined for professional groups and the whole population with respect to cadmium in Shymkent, Almaty, Balkhash; arsenic in Shymkent, Almaty, Balkhash; lead in Taraz; chromium – in Shymkent, Aktobe, Almaty and Balkhash. Thus, the values of the hazard quotients and indices for acute and chronic exposure in most of the studied cities of Kazakhstan exceed the permissible level equal to 1.0.

Conclusion:

Due to the unacceptable risk levels in the cities it is strongly recommended to conduct a detailed study of the health status of the population depending on the air pollution.

Introduction

Exposure of the populace to ambient air pollution has been considered as a significant contributor to the development of a range of disorders [ 2 , 15 ]. In fact, polluted air is still a substantial threat to people’s health around the world, despite the introduction of new technologies in industry, energy and transportation [ 3 , 4 , 10 , 13 ].

A number of works demonstrated pollution of atmospheric air as the primary environmental factor that causes a high level of health risk in urbanized areas [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 14 , 16 ]. Nowadays, the air basin of almost any settlement is polluted with hundreds of chemical substances, the level of which, as a rule, exceeds the maximum permissible threshold, and its combined effect is even more significant [ 1 , 5 , 11 , 12 ].

Taking into account the impact of pollution on public health, this study aims to assess the air pollution level in all settlements of the Republic of Kazakhstan according to the information bulletins based on the data provided by KAZHYDROMET—the regional state enterprise responsible for monitoring and analyzing the environmental situation in the Republic of Kazakhstan.

In fact, air pollution in Kazakhstan is caused by many factors. First on the list is the recent growth of mining and processing of mineral resources, such as lead, zinc, phosphorus, and chromium productions. Mining produces a huge volume of waste. 20 billion tons of this waste is accumulated and a third of them contaminate the air on a daily basis. Domestic mining enterprises use old, inefficient purification systems, as a result of which tons of harmful substances are released into the atmosphere.

The second cause of air pollution is flaring of gas during oil and gas production. This is accompanied by soot emissions. Instead of utilizing the gas, the producers found it cheaper to burn it out, thus contributing to the pollution of the air with carbon dioxide.

Another main contributor to air pollution is gasoline and diesel fuel motor vehicles. The increased number of cars, particularly in the main cities of Kazakhstan, results in a high level of air pollution by nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and organic substances.

The next factor is the dispersion of emissions from industrial enterprises as the result of production processes during industrial products combustion. In fact, there is the entire list of harmful substances causing the high level of air pollution in Kazakhstan. Pollutants dispersion in the air basin over the territory of settlements significantly affects the atmospheric air quality of cities, suburbs and towns.

All of the above-mentioned problems deteriorated, owing to issues with air ventilation in main cities, due to the bad architecture planning or specifics of landscapes. Inadequate airing of the atmospheric space in settlements leads to pollutants accumulation in the surface atmosphere layer, and their concentrations remain at very high levels. As a consequence of these factors, the permissible level of air pollution is exceeded in 13 major cities of Kazakhstan (Ust-Kamenogorsk, Aktobe, Astana, Almaty, Petropavlovsk, Atyrau, Balkhash, Shymkent, Temirtau, Zhezkazgan, Taraz, Karaganda, Semey cities).

Materials and methods

Monitoring of atmospheric air pollution was conducted in 26 settlements in the Republic of Kazakhstan, at 146 observation posts to be specific, including 56 stationary posts. There are three programs of the atmospheric air quality observation: complete, incomplete and short. The complete air observation program is intended to receive information about single and daily average concentrations. In this case, observations are performed daily by continuous registration using automatic devices or discretely at regular intervals. The measurements are carried out at least four times a day with mandatory sampling at 1, 7, 13, 19 o’clock local time. The incomplete observation program is carried out to obtain information about single concentrations daily at 7, 13 and 19 o’clock of local time. The short observation program is carried out in order to obtain information only about single concentrations every day at 7 and 13 o’clock local time.

The extent of air pollution was assessed by the results of analysis and processing of air samples taken at the observation posts.

The following indicators were monitored at the observation posts in order to reveal the extent of the air pollution: suspended particles (dust), suspended particles PM-2.5, suspended particles PM-10, sulfur dioxide, soluble sulfates, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, oxide nitrogen, ozone (surface), hydrogen sulfide, phenol, hydrogen fluoride, chlorine, hydrogen chloride, hydrocarbons, ammonia, sulfuric acid, formaldehyde, methane, inorganic arsenic compounds, cadmium, lead, chromium, copper, benzene, benzapyrene, beryllium, manganese, cobalt, gamma background radiation, zinc.

Health risk assessment due to chemical factors, particularly from chemical substances contained in atmospheric air, was calculated according to the “Guidelines for the public health risk assessment when exposed to chemical substances that pollute the environment.” This is the manual for the population health risk assessment due to chemical substances exposure that pollutes the environment (P 2.1.10.1920-04), approved by the Chief State Sanitary Doctor of the Russian Federation (05.03.2004). It is based on the risk assessment methodology previously developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) [ 9 , 17 ]. The following reference values were used for risk assessment (Table ​ (Table1 1 ).

Referent values of pollutants in ambient air of populated areas.

According to this methodology, non-carcinogenic risk assessment was carried out based on the calculation of hazard quotient (HQ), using the formula:

where C – actual concentration of the substance in the air; RfC – reference concentration.

If HQ is equal to or less than 1.0, the risk of being subjected to harmful effects is considered extremely low, and with an increase in the HQ quotient, the probability of adverse effects occurring increases, i.e. HQ > 1.0 is considered as evidence of potential health risks.

Risk assessment of the non-carcinogenic effects development from a combined exposure of chemical compounds was carried out on the basis of hazard index calculation (HI) for simultaneous intake of several substances in the same way (inhalation). Hazard indices were calculated for substances affecting the respiratory system. The permissible value of the hazard index is no more than 1. Even if HQ of particular substances is less than 1, HI may exceed 1. Calculations of hazard indices were carried out according to the following formula:

where HQi – hazard quotients of particular chemical substances.

For non-carcinogenic chemical substances, additivity is confirmed if they have the same (homogeneous) toxic effect. In accordance with international recommendations, the “same” action conditionally means the effect of substances on the same organs or systems.

The risk assessment for the development of carcinogenic effects was evaluated using the individual carcinogenic risk concept. Individual carcinogenic risk is an assessment of the probability of cancer development in an affected individual exposed to potential carcinogens throughout his/her lifetime (the average life expectancy is assumed to be 70 years). It is assumed that all identified carcinogens affect the individual throughout life.

Individual carcinogenic risk (ICR) was estimated using the following formula:

where LADD – life average daily dose, mg/(kg*day)

where AC – average daily/annual concentration/dose, mg/m 3

Seventy (70) kg is the average human weight and 20 m 3 is the average daily air consumption.

The ICR indicator describes the individual risk of malignant neoplasms in a hypothetical person exposed to the studied factor (chemical substance).

In assessing the carcinogenic risk, as a rule, only the chronic effects of substance are taken into account, i.e. annual/daily average concentrations are used.

According to the risk assessment methodology, there are criteria for the acceptability or admissibility of the carcinogenic risk, both for professional groups and for the whole population. According to the classification of the carcinogenic risk levels, there are four ranges of its acceptability. Thus, the first range includes the individual risk (ICR) throughout life, equal to or less 1 × 10 –6 , which corresponds to one additional case of cancer per 1 million exposed people. This range characterizes such risk levels that are perceived by all as negligible, not different from ordinary, everyday risks. Such cases do not require any additional measures to reduce them, but their levels need periodic monitoring.

The second range (ICR more 1 × 10 –6 , but less 1 × 10 –4 ) corresponds to the maximum permissible risk, i.e. upper limit of acceptable risk. At this level, most of the hygienic standards recommended by foreign and international organizations for the whole population are determined (for example, WHO uses the acceptable risk value for drinking water equal to 1 × 10 –5 , for the atmospheric air – 1 × 10 –4 ). These levels need constant monitoring.

The third range (ICR more 1 × 10 –4 , but less 1 × 10 –3 ) is acceptable for professional groups but not for the whole population. The emergence of such risk requires the development and implementation of planned sanitation activities.

Fourth range (ICR ≥ 1 × 10 –3 ) is not acceptable for both the population and professional groups. In this case, it is necessary to implement emergency sanitary measures so as to reduce the risk.

This study analyzed the quality of atmospheric air in the main cities of Kazakhstan in context of its impact on the health of the populace. Hazard quotients were calculated separately for every substance at each calculated point, then scaled for different conditions (acute and chronic effects).

When calculating the hazard quotient of acute exposure (HQ acute, Table ​ Table2) 2 ) the maximum single concentrations of the main pollutants in the atmospheric air of the studied cities were taken into account according to the official data the official data of KAZHYDROMET regional state enterprise (for 2017).

Acute exposure hazard quotients (HQ acute) caused by the main chemical pollutants of atmospheric air in the studied cities of the Kazakhstan. 1 – Shymkent. 2 – Astana. 3 – Kokshetau. 4 – Stepnogorsk. 5 – Borovoye. 6 – Shchuchinsk-Borovoy resort area. 7 – Aktobe. 8 – Almaty. 9 – Taldykurgan. 10 – Atyrau. 11 – Ust-Kamenogorsk. 12 – Semey. 13 – Taraz. 14 – Uralsk. 15 – Aksay. 16 – Karaganda. 17 – Balkhash. 18 – Zhezkazgan. 19 – Temirtau. 20 –Kostanay. 21 – Kyzylorda. 22 – Aktau. 23 –Pavloda. 24 – Ekibastuz. 25 – Petropavlovsk. 26 – Turkestan.

The hazard quotient results calculated for acute exposure (HQ acute) of the analyzed chemicals, contained in the atmospheric air in the studied cities, are presented in Table ​ Table2 2 .

As mentioned above, if HQ is equal to or less than 1.0, the risk of harmful effects is considered extremely low. Therefore, an increase in HQ indicates the probability of the development of harmful effects and potential health risk. Thus, we observed the feasibility of adverse effects (HQ acute) from the different chemical substances in most Kazakhstani cities. The most probable adverse effect associated with ammonia was detected in Temirtau city (1.1) and the least was in Atyrau and Taraz (0.1). No risk was observed in Astana, Kokshetau, Almaty, Kostanay, Kyzylorda and Turkestan.

For suspended particles (dust), the highest risk was detected in Astana (14.7), and the lowest in Petropavlovsk (0.3). There was no risk associated with suspended particles (dust) in Stepnogorsk, Uralsk, or Aksay. The acute exposure hazard quotient for suspended particles PM-10 was highest in Shymkent (19.3) and lowest in Balkhash (0.3). No risks were observed in Taldykurgan, Kostanay, Temirtau, or Turkestan. The corresponding maximum risk for suspended particles PM-2.5 was 38.5 in Karaganda, and 0.6 in Balkhash, constituting the minimum value recorded. PM-2.5 particles were not detected in Taldykurgan, Kostanay, Temirtau, Ust-Kamenogorsk, Aksay, Taraz, or Turkestan.

Hydrogen fluoride was detected only in Ust-Kamenogorsk, with a risk level of 0.3. Nitrogen dioxide and nitrogen oxide were detected in all cities, with the highest risks recorded in Petropavlovsk, 6.4 and 3.8 accordingly. The lowest was in Stepnogorsk with values recorded at 0.3 and 0.1. Sulfur dioxide also was found at high level in almost all the cities. The maximum risk was in Temirtau (6.8) and the minimum was in Aksay and Petropavlovsk (0.2). Copper and arsenic were detected in four cities— Shymkent, Almaty, Ust-Kamenogorsk, and Balkhash—with the maximum risk for copper found in Almaty (2.9), and for arsenic in Shymkent (25).

The risk of ozone (ground level) was approximately the same and varied from 0.6 (Balkhash, Zhezkazgan, Petropavlovsk) to 1.6 (Stepnogorsk, Aktobe).

A high level of carbon monoxide was detected in almost all the cities, but the maximum risk was in Karaganda (3.1), the minimum in Petropavlovsk (0.001). The maximum risk level caused by hydrogen sulfide was detected in Ust-Kamenogorsk (5), the minimum in Kyzylorda (0.01). No risk related to hydrogen sulfide was found in Astana, Kokshetau, Stepnogorsk, Almaty, Kostanay, or Petropavlovsk. The sulfate content of air indicates maximum risk in Zhezkazgan (3.2) and minimum in Karaganda (0.2). The risk of phenol was less than 1 in all cities, with the highest in Petropavlovsk (0.3). Formaldehyde caused maximum risk in Aktobe (3.5), minimum in Atyrau and Kyzylorda (0.1). However, in most of the cities no risk was found. Chlorine and hydrogen chloride were found in the air in only two cities: Ust-Kamenogorsk (0.7 and 0.1) and Pavlodar (0.1 and 0.03). Hydrogen fluoride was present only in Astana (0.5) and Taraz (0.1).

Thus, there is the risk of adverse effects on the population’s health from acute effects of suspended particles, oxides and dioxides of nitrogen, and sulfur in almost all the studied cities. In general, the most unfavorable situation is in Ust-Kamenogorsk, where HQ acute is above 1 with respect to nine chemicals, and for 7 chemical substances in Aktobe, Almaty, and Petropavlovsk. In other cities the HQ acute was above 1 with respect to six substances and below. The risk of adverse effects was determined for only one chemical in Stepnogorsk, Aksay and Turkestan.

It should also be noted that there are no reference concentrations (in case of acute exposure) for some substances (benz(a)pyrene, cadmium, lead, chromium). The concentrations for beryllium during the study period were below the detection limit for the technique used. As a result, it turned out to be impossible to calculate the hazard quotients in case of acute exposure for the above substance.

Then, we calculated the values of hazard quotients for chronic exposure due to the average annual calculated concentration of toxic substances in the surface air of the studied cities. The results are presented in Table ​ Table3 3 .

Hazard quotients of chronic exposure (HQ chronic) due to the main chemical pollutants of the atmospheric air in the studied cities of the Kazakhstan. 1 – Shymkent. 2 – Astana. 3 – Kokshetau. 4 – Stepnogorsk. 5 – Borovoye. 6 – Shchuchinsk-Borovoy resort area. 7 – Aktobe. 8 – Almaty. 9 – Taldykurgan. 10 – Atyrau. 11 – Ust-Kamenogorsk. 12 – Semey. 13 – Taraz. 14 – Uralsk. 15 – Aksay. 16 – Karaganda. 17 – Balkhash. 18 – Zhezkazgan. 19 – Temirtau. 20 – Kostanay. 21 – Kyzylorda. 22 – Aktau. 23 – Pavloda. 24 – Ekibastuz. 25 – Petropavlovsk. 26 – Turkestan.

Based on the results provided in Table ​ Table3, 3 , we conclude that there is a high probability of adverse chronic effects caused by different chemicals. For example, the risk caused by ammonia is less than 1 in all cities, though the maximum was detected in Temirtau (0.6). Benz(a)pyrene was found in abundant quantities only in Ust-Kamenogorsk and Taraz (700 and 100 respectively). Suspended particles (dust) were present in almost all cities, and the risk level varied from 0.2 in Aksay to 4.3 in Zhezkazgan. The highest risk of suspended particles PM-10 was in Shymkent, Karaganda, and Aktau (2), whilst the minimum was observed in Stepnogorsk and Pavlodar (0.1). Suspended particles PM-2.5 posed a health threat in Karaganda (6.7). The lowest PM-2.5 level was found in Kokshetau and Stepnogorsk (0.1). Hydrogen fluoride was present in the air only in Ust-Kamenogorsk, with a risk level of 0.5.

Nitrogen dioxide and nitrogen oxide were present in all cities of Kazakhstan (22.5), with the highest risk in Petropavlovsk (13.3) and the minimum levels in Stepnogorsk (0.1) and Aksay (0.02). Sulfur dioxide was also present in almost all the cities under study, with the highest risk recorded in Ust-Kamenogorsk (2.2) and the lowest in Aksay (0.02). Copper and arsenic were detected in only four cities. The maximum risk for copper in Almaty is 4050 and 271333.3 in Balkhash for arsenic. The highest risk for ozone (ground level) was determined as Aktobe (2.8).

Carbon monoxide was detected in all cities, but the risk was less than 1 and was highest in Shymkent (0.7). The risk level of lead was determined in five cities, with the highest recorded in Taraz(18,180). Hydrogen sulfide was present in many cities. The highest risk was in Petropavlovsk (8). The risk level of sulfates was shown to be less than 1 in all cities. Phenol had an increased risk level only in Zhezkazgan (1.4). The maximum risk level of formaldehyde was in Shymkent (7.4). Chlorine and hydrogen chloride were present in only two cities, Ust-Kamenogorsk (35 and 1.5 respectively) and Pavlodar (1.5 and 1.1). Hydrogen fluoride was presented in two cities – Astana (0.1) and Taraz (0.2). The maximum risk level of chromium was recorded in Balkhash, (90,300) and Almaty (60). Zinc was present only in Ust-Kamenogorsk, with a risk level of 1.

Thus, there is risk of adverse effects caused by chronic exposure to suspended particles in the majority of the studied cities. As for the number of chemical substances with increased risk of chronic exposure, the value was maximal in Ust-Kamenogorsk (13), similar to acute exposure. Extremely high HQ of chronic effect as result of exposure to heavy metals was detected in Shymkent, Almaty, Taraz, and Balkhash, and in Ust-Kamenogorsk and Taraz cities for benz(a)pyrene.

It is known that atmospheric air content is the leading environmental factor associated with the majority of health risks. A significant number of large industrial complexes in cities, thermal power plants, coal and other industries pose a constant danger on the human body due to the acute and chronic effects of air pollutants.

It was determined that the overwhelming majority of chemicals with hazard quotient (HQ) in excess, in relation to both chronic and acute exposure, mainly impact the respiratory system (such as nitrogen dioxide, suspended particles, ozone, sulfur dioxide, phenol, formaldehyde, etc.). There was enough HQ data to calculate the hazard indices. Based on the aforementioned, we calculated hazard indices according to their mode of action only for the respiratory system. The hazard indices for chronic and acute effects in the studied cities are presented in Table ​ Table4 4 .

Hazard index for chronic and acute exposure (HI acute/HI chronic) of the respiratory organs to the main chemical pollutants of the atmospheric air in the studied cities of Kazakhstan.

It was found that the highest hazard index of acute exposure was observed in Karaganda (HI acute 63.5), followed by Zhezkazgan (44.1) and Shymkent (41.6). The least occurred in Stepnogorsk (3.8), Aksay (4.4), and Turkestan (5.1).

The highest hazard index of chronic exposure was observed in Balkhash (HI chronic 841,514.1). This was followed by Taraz (74,810.2), Almaty (4,187.8), and Shymkent (1,446.6). The least was in Kostanay (1.7), followed by Stepnogorsk (1.9) and Aksay (1.9).

Extremely high hazard indices of the chronic exposure were a cause for attention in Balkhash, Taraz, Almaty, and Shymkent. At the same time, the hazard indices of acute exposure in these cities were at the average levels, except for Shymkent.

Considering the fact that there are high rates of cancer incidence in the regions of Kazakhstan, coupled with research results showing the existence of adverse risk effects in practically every inhabited locality studied, caused by the chronic exposure of chemical substances, we calculated the individual carcinogenic risk (ICR) presented in the Table ​ Table5 5 .

Individual carcinogenic risk (ICR) in the studied cities of the Kazakhstan.

According to the criteria of carcinogenic risk assessment, unacceptable risk levels have been determined for professional groups and the whole population with respect to cadmium in Shymkent, Almaty, and Balkhash; arsenic in Shymkent, Almaty, and Balkhash; lead in Taraz; chromium in Shymkent, Aktobe, Almaty, and Balkhash.

The acceptable carcinogenic risk level for professional groups, but unacceptable for the population was determined for cadmium and arsenic in Ust-Kamenogorsk; for lead, in Shymkent and Almaty; for formaldehyde, in Shymkent, Almaty, and Karaganda.

Thus, in the listed cities the unacceptable carcinogenic risk level for the population is identified. High rates of ICR do not guarantee the incidence of cancer, but only increase its probability. It requires urgent management decisions to eliminate and/or reduce the risk levels.

Study limitations

Before interpreting the quantitative risk assessment results obtained above, it is necessary to take into account study limitations. Risk assessment was carried out only according to the official data of KAZHYDROMET regional state enterprise, based on the analysis and processing of air samples taken at the stationary observation posts. Average daily measurements were carried out according to short (two times a day), incomplete (three times a day) and complete (four times a day) programs, i.e. the measurements were averaged with no more than 6-hour intervals. According to Directive No. 2008/50/EC—Atmospheric air quality and measures for its purification—adopted by the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union, when determining the maximum permissible level of chemical substances to protect the human health, a reliable data ratio of 75% of the one-hour value is required, i.e. 45 minutes. For a 24-hour value (average daily), 75%, i.e. at least, 18 average hourly values. It means that for the most objective risk assessment it is necessary to take into account not less than 18 averaged one-hour values for the average daily measurement.

Thus, the maximum one-time and average daily measurements conducted by the regional state enterprise KAZHYDROMET at the stationary posts, even according to the full program, may not reflect the actual atmospheric air condition, which may affect the quantitative risk assessment results. In this regard, there is a need to study the monitoring data of alternative sources and to carry out data collection in accordance with the regulations of the European Union Directive No. 2008/50/EC on data collection rules for statistical processing.

Atmospheric air quality analysis in the main cities of Kazakhstan in context of its impact on the health of the populace was carried out. A public health risk assessment based on the measurement data analysis of the atmospheric air quality was conducted. The following conclusions can be made from the results:

First of all, it should be noted that the values of the hazard quotients and indices for acute and chronic exposure in most of the studied cities of the Republic of Kazakhstan exceed the permissible level equal to 1.0.

Acute risk effects

There are acute risk effects on the health of the populace in the studied cities of Kazakhstan, due to air pollution by the following pollutants: suspended particles, oxides and dioxides of nitrogen and sulfur, and heavy metals (copper and arsenic). Generally, the most dangerous situations are in Ust-Kamenogorsk, Shymkent, Aktobe, Almaty, and Petropavlovsk. Stepnogorsk, Aksay, and Turkestan have the most favorable ecological condition.

Chronic risk effects

There are also adverse risk effects caused by chronic exposure of suspended particles in majority of the studied cities, as well as adverse effects of benz(a)pyrene, nitrogen dioxide and nitrogen oxide, chlorine, and heavy metals (cadmium, manganese, copper, arsenic, lead, and chromium). The maximum chronic exposure risk is in Ust-Kamenogorsk. The least risk level is in Kokshetau, Stepnogorsk, the Shchuchinsk-Borovoye resort area, Taldykorgan, Uralsk, Aksai, Temirtau, Ekibastuz, and Turkestan cities. It is important to note the extremely high HQ of chronic effect caused by the heavy metals in Shymkent, Almaty, Taraz, and Balkhash, as well as for benz(a)pyrene in Ust-Kamenogorsk and Taraz cities.

Hazard index analysis

High hazard indices for the respiratory system were detected. It was revealed that the highest hazard index of acute exposure for respiratory system is in Karaganda, Zhezkazgan, and Shymkent; the least in Stepnogorsk, Aksay, and Turkestan. The maximum hazard index of chronic exposure of the respiratory system to air pollutants is in Balkhash, Taraz, Almaty, and Shymkent; the minimum in Kostanay, Stepnogorsk, and Aksay. Paying attention to this fact, we also consider it necessary in the future to calculate the HI for cardiovascular and central nervous systems.

Carcinogenic risk

In addition, the carcinogenic risk level both for professional groups and the whole population represents a great danger, because it is defined as unacceptable in Shymkent, Almaty, Balkhash, Aktobe, Taraz, and Ust-Kamenogorsk cities.

Recommendations

In line with the aforementioned, it is strongly recommended that due to the unacceptable risk level, it is necessary to immediately conduct a detailed study of the health status of the population, depending on the air pollution in the cities with high risk levels. Additionally, the research results indicate that it is obligatory to develop management decisions so as to reduce the risk levels.

Funding Statement

Own sources of financing.

Ethics and Consent

No human volunteers have been involved in the presented study. No animal experiments have been conducted for this study.

Funding Information

Competing interests.

The authors have no competing interests to declare.

• International Gas Turbine Institute
• Previous Paper

Effect of Water Injection on Turbofan Engine Compressor Operation and Aerodynamics

• Article contents
• Figures & tables
• Supplementary Data
• Peer Review
• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions
• Search Site

Zawadzki, N, Szymański, A, & Igie, U. "Effect of Water Injection on Turbofan Engine Compressor Operation and Aerodynamics." Proceedings of the ASME Turbo Expo 2024: Turbomachinery Technical Conference and Exposition . Volume 12A: Turbomachinery — Axial Flow Fan and Compressor Aerodynamics . London, United Kingdom. June 24–28, 2024. V12AT29A023. ASME. https://doi.org/10.1115/GT2024-125908

Download citation file:

• Ris (Zotero)
• Reference Manager

Water injection (WI) can potentially remedy aircraft-related nitrogen oxide (NO x ) pollution around airports and substantially extend the hot section’s life. No high-fidelity study exists examining the effects of deploying compressor water injection (CWI) on turbofans — an engine type dominating the civil aviation market. The available analytical work is bound to several limitations, such as uniform droplet size distribution, simplified droplet transport and no phase coupling. Effects of local changes in the gas composition, interaction of turbulence with dispersed phase and the underlying loss production mechanism of wet compressions are neglected and thus remain unquantified.

The present work investigated the effect of WI on key performance and aerodynamic parameters in a fully integrated compressor of a generic turbofan engine using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis. The compressor layout comprised a fan stage and two core stages called booster. Water was injected behind the fan rotor at the inlet to the booster. Take-off operation was simulated at dry conditions and a range of wet scenarios with 1% and 2% water-to-air mass injection rates and varying droplet diameters from 10 to 20 microns.

Effects on the stage-by-stage compressor performance are discussed in detail, including water distribution, mass flow, temperature, pressure ratio, and efficiency. Particular attention was paid to the aerodynamic effects, which are impossible to obtain based on analytical results. Furthermore, the detailed droplet evolution inside the compressor was scrutinised, including particle residence time, change in size and distribution due to evaporation and interaction with compressor flow and components. The outcomes showed that water injection can result in favourable conditions for compressor operation. Furthermore, a reduction in compressor delivery temperature of up to 40 degrees Kelvin was predicted if finely atomised water was injected.

Purchase this Content

Product added to cart., email alerts, related proceedings papers, related articles, related chapters, affiliations.

• ASME Conference Publications and Proceedings
• Conference Proceedings Author Guidelines
• Indexing and Discovery

ASME Journals

• About ASME Journals
• Information for Authors
• Submit a Paper
• Call for Papers
• Title History

ASME Conference Proceedings

• About ASME Conference Publications and Proceedings

ASME eBooks

• About ASME eBooks
• ASME Press Advisory & Oversight Committee
• Book Proposal Guidelines
• Frequently Asked Questions
• Publication Permissions & Reprints
• ASME Membership

Opportunities

• Faculty Positions
• ASME Instagram

• Accessibility
• Privacy Statement
• Terms of Use
• Get Adobe Acrobat Reader

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account