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Learning Style Inventory 

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Fleming, Neil. 'VARK: A Guide to Learning Styles.' Accessed from: 1998.

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The Kolb Learning Style Inventory 4.0: Guide to Theory, Psychometrics, Research & Applications

• January 2013
• Publisher: Experience Based Learning Systems

• Case Western Reserve University

• Experience Based Learning Systems, Inc.

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Overview of VARK Learning Styles

Sam Edwards / Getty Images

VARK Learning Styles

• Find Your Style
• Kinesthetic

Why It Matters

Frequently asked questions.

Learning styles are a popular concept in psychology and education and are intended to identify how people learn best. VARK learning styles suggest that there are four main types of learners: visual, auditory, reading/writing, and kinesthetic.

The idea that students learn best when teaching methods and school activities match their learning styles, strengths, and preferences grew in popularity in the 1970s and 1980s. However, most evidence suggests that personal learning preferences have little to no actual influence on learning outcomes.

While the existing research has found that matching teaching methods to learning styles has no influence on educational outcomes, the concept of learning styles remains extremely popular.

There are many different ways of categorizing learning styles , but Neil Fleming's VARK model is one of the most popular. Fleming introduced an inventory in 1987 that was designed to help students and others learn more about their individual learning preferences.

According to the VARK model, learners are identified by whether they have a preference for:

• Visual learning (pictures, movies, diagrams)
• Auditory learning (music, discussion, lectures)
• Reading and writing (making lists, reading textbooks, taking notes)
• Kinesthetic learning (movement, experiments, hands-on activities)

The VARK model refers to the four sensory modalities that describe different learning preferences. The model suggests that these modalities reflect how students learn best.

What Type of Learner Are You?

In order to identify which type of learner people are, Fleming developed a self-report inventory that posed a series of situations. Respondents select the answers that best match their preferred approach to learning.

Imagine that you are learning how to perform a new physical skill such as riding a bike or dancing a certain style of dance. In which way would you learn this skill the best?

• Look at pictures of people performing the skill. (Visual)
• Listen to an expert explain how to do the task. (Auditory)
• Read about how to perform the task in a book. (Reading/Writing)
• Watch someone else perform the skill and then trying it yourself. (Kinesthetic)

Visual Learners

Visual learners learn best by seeing. Graphic displays such as charts, diagrams, illustrations, handouts, and videos are all helpful learning tools for visual learners.

Visual learners prefer this type of learning would rather see information presented in a visual rather than in written form.

Do you think you might be a visual learner? Then consider the following questions:

• Are art, beauty, and aesthetics important to you?
• Does visualizing information in your mind help you remember it better?
• Do you have to see information in order to remember it?
• Do you pay close attention to body language ?

If you can answer yes to most of these questions, chances are good that you have a visual learning style. You may find it helpful to incorporate things like pictures and graphs when you are learning new information.

Aural Learners

Aural (or auditory) learners learn best by hearing information. They tend to get a great deal out of lectures and are good at remembering things they are told.

Are you an auditory learner? Consider the following questions:

• Do you create songs to help remember information?
• Does reading out loud help you remember information better?
• Do you prefer to listen to class lectures rather than reading from the textbook?
• Would you prefer to listen to a recording of your class lectures or a podcast rather than going over your class notes?

If you answered yes to most of these questions, then you are probably an auditory learner. You might find things like audiobooks and podcasts helpful for learning new things.

Reading and Writing Learners

Reading and writing learners prefer to take in information that is displayed as words and text. Could you be a reading and writing learner? Read through the following questions and think about whether they might apply to you.

• Do you enjoy making lists, reading definitions, and creating presentations?
• Do you find reading your textbook to be a great way to learn new information?
• Do you take a lot of notes during class and while reading textbooks?
• Do you prefer it when teachers make use of overheads and handouts?

If you answered yes to these questions, it is likely that you have a strong preference for the reading and writing style of learning. You might find it helpful to write down information in order to help you learn and remember it.

Kinesthetic Learners

Kinesthetic (or tactile) learners learn best by touching and doing. Hands-on experience is important for kinesthetic learners.

Not sure if you're a kinesthetic learner? Answer these questions to find out:

• Are you good at applied activities such as painting, cooking, mechanics, sports, and woodworking?
• Do you enjoy performing tasks that involve directly manipulating objects and materials?
• Do you have to actually practice doing something in order to learn it?
• Is it difficult for you to sit still for long periods of time?

If you responded yes to these questions, then you are most likely a kinesthetic learner. Taking classes that give you practical, hands-on experience may be helpful when you want to acquire a new skill.

The validity of the VARK model as well as other learning style theories has been questioned and criticized extensively. Some critics have suggested that labeling students as having one specific learning style can actually be a hindrance to learning.

One large-scale look at learning style models suggested that the instruments designed to assess individual learning styles were questionable.  

The VARK model remains fairly popular among both students and educators despite these criticisms. Students may feel drawn to a particular learning style. Others may find that their learning preferences lie somewhere in the middle, such as finding both visual and auditory learning equally appealing.

People might find that understanding their own learning preferences can be helpful. If you know that visual learning appeals to you most, using visual study strategies in conjunction with other learning methods might help you remember and enjoy your studies more.

If no single learning preference calls out to you or you change preferences based on the situation or the type of information you are learning, you probably have what is known as a multimodal style .

For example, you might rely on your reading and writing preferences when you are dealing with a class that requires a great deal of book reading and note-taking, such as a history of psychology course. During an art class, you might depend more on your visual and kinesthetic preferences as you take in pictorial information and learn new techniques.

The four VARK learning styles are visual learners, aural learners, reading and writing learners, and kinesthetic learners.

According to some data, the most common is a multimodal learning style referred to as VARK Type Two, which involves exhibiting a range of learning preferences. People with this learning style tend to collect information more slowly and take time to make decisions.

In terms of single preferences, kinesthetic is by far the most common, accounting for 22.8% of respondents.

Pashler H, Mcdaniel M, Rohrer D, Bjork R. Learning styles: concepts and evidence . Psychol Sci Public Interest . 2008;9(3):105-19. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x

VARK Learn Limited. VARK research - what do we know about VARK ?

Fleming N. Introduction to Vark .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Kolb’s Learning Styles and Experiential Learning Cycle

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

David Kolb published his learning styles model in 1984, from which he developed his learning style inventory.

Kolb’s experiential learning theory works on two levels: a four-stage learning cycle and four separate learning styles. Much of Kolb’s theory concerns the learner’s internal cognitive processes.

Kolb states that learning involves the acquisition of abstract concepts that can be applied flexibly in a range of situations. In Kolb’s theory, the impetus for the development of new concepts is provided by new experiences.

“Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984, p. 38).

The Experiential Learning Cycle

Kolb’s experiential learning style theory is typically represented by a four-stage learning cycle in which the learner “touches all the bases”:

The terms “Reflective Cycle” and “Experiential Learning Cycle” are often used interchangeably when referring to this four-stage learning process. The main idea behind both terms is that effective learning occurs through a continuous cycle of experience, reflection, conceptualization, and experimentation.

• Concrete Experience – the learner encounters a concrete experience. This might be a new experience or situation, or a reinterpretation of existing experience in the light of new concepts.
• Reflective Observation of the New Experience – the learner reflects on the new experience in the light of their existing knowledge. Of particular importance are any inconsistencies between experience and understanding.
• Abstract Conceptualization – reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of an existing abstract concept (the person has learned from their experience).
• Active Experimentation – the newly created or modified concepts give rise to experimentation. The learner applies their idea(s) to the world around them to see what happens.

Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle of four stages: of (1) having a concrete experience followed by (2) observation of and reflection on that experience which leads to (3) the formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and generalizations (conclusions) which are then (4) used to test a hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new experiences.

Kolb (1984) views learning as an integrated process, with each stage mutually supporting and feeding into the next. It is possible to enter the cycle at any stage and follow it through its logical sequence.

However, effective learning only occurs when a learner can execute all four stages of the model. Therefore, no one stage of the cycle is effective as a learning procedure on its own.

The process of going through the cycle results in the formation of increasingly complex and abstract ‘mental models’ of whatever the learner is learning about.

Learning Styles

Kolb’s learning theory (1984) sets out four distinct learning styles, which are based on a four-stage learning cycle (see above). Kolb explains that different people naturally prefer a certain single different learning style.

Various factors influence a person’s preferred style. For example, social environment, educational experiences, or the basic cognitive structure of the individual.

Whatever influences the choice of style, the learning style preference itself is actually the product of two pairs of variables, or two separate “choices” that we make, which Kolb presented as lines of an axis, each with “conflicting” modes at either end.

A typical presentation of Kolb’s two continuums is that the east-west axis is called the Processing Continuum (how we approach a task), and the north-south axis is called the Perception Continuum (our emotional response, or how we think or feel about it).

Kolb believed that we cannot perform both variables on a single axis simultaneously (e.g., think and feel). Our learning style is a product of these two choice decisions.

It’s often easier to see the construction of Kolb’s learning styles in terms of a two-by-two matrix. Each learning style represents a combination of two preferred styles.

The matrix also highlights Kolb’s terminology for the four learning styles; diverging, assimilating, and converging, accommodating:

Knowing a person’s (and your own) learning style enables learning to be orientated according to the preferred method.

That said, everyone responds to and needs the stimulus of all types of learning styles to one extent or another – it’s a matter of using emphasis that fits best with the given situation and a person’s learning style preferences.

Here are brief descriptions of the four Kolb learning styles:

Diverging (feeling and watching – CE/RO)

These people are able to look at things from different perspectives. They are sensitive. They prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather information and use imagination to solve problems. They are best at viewing concrete situations from several different viewpoints.

Kolb called this style “diverging” because these people perform better in situations that require ideas-generation, for example, brainstorming. People with a diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to gather information.

They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, and tend to be strong in the arts. People with the diverging style prefer to work in groups, to listen with an open mind and to receive personal feedback.

Assimilating (watching and thinking – AC/RO)

The assimilating learning preference involves a concise, logical approach. Ideas and concepts are more important than people.

These people require good, clear explanations rather than a practical opportunity. They excel at understanding wide-ranging information and organizing it in a clear, logical format.

People with an assimilating learning style are less focused on people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts.  People with this style are more attracted to logically sound theories than approaches based on practical value.

This learning style is important for effectiveness in information and science careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring analytical models, and having time to think things through.

Converging (doing and thinking – AC/AE)

People with a converging learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to find solutions to practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned with people and interpersonal aspects.

People with a converging learning style are best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories. They can solve problems and make decisions by finding solutions to questions and problems.

People with a converging learning style are more attracted to technical tasks and problems than social or interpersonal issues. A converging learning style enables specialist and technology abilities.

People with a converging style like to experiment with new ideas, to simulate, and to work with practical applications.

Accommodating (doing and feeling – CE/AE)

The Accommodating learning style is “hands-on,” and relies on intuition rather than logic. These people use other people’s analysis, and prefer to take a practical, experiential approach. They are attracted to new challenges and experiences, and to carrying out plans.

They commonly act on “gut” instinct rather than logical analysis. People with an accommodating learning style will tend to rely on others for information than carry out their own analysis. This learning style is prevalent within the general population.

Educational Implications

Both Kolb’s (1984) learning stages and the cycle could be used by teachers to critically evaluate the learning provision typically available to students, and to develop more appropriate learning opportunities.

Educators should ensure that activities are designed and carried out in ways that offer each learner the chance to engage in the manner that suits them best.

Also, individuals can be helped to learn more effectively by the identification of their lesser preferred learning styles and the strengthening of these through the application of the experiential learning cycle.

Ideally, activities and material should be developed in ways that draw on abilities from each stage of the experiential learning cycle and take the students through the whole process in sequence.

Kolb, D. A. (1976). The Learning Style Inventory: Technical Manual . Boston, MA: McBer.

Kolb, D.A. (1981). Learning styles and disciplinary differences, in: A.W. Chickering (Ed.) The Modern American College (pp. 232–255). San Francisco, LA: Jossey-Bass.

Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development (Vol. 1). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Kolb, D. A., & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Studies of group process (pp. 33–57). New York: Wiley.

Kolb, D. A., Rubin, I. M., & McIntyre, J. M. (1984). Organizational psychology: readings on human behavior in organizations . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Further Reading

• How to Write a Psychology Essay
• David Kolb’s Website
• Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2008). Learning styles: Concepts and evidence. Psychological science in the public interest, 9(3) , 105-119.

Center for Teaching

Learning styles.

What are Learning Styles?

Why are they so popular.

The term  learning styles is widely used to describe how learners gather, sift through, interpret, organize, come to conclusions about, and “store” information for further use.  As spelled out in VARK (one of the most popular learning styles inventories), these styles are often categorized by sensory approaches:   v isual, a ural, verbal [ r eading/writing], and k inesthetic.  Many of the models that don’t resemble the VARK’s sensory focus are reminiscent of Felder and Silverman’s Index of Learning Styles , with a continuum of descriptors for how learners process and organize information:  active-reflective, sensing-intuitive, verbal-visual, and sequential-global.

There are well over 70 different learning styles schemes (Coffield, 2004), most of which are supported by “a thriving industry devoted to publishing learning-styles tests and guidebooks” and “professional development workshops for teachers and educators” (Pashler, et al., 2009, p. 105).

Despite the variation in categories, the fundamental idea behind learning styles is the same: that each of us has a specific learning style (sometimes called a “preference”), and we learn best when information is presented to us in this style.  For example, visual learners would learn any subject matter best if given graphically or through other kinds of visual images, kinesthetic learners would learn more effectively if they could involve bodily movements in the learning process, and so on.  The message thus given to instructors is that “optimal instruction requires diagnosing individuals’ learning style[s] and tailoring instruction accordingly” (Pashler, et al., 2009, p. 105).

Despite the popularity of learning styles and inventories such as the VARK, it’s important to know that there is no evidence to support the idea that matching activities to one’s learning style improves learning .  It’s not simply a matter of “the absence of evidence doesn’t mean the evidence of absence.”  On the contrary, for years researchers have tried to make this connection through hundreds of studies.

In 2009, Psychological Science in the Public Interest commissioned cognitive psychologists Harold Pashler, Mark McDaniel, Doug Rohrer, and Robert Bjork to evaluate the research on learning styles to determine whether there is credible evidence to support using learning styles in instruction.  They came to a startling but clear conclusion:  “Although the literature on learning styles is enormous,” they “found virtually no evidence” supporting the idea that “instruction is best provided in a format that matches the preference of the learner.”  Many of those studies suffered from weak research design, rendering them far from convincing.  Others with an effective experimental design “found results that flatly contradict the popular” assumptions about learning styles (p. 105). In sum,

“The contrast between the enormous popularity of the learning-styles approach within education and the lack of credible evidence for its utility is, in our opinion, striking and disturbing” (p. 117).

Pashler and his colleagues point to some reasons to explain why learning styles have gained—and kept—such traction, aside from the enormous industry that supports the concept.  First, people like to identify themselves and others by “type.” Such categories help order the social environment and offer quick ways of understanding each other.  Also, this approach appeals to the idea that learners should be recognized as “unique individuals”—or, more precisely, that differences among students should be acknowledged —rather than treated as a number in a crowd or a faceless class of students (p. 107). Carried further, teaching to different learning styles suggests that “ all people have the potential to learn effectively and easily if only instruction is tailored to their individual learning styles ” (p. 107).

There may be another reason why this approach to learning styles is so widely accepted. They very loosely resemble the concept of metacognition , or the process of thinking about one’s thinking.  For instance, having your students describe which study strategies and conditions for their last exam worked for them and which didn’t is likely to improve their studying on the next exam (Tanner, 2012).  Integrating such metacognitive activities into the classroom—unlike learning styles—is supported by a wealth of research (e.g., Askell Williams, Lawson, & Murray-Harvey, 2007; Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Butler & Winne, 1995; Isaacson & Fujita, 2006; Nelson & Dunlosky, 1991; Tobias & Everson, 2002).

Importantly, metacognition is focused on planning, monitoring, and evaluating any kind of thinking about thinking and does nothing to connect one’s identity or abilities to any singular approach to knowledge.  (For more information about metacognition, see CFT Assistant Director Cynthia Brame’s “ Thinking about Metacognition ” blog post, and stay tuned for a Teaching Guide on metacognition this spring.)

There is, however, something you can take away from these different approaches to learning—not based on the learner, but instead on the content being learned .  To explore the persistence of the belief in learning styles, CFT Assistant Director Nancy Chick interviewed Dr. Bill Cerbin, Professor of Psychology and Director of the Center for Advancing Teaching and Learning at the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse and former Carnegie Scholar with the Carnegie Academy for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning.  He points out that the differences identified by the labels “visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and reading/writing” are more appropriately connected to the nature of the discipline:

“There may be evidence that indicates that there are some ways to teach some subjects that are just better than others , despite the learning styles of individuals…. If you’re thinking about teaching sculpture, I’m not sure that long tracts of verbal descriptions of statues or of sculptures would be a particularly effective way for individuals to learn about works of art. Naturally, these are physical objects and you need to take a look at them, you might even need to handle them.” (Cerbin, 2011, 7:45-8:30 )

Pashler and his colleagues agree: “An obvious point is that the optimal instructional method is likely to vary across disciplines” (p. 116). In other words, it makes disciplinary sense to include kinesthetic activities in sculpture and anatomy courses, reading/writing activities in literature and history courses, visual activities in geography and engineering courses, and auditory activities in music, foreign language, and speech courses.  Obvious or not, it aligns teaching and learning with the contours of the subject matter, without limiting the potential abilities of the learners.

• Askell-Williams, H., Lawson, M. & Murray, Harvey, R. (2007). ‘ What happens in my university classes that helps me to learn?’: Teacher education students’ instructional metacognitive knowledge. International Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning , 1. 1-21.
• Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L. & Cocking, R. R., (Eds.). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (Expanded Edition). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
• Butler, D. L., & Winne, P. H. (1995) Feedback and self-regulated learning: A theoretical synthesis . Review of Educational Research , 65, 245-281.
• Cerbin, William. (2011). Understanding learning styles: A conversation with Dr. Bill Cerbin .  Interview with Nancy Chick. UW Colleges Virtual Teaching and Learning Center .
• Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E., & Ecclestone, K. (2004). Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning. A systematic and critical review . London: Learning and Skills Research Centre.
• Isaacson, R. M. & Fujita, F. (2006). Metacognitive knowledge monitoring and self-regulated learning: Academic success and reflections on learning . Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning , 6, 39-55.
• Nelson, T.O. & Dunlosky, J. (1991). The delayed-JOL effect: When delaying your judgments of learning can improve the accuracy of your metacognitive monitoring. Psychological Science , 2, 267-270.
• Pashler, Harold, McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R.  (2008). Learning styles: Concepts and evidence . Psychological Science in the Public Interest . 9.3 103-119.
• Tobias, S., & Everson, H. (2002). Knowing what you know and what you don’t: Further research on metacognitive knowledge monitoring . College Board Report No. 2002-3 . College Board, NY.

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Kolb’s Learning Styles Inventory to Reach Every Student Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Published in 2010, the article Do They Really Get It? Using the Kolb LSI to Reach Every Student by Kristine Hurst-Wajszczuk claims that Learning Styles Inventory (LSI) helps teachers design lesson plans capable of engaging students with different learning styles. The author explains Kolb’s learning cycle, describes four main learning preferences (GTP), and ultimately explains how this knowledge can be applied in classroom or studio teaching. Hurst-Wajszczuk tries to convince using her own experience that LSI is a great tool for teachers of singing, although it requires more thoughtful planning and more time. This article is published in the Journal of Singing, which shows that the author writes for her colleagues who understand the main concepts and language used.

II. According to Kolb and Fry, learning depends on how students process the learning experience and which preferences they developed. The author presents the main learning activities (processing and perceiving) and four learning processes developed by Kolb: abstract conceptualization, reflective observation, active experimentation, and concrete experience. Hurst-Wajszczuk negates Kolb’s notion that learners usually enter the process at either reflective observation (stage 2) or concrete experience (stage 1) and proceed to the next stages in a clockwise direction. Based on her own observations and experience in the studio, the author claims that students may step into the process at any point and follow in any order. Nevertheless, she agrees with theorists that all stages are essential for successful learning.

The ideal match of teacher’s learning preferences to students’ ones ensures the learning process’s success. Using the LSI and understanding four different learning approaches may help educators reach every student, not only those with similar styles. In this part of the article, Hurst-Wajszczuk elaborates on the qualities of every quadrant of the LSI test. For instance, Accommodator is usually a group leader who values specific experience and prefers to do something first before theorizing about it (Hurst-Wajszczuk, 2010). Reflectors are imaginative students who need a mentor’s support, feedback from peers, and reflective observation to understand things and find solutions to them. On the contrary, Activists do not stand group work, choosing to try it themselves in lab work making mistakes. Assimilators, also known as Theorists, are rational and organized learners that prefer doing research, reading, and analyzing information over talking or lab work. These specific characteristics and behaviors should be taken into consideration by teachers when they design the lesson plans.

Although every student may have a unique learning preference, the students’ groups organizing based on the LSI test helps to plan lessons capable of grabbing the attention of them all. For instance, the author usually encourages the Hearts by telling the applicable story, whereas the Equations are motivated by thorough syllabi availability, including timelines and a class calendar. The Questioners (Active Experimenters) should receive examples to try by themselves (Hurst-Wajszczuk, 2010). For the Products, trial and error are even more critical elements as they appreciate multiple examples with the ability to make mistakes and the absence of penalty. The author applied Kolb learning preferences in a studio setting in a specific weekly assignment. Every student should write a one-page entry, including reflections on the theoretical part (lessons) and further practice sessions, giving room for students with each learning preference. Although such course designing requires more effort and time, advantages outweigh any possible drawbacks. The author concludes that Kolb’s LSI helps to reach more students and consequently keep them in music, college, and continuously learning.

Hurst-Wajszczuk, K. (2010). Do they really get it? Using the Kolb LSI to reach every student. Journal of Singing , 66 (4), 421-427.

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Learning Styles: A Review of Theory, Application, and Best Practices

Much pedagogical research has focused on the concept of “learning styles.” Several authors have proposed that the ability to typify student learning styles can augment the educational experience. As such, instructors might tailor their teaching style so that it is more congruent with a given student's or class of students' learning style. Others have argued that a learning/teaching style mismatch encourages and challenges students to expand their academic capabilities. Best practice might involve offering courses that employ a variety of teaching styles. Several scales are available for the standardization of learning styles. These scales employ a variety of learning style descriptors and are sometimes criticized as being measures of personality rather than learning style. Learning styles may become an increasingly relevant pedagogic concept as classes increase in size and diversity. This review will describe various learning style instruments as well as their potential use and limitations. Also discussed is the use of learning style theory in various concentrations including pharmacy.

INTRODUCTION

The diversity of students engaged in higher education continues to expand. Students come to colleges with varied ethnic and cultural backgrounds, from a multitude of training programs and institutions, and with differing learning styles. 1 Coupled with this increase in diversification has been a growth in distance education programs and expansions in the types of instructional media used to deliver information. 2 , 3 These changes and advances in technology have led many educators to reconsider traditional, uniform instruction methods and stress the importance of considering student learning styles in the design and delivery of course content. 4 - 5 Mismatches between an instructor's style of teaching and a student's method of learning have been cited as potential learning obstacles within the classroom and as a reason for using a variety of teaching modalities to deliver instruction. 6 - 8 The concept of using a menu of teaching modalities is based on the premise that at least some content will be presented in a manner suited to every type of learner within a given classroom or course. Some research has focused on profiling learning types so that instructors have a better understanding of the cohort of students they are educating. 7 - 8 This information can be used to guide the selection of instruction modalities employed in the classroom. Limited research has also focused on describing and characterizing composite learning styles and patterns for students in various concentrations of study (eg, medicine, engineering). 5 , 6 , 9 This review will describe the potential utility and limitations in assessing learning styles.

LEARNING STYLES

A benchmark definition of “learning styles” is “characteristic cognitive, effective, and psychosocial behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment. 10 Learning styles are considered by many to be one factor of success in higher education. Confounding research and, in many instances, application of learning style theory has begat the myriad of methods used to categorize learning styles. No single commonly accepted method currently exists, but alternatively several potential scales and classifications are in use. Most of these scales and classifications are more similar than dissimilar and focus on environmental preferences, sensory modalities, personality types, and/or cognitive styles. 11 Lack of a conceptual framework for both learning style theory and measurement is a common and central criticism in this area. In 2004 the United Kingdom Learning and Skills Research Center commissioned a report intended to systematically examine existing learning style models and instruments. In the commission report, Coffield et al identified several inconsistencies in learning style models and instruments and cautioned educators with regards to their use. 12 The authors also outlined a suggested research agenda for this area.

Alternatively, many researchers have argued that knowledge of learning styles can be of use to both educators and students. Faculty members with knowledge of learning styles can tailor pedagogy so that it best coincides with learning styles exhibited by the majority of students. 4 Alternatively, students with knowledge of their own preferences are empowered to use various techniques to enhance learning, which in turn may impact overall educational satisfaction. This ability is particularly critical and useful when an instructor's teaching style does not match a student's learning style. Compounding the issue of learning styles in the classroom has been the movement in many collegiate environments to distance and/or asynchronous education. 2 , 3 This shift in educational modality is inconsistent with the learning models with which most older students and adult learners are accustomed from their primary and high school education. 3 , 13 , 14 Alternatively, environmental influences and more widespread availability of technological advances (eg, personal digital assistants, digital video, the World Wide Web, wireless Internet) may make younger generations of students more comfortable with distance learning. 15 - 17

LEARNING STYLES INSTRUMENTS

As previously stated, several models and measures of learning styles have been described in the literature. Kolb proposed a model involving a 4-stage cyclic structure that begins with a concrete experience, which lends to a reflective observation and subsequently an abstract conceptualization that allows for active experimentation. 18 Kolb's model is associated with the Learning Style Inventory instrument (LSI). The LSI focuses on learner's preferences in terms of concrete versus abstract, and action versus reflection. Learners are subsequently described as divergers, convergers, assimilators, or accommodators.

Honey and Mumford developed an alternative instrument known as the Learning Style Questionnaire (LSQ). 6 Presumably, the LSQ has improved validity and predictive accuracy compared to the LSI. The LSQ describes 4 distinct types of learners: activists (learn primarily by experience), reflectors (learn from reflective observation), theorists (learn from exploring associations and interrelationships), and pragmatics (learn from doing or trying things with practical outcomes). The LSQ has been more widely used and studied in management and business settings and its applicability to academia has been questioned. 6 An alternative to the LSQ, the Canfield Learning Style Inventory (CLSI) describes learning styles along 4 dimensions. 19 These dimensions include conditions for learning, area of interest, mode of learning, and conditions for performance. Analogous to the LSQ, applicability of the CLSI to academic settings has been questioned. Additionally, some confusion surrounding scoring and interpretation of certain result values also exists.

Felder and Silverman introduced a learning style assessment instrument that was specifically designed for classroom use and was first applied in the context of engineering education. 20 The instrument consists of 44 short items with a choice between 2 responses to each sentence. Learners are categorized in 4 dichotomous areas: preference in terms of type and mode of information perception (sensory or intuitive; visual or verbal), approaches to organizing and processing information (active or reflective), and the rate at which students progress towards understanding (sequential or global). The instrument associated with the model is known as the Index of Learning Survey (ILS). 21 The ILS is based on a 44-item questionnaire and outputs a preference profile for a student or an entire class. The preference profile is based on the 4 previously defined learning dimensions. The ILS has several advantages over other instruments including conciseness and ease of administration (in both a written and computerized format). 20 , 21 No published data exist with regards to the use of the ILS in populations of pharmacy students or pharmacists. Cook described a study designed to examine the reliability of the ILS for determining learning styles among a population of internal medicine residents. 20 The researchers administered the ILS twice and the Learning Style Type Indicator (LSTI) once to 138 residents (86 men, 52 women). The LSTI has been previously compared to the ILS by several investigators. 8 , 19 Cook found that the Cronbach's alpha scores for the ILS and LSTI ranged from 0.19 to 0.69. They preliminarily concluded that the ILS scores were reliable and valid among this cohort of residents, particularly within the active-reflective and sensing-intuitive domains. In a separate study, Cook et al attempted to evaluate convergence and discrimination among the ILS, LSI, and another computer-based instrument known as the Cognitive Styles Analysis (CSA). 11 The cohort studied consisted of family medicine and internal medicine residents as well as first- and third-year medical students. Eighty-nine participants completed all 3 instruments, and responses were analyzed using calculated Pearson's r and Cronbach's α. The authors found that the ILS active-reflective and sensing-intuitive scores as well as the LSI active-reflective scores were valid in determining learning styles. However, the ILS sequential-global domain failed to correlate well with other instruments and may be flawed, at least in this given population. The authors advised the use of caution when interpreting scores without a strong knowledge of construct definitions and empirical evidence.

Several other instruments designed to measure personality indexes or psychological types may overlap and describe learning styles in nonspecific fashions. One example of such an indicator is the Myers-Briggs Index. 6 While some relation between personality indexes and learning styles may exist, the use of instruments intended to describe personality to characterize learning style has been criticized by several authors. Therefore, the use of these markers to measure learning styles is not recommended. 6 The concept of emotional intelligence is another popular way to characterize intellect and learning capacity but similarly should not be misconstrued as an effective means of describing learning styles. 23

Several authors have proposed correlations between culture and learning styles. 6 , 24 This is predicated on the concept that culture influences environmental perceptions which, in turn, to some degree determine the way in which information is processed and organized. The storage, processing, and assimilation methods for information contribute to how new knowledge is learned. Culture also plays a role in conditioning and reinforcing learning styles and partially explains why teaching methods used in certain parts of the world may be ineffective or less effective when blindly transplanted to another locale. 6 , 24 Teachers should be aware of this phenomenon and the influence it has on the variety of learning styles that are present in classrooms. This is especially true in classrooms that have a large contingency of international students. Such classrooms are becoming increasingly common as more and more schools expand their internationalization efforts. 25

The technological age may also be influencing the learning styles of younger students and emerging generations of learners. The Millennial Generation has been described as more technologically advanced than their Generation X counterparts, with higher expectations for the use of computer-aided media in the classroom. 15 , 16 , 26 Younger students are accustomed to enhanced visual images associated with various computer- and television-based games and game systems. 16 , 26 Additionally, video technology is increasingly becoming “transportable” in the way of mobile computing, MP3 devices, personal digital video players, and other technologies. 26 All of these advances have made visual images more pervasive and common within industrialized nations.

APPLYING LEARNING STYLES TO THE CLASSROOM

As class sizes increase, so do the types and numbers of student learning styles. Also, as previously mentioned, internationalization and changes in the media culture may affect the spectrum of classroom learning styles as well. 24 , 25 Given the variability in learning styles that may exist in a classroom, some authors suggested that students should adapt their learning styles to coincide with a given instruction style. 6 , 27 This allows instructors to dictate the methods used to instruct in the classroom. This approach also allows instructors to “teach from their strengths,” with little consideration to other external factors such as learning style of students. While convenient, this unilateral approach has been criticized for placing all of the responsibility for aligning teaching and learning on the student. When the majority of information is presented in formats that are misaligned with learning styles, students may spend more time manipulating material than they do in comprehending and applying the information. Additionally, a unilaterally designed classroom may reinforce a “do nothing” approach among faculty members. 6 Alternatively, a teaching style-learning style mismatch might challenge students to adjust, grow intellectually, and learn in more integrated ways. However, it may be difficult to predict which students have the baseline capacity to adjust, particularly when significant gaps in knowledge of a given subject already exist or when the learner is a novice to the topic being instructed. 6 , 27 This might be especially challenging within professional curricula where course load expectations are significant.

Best practice most likely involves a teaching paradigm which addresses and accommodates multiple dimensions of learning styles that build self-efficacy. 27 Instructing in a way that encompasses multiple learning styles gives the teacher an opportunity to reach a greater extent of a given class, while also challenging students to expand their range of learning styles and aptitudes at a slower pace. This may avoid lost learning opportunities and circumvent unnecessary frustration from both the teacher and student. For many instructors, multi-style teaching is their inherent approach to learning, while other instructors more commonly employ unilateral styles. Learning might be better facilitated if instructors were cognizant of both their teaching styles and the learning styles of their students. An understanding and appreciation of a given individual's teaching style requires self-reflection and introspection and should be a component of a well-maintained teaching portfolio. Major changes or modifications to teaching styles might not be necessary in order to effectively create a classroom atmosphere that addresses multiple learning styles or targets individual ones. However, faculty members should be cautious to not over ambitiously, arbitrarily, or frivolously design courses and activities with an array of teaching modalities that are not carefully connected, orchestrated, and delivered.

Novice learners will likely be more successful when classrooms, either by design or by chance, are tailored to their learning style. However, the ultimate goal is to instill within students the skills to recognize and react to various styles so that learning is maximized no matter what the environment. 28 This is an essential skill for an independent learner and for students in any career path.

Particular consideration of learning styles might be given to asynchronous courses and other courses where a significant portion of time is spent online. 29 As technology advances and classroom sizes in many institutions become increasingly large, asynchronous instruction is becoming more pervasive. In many instances, students who have grown accustomed to technological advances may prefer asynchronous courses. Online platforms may inherently affect learning on a single dimension (visual or auditory). Most researchers who have compared the learning styles of students enrolled in online versus traditional courses have found no correlations between the learning styles and learning outcomes of cohorts enrolled in either course type. Johnson et al compared learning style profiles to student satisfaction with either online or face-to-face study groups. 30 Forty-eight college students participated in the analysis. Learning styles were measured using the ILS. Students were surveyed with regard to their satisfaction with various study group formats. These results were then correlated to actual performance on course examinations. Active and visual learners demonstrated a significant preference for face-to-face study groups. Alternatively, students who were reflective learners demonstrated a preference for online groups. Likely due to the small sample size, none of these differences achieved statistical significance. The authors suggest that these results are evidence for courses employing hybrid teaching styles that reach as many different students as possible. Cook et al studied 121 internal medicine residents and also found no association (p > 0.05) between ILS-measured learning styles and preferences for learning formats (eg, Web-based versus paper-based learning modules). 31 Scores on assessment questions related to learning modules administered to the residents were also not statistically correlated with learning styles.

Cook et al examined the effectiveness of adapting Web-based learning modules to a given learner's style. 32 The investigators created 2 versions of a Web-based instructional module on complementary and alternative medications. One version of the modules directed the learner to “active” questions that provided learners immediate and comprehensive feedback, while the other version involved “reflective” questions that directed learners back to the case content for answers. Eighty-nine residents were randomly matched or mismatched based on their active-reflective learning styles (as determined by ILS) to either the “active” or “reflective” test version. Posttest scores for either question type among mismatched subjects did not differ significantly ( p = 0.97), suggesting no interaction between learning styles and question types. The authors concluded from this small study that learning styles had no influence on learning outcomes. The study was limited in its lack of assessment of baseline knowledge, motivation, or other characteristics. Also, the difficulty of the assessment may not have been sufficient enough to distinguish a difference and/or “mismatched” learners may have automatically adapted to the information they received regardless of type.

STUDIES OF PHARMACY STUDENTS

There are no published studies that have systematically examined the learning styles of pharmacy students. Pungente et al collected some learning styles data as part of a study designed to evaluate how first-year pharmacy students' learning styles influenced preferences toward different activities associated with problem-based learning (PBL). 33 One hundred sixteen first-year students completed Kolb's LSI. Learning styles were then matched to responses from a survey designed to assess student preferences towards various aspects of PBL. The majority of students were classified by the LSI as being accommodators (36.2%), with a fairly even distribution of styles among remaining students (19.8% assimilators, 22.4% convergers, 21.6% divergers). There was a proportional distribution of learning styles among a convenience sample of pharmacy students. Divergers were the least satisfied with the PBL method of instruction, while convergers demonstrated the strongest preference for this method of learning. The investigators proposed that the next step might be to correlate learning styles and PBL preferences with actual academic success.

Limited research correlating learning styles to learning outcomes has hampered the application of learning style theory to actual classroom settings. Complicating research is the plethora of different learning style measurement instruments available. Despite these obstacles, efforts to better define and utilize learning style theory is an area of growing research. A better knowledge and understanding of learning styles may become increasingly critical as classroom sizes increase and as technological advances continue to mold the types of students entering higher education. While research in this area continues to grow, faculty members should make concentrated efforts to teach in a multi-style fashion that both reaches the greatest extent of students in a given class and challenges all students to grow as learners.

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Example Of Essay On Learning Styles Inventory

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Influence , Teaching , Psychology , Students , Strategy , Brain , Experience , Learning

Words: 1500

Published: 12/29/2019

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Learning Styles Inventory

This paper will discuss why learning styles are better interpreted as learning preferences. It will also describe an instructional model related to my personal learning style. In addition, it will discuss how an educator’s personal learning styles and preferences influence the teaching strategies used in the development and implementation of a course, and finally, how personal learning styles influence the development of an educational program. Discuss how Learning Styles may be better Interpreted as Learning Preferences Various definitions of learning styles have been advanced. Many of these definitions contain a common theme that is; a personal learning style is an individual’s consistent way of or approach of receiving and responding to stimuli in the learning context. From these conceptualizations of learning styles, it emerges that learning styles concern themselves with how learners prefer to learn rather than what they learn. A host of studies have also established that matching instructional strategies, methods, and contexts to the nature of a subject improves the learning outcomes of all students regardless of their individual learning styles. For instance, a study by Constantinidou and Baker (2002 as cited in Coffield et al., 2004) established that visual presentation of learning contents was advantageous for all students who participated in the study irrespective of whether they had a low or high preference for visual images. In addition, findings from group analysis often suggest that learning styles are not very important. Analysis of individuals, on the other hand, often concludes that learning styles are important determinants of whether a person learns or does not learn. In essence, therefore, since they are concerned with the how of learning and they are individualistic, learning styles are more of learning preferences (Coffield et al., 2004).

Discussion of an Instructional Model

Kolb’s experiential theoretical framework is the model that closely matches my learning style. This is because it offers a framework for selecting and arranging learning activities in a sequential and logical manner which are key attributes of my learning style. In addition, it also emphasizes on learning through reflective observation and abstract conceptualization. These two methods require students to invoke certain abilities and are the two main ways through which I learn best (Armstrong & Parsa-Parsi, 2005). Kolb’s (1976) theory holds that individuals learn through the transformation of experiences. He conceptualized learning from experience in form of four components. Each of these components requires students to utilize certain abilities. Concrete experience hinges on the willingness of the learner to experience new things. Reflective observation, on the other hand, requires the ability to view experiences from a number of perspectives in order to establish meaning. Abstract conceptualization draws on one’s capability to analyze and integrate new concepts and ideas, and make logical conclusions via reflective consideration of new experiences. Active experimentation requires students to put what they have learnt into practice, solve problems, and make decisions. This ultimately leads to new concrete experiences. Kolb incorporated these abilities into stages of a cyclical process termed the experiential learning cycle. In an ideal learning situation, students start with a concrete experience. They reflect on this experience and view it from different perspectives. They then compare it with existing theories and come up with concepts that integrate their opinions/views into rational theories. After this, they actively test their theories and use them as guides in decision making and problem solving. The successful abstraction of a concrete experience motivates them to undertake new experiences (Armstrong & Parsa-Parsi, 2005). In this cycle, each of the four components involve a distinctive learning process: experiencing (concrete experience), examining (reflective observation), explaining (abstract conceptualization), and applying (active experimentation). This learning cycle can also be understood in the context of grasping and transforming experiences. Grasping in the cycle is represented by experiencing and explaining, whilst the transforming aspect of the cycle is represented by examining and applying (Armstrong & Parsa-Parsi, 2005). The strength of Kolb’s model is that it focuses on cognitive aspects of learning and a variety of commonly used instructional strategies and activities support the different phases of the cycle. The focus on cognition matches my learning style. Another key strength of the model is that it accommodates students with different learning styles. The latter strength fits my perceived strengths because I prefer to learn though reflective observation and abstract conceptualization (Yildirim & Ozkahraman, 2012). Additionally, it facilitates learning through exploration. Most importantly though is the fact that it satisfies a number of principles of adult learning like learning through experience, participatory learning, and learning via cycles of action and reflection (Shreeve, 2008). Based on the results of the multiple Intelligence Survey, I learn best by rationalization and conceptualization of concepts. Logical organization of information also enhances my understanding of new concepts. I am also good at noticing patterns and I have a near average interpersonal orientation. The results of my visual and auditory aspects indicate that I am not so good at learning through listening or visualization. The results of my kinesthetic strength suggest that I have a near average orientation for learning through experimentation.

Influence of Educators Personal Learning Styles on the Teaching and Learning Strategies used in the Development and Implementation of Course

Educators tend to employ instructional strategies they are most comfortable with or those they believe are more effective. Findings from empirical researches that have focused on the cognitive styles of teachers suggest that they select instructional methods consistent with their individual learning styles. Cognitive styles are composite components of personal learning styles. This is because cognitive styles influence a person’s preferences, motivation, and personality. As such, they affect how instructors and educators teach as opposed to how they effectively teach. An individual’s cognitive style motivated teaching adapts a ‘format preference’ with distinctive qualities. The educators’ cognitive styles also influence their instructional behaviors. For instance, whether they are content or inter-person oriented, they like to lecture, or use approaches that foster active student participation. Lastly, cognitive style influence how instructors respond to student answers that is, whether they give students ample time to respond, provide cues, encourage conclusion to correct answers, evaluate student answers, disapprove incorrect ones, or overlook correct ones (Bastable et al., 2011, pp. 466-469).

Influence of Personal Learning Styles and Preferences on the Development of an Educational Program

Curriculum developers appreciate that every individual learns in his/her own unique way. Therefore, when developing educational programs, they in addition to coming up with the content and goals of a curriculum, plan and incorporate instruction activities and strategies that promote the learning of students with different learning styles. Curriculum designers, therefore, have the daunting task of coming up with teaching strategies and methods that enable students to work in their individual learning styles (Armstrong & Parsa-Parsi, 2005). On the other hand, just as teachers personal learning styles influence their instructional methods, it can be argued that the personal learning styles of curriculum developers affect the way they design educational programs. This theory gains more validity if one considers the facts that personal learning styles reflect the past experiences of an individual such as their educational preparation, environmental expectations, personality traits, and the way they process information.

In summary, personal learning styles are more akin to personal preferences because they reflect how a specific individual likes to learn. Kolb’s experiential instructional model closely matches my learning style especially because it emphasizes on the cognitive domain of learning. The personal learning styles of educators are dictated in part by their cognitive styles which also influence their instructional behaviors and the teaching strategies they adopt. Lastly, curriculum planners and designers take into consideration the fact that learners have different learning styles by incorporating instructional methods and activities that cater for the learning needs of different learners.

Armstrong, E., & Parsa-Parsi, R. (2005). How can physicians’ learning styles drive educational planning? Acad. Med., 80, 680-684. Retrieved from http://casemed.case.edu/curricularaffairs/scholars/2005- 06Archives/Session4/How%20Can%20MD%20Learning%20Styles%20Drive%20Ed%2 0Plng%20Armstrong%202005.pdf Bastable, S., Gramet, P., Jacobs, K., & Sopczyk, D. (2011). Health professional as educator: Principles of teaching and learning. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Barlett Learning. Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E., & Ecclestone, K. (2004). Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning: A systematic and critical review. London, UK: Learning and Skills Research Centre. Shreeve, M. C. (2008). Beyond the didactic classroom: Educational models that encourage active student involvement in learning. The Journal of Chiropractic Education, 22(1), 23-28. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2384190/ Yildirim, B., & Ozkahraman, S. (2011). Critical thinking in nursing and learning styles.

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What Is My Learning Style Inventory

Understanding one's learning style is essential for effective and efficient learning. By identifying how one processes and retains information best, individuals can tailor their studying techniques to optimize their educational experience. The concept of learning styles encompasses various methods through which individuals acquire knowledge, including visual, auditory, and kinesthetic approaches.

Visual learners prefer to absorb information through visual aids such as diagrams, charts, and graphs. They often benefit from seeing information presented in a structured format, which helps them organize and retain knowledge more effectively. Visual learners may excel in activities such as reading, writing, and analyzing visual data. To cater to their learning style, educators can incorporate visual aids into their teaching methods, such as PowerPoint presentations, videos, and infographics.

Auditory learners, on the other hand, learn best through auditory stimuli, such as lectures, discussions, and verbal instructions. They may prefer listening to audio recordings or participating in group discussions to grasp complex concepts. Auditory learners often have strong verbal communication skills and may excel in activities such as public speaking and storytelling. To accommodate auditory learners, educators can incorporate discussions, group activities, and verbal explanations into their lesson plans.

Kinesthetic learners learn best through hands-on experiences and physical activities. They thrive in environments where they can manipulate objects, engage in experiments, and participate in practical demonstrations. Kinesthetic learners may struggle with traditional classroom settings that rely heavily on lectures and passive learning. To support kinesthetic learners, educators can incorporate interactive activities, experiments, and real-world applications into their teaching strategies.

Understanding one's learning style can enhance academic performance and promote lifelong learning. By recognizing their preferred learning style, individuals can adopt study techniques and strategies that align with their strengths, ultimately leading to improved comprehension and retention of information. Additionally, educators can use learning style inventories to customize their teaching methods and create inclusive learning environments that cater to the diverse needs of their students.

In conclusion, learning style inventories provide valuable insights into how individuals learn best. Whether visual, auditory, or kinesthetic, each learning style offers unique advantages and challenges. By embracing diversity in learning styles and accommodating individual preferences, educators can foster a more engaging and effective learning experience for all students.

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Multiple Intelligence And Learning Styles

In the realm of education, the concept of multiple intelligence and learning styles has gained significant attention and importance. Proposed by psychologist Howard Gardner in 1983, multiple intelligence theory suggests that individuals possess a diverse range of intellectual abilities, which can be categorized into various forms such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligences. This theory revolutionized traditional views on intelligence, shifting the focus from a single measure to a more holistic understanding of cognitive abilities. One of the key implications of multiple intelligence theory is its impact on teaching and learning methodologies. Educators now recognize that students learn best through different modalities, and hence, teaching strategies should cater to various learning styles to enhance comprehension and retention. For instance, a student with a strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence may grasp concepts more effectively through hands-on activities or experiential learning, while another student with high interpersonal intelligence may benefit from group discussions and collaborative projects. Furthermore, understanding individual learning styles can foster a more inclusive and personalized approach to education. By acknowledging and accommodating diverse intelligences and learning preferences, educators can create a supportive learning environment where every student has the opportunity to thrive. This approach not only enhances academic performance but also promotes students' self-awareness and confidence in their abilities, contributing to their overall development and success. Incorporating the principles of multiple intelligence theory into educational practices also promotes equity and diversity in learning. Traditional teaching methods often favor linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences, potentially marginalizing students with strengths in other areas. However, by embracing a broader spectrum of intelligences and learning styles, educators can celebrate the unique talents and contributions of each student, fostering a more inclusive and enriching educational experience for all. In conclusion, the concept of multiple intelligence and learning styles offers valuable insights into the diverse ways in which individuals perceive, process, and demonstrate knowledge. By recognizing and accommodating these differences, educators can create more effective and equitable learning environments that nurture the potential of every student. As we continue to explore and apply the principles of multiple intelligence theory, we move towards a more inclusive and student-centered approach to education, empowering learners to excel in their own unique ways....

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• Alternative Education Models

Cognitive Styles And Their Impact On Learning

Understanding cognitive styles is crucial for educators aiming to create effective learning environments that cater to diverse student needs. Cognitive styles refer to the preferred approaches individuals use to perceive, process, and organize information. These styles encompass various dimensions, including visual versus verbal processing, analytical versus holistic thinking, and sequential versus global processing. By recognizing and accommodating these diverse styles, educators can optimize learning experiences and enhance student outcomes. One prominent dimension of cognitive styles is the visual-verbal continuum. Visual learners prefer information presented in visual formats such as diagrams, charts, and graphs, while verbal learners excel with written or spoken words. For example, a visual learner may grasp mathematical concepts more readily through visual representations, whereas a verbal learner may prefer explanations delivered through lectures or written text. By incorporating both visual and verbal modalities into instruction, educators can engage a wider range of students and reinforce learning through multiple channels. Another dimension of cognitive styles is analytical versus holistic processing. Analytical thinkers tend to break down complex problems into smaller components and analyze each part systematically, while holistic thinkers grasp the big picture and perceive relationships among elements intuitively. In a classroom setting, activities that appeal to analytical learners may involve structured problem-solving tasks with clear steps and guidelines, whereas activities for holistic learners may encourage exploration and synthesis of diverse ideas. By fostering opportunities for both analytical and holistic processing, educators foster critical thinking skills and encourage students to approach problems from multiple perspectives. Sequential versus global processing is another crucial dimension of cognitive styles. Sequential processors prefer to process information in a linear, step-by-step manner, while global processors perceive information in a more holistic and interconnected way, often jumping between different concepts. In teaching, sequential learners may benefit from organized, sequential presentations of information, while global learners may thrive in environments that allow for exploration and connections between topics. By incorporating both sequential and global approaches, educators accommodate diverse learning preferences and promote deeper understanding among students. In conclusion, understanding cognitive styles is essential for educators to create inclusive and effective learning environments. By recognizing and accommodating differences in visual-verbal processing, analytical-holistic thinking, and sequential-global processing, educators can tailor instruction to meet the needs of diverse learners. By embracing cognitive diversity, educators empower students to leverage their strengths, maximize their learning potential, and succeed academically....

• Cognitive Psychology

Learning Style Essay

Understanding one's learning style is crucial for effective learning outcomes. Each individual possesses a unique approach to acquiring and processing information, influenced by various factors such as cognitive preferences, environmental conditions, and personal experiences. In this essay, we explore the concept of learning styles, their significance in education, and strategies to optimize learning based on individual preferences. Learning styles can be categorized into three main types: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. Visual learners prefer to absorb information through images, diagrams, and visual aids. They benefit from colorful presentations, charts, and graphs that help illustrate concepts effectively. Auditory learners, on the other hand, thrive in environments where information is presented orally. They prefer lectures, discussions, and audio recordings that allow them to listen and comprehend information. Kinesthetic learners prefer hands-on activities and experiential learning. They learn best through tactile experiences, role-playing, and interactive experiments that engage their sense of touch and movement. Identifying one's learning style is the first step towards maximizing learning potential. Self-awareness enables individuals to adapt study techniques and learning environments to suit their preferences. For visual learners, incorporating visual aids such as mind maps, diagrams, and color-coded notes can enhance comprehension and retention. Auditory learners can benefit from participating in group discussions, listening to podcasts, and utilizing mnemonic devices to remember key concepts. Kinesthetic learners may find success in engaging in practical activities, conducting experiments, and using physical objects to understand abstract ideas. In addition to individual learning styles, the learning environment also plays a significant role in academic success. Creating a conducive learning environment involves eliminating distractions, organizing study materials, and establishing a comfortable space for learning. Visual learners may prefer well-lit areas with minimal clutter, while auditory learners may thrive in quiet environments free from noise distractions. Kinesthetic learners may benefit from flexible seating arrangements and access to hands-on learning resources. Furthermore, educators play a crucial role in accommodating diverse learning styles in the classroom. Implementing a variety of teaching methods and instructional strategies can cater to the needs of different learners. Incorporating visual aids, interactive activities, and opportunities for collaboration can create a dynamic learning environment that caters to the preferences of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learners alike. In conclusion, understanding one's learning style is essential for optimizing learning outcomes. By recognizing individual preferences and adapting study techniques accordingly, students can enhance comprehension, retention, and academic performance. Educators and institutions also play a vital role in supporting diverse learning styles and creating inclusive learning environments that foster student success....

• Student Life
• Educational System

My Learning Style

Understanding one's learning style is crucial for effective learning and academic success. Each individual has a unique way of processing information and acquiring knowledge. Identifying one's learning style can significantly enhance the learning experience by tailoring study methods to suit individual preferences. Personally, my learning style is predominantly visual, with a touch of kinesthetic elements. Visual learners, like myself, prefer to process information through visual aids such as diagrams, charts, and videos. I find that I grasp concepts more easily when they are presented visually, allowing me to create mental images that aid in retention. Utilizing color-coded notes, mind maps, and flashcards has been instrumental in my learning journey. Visual representations help me connect ideas and see the bigger picture, making complex topics more digestible. In addition to being a visual learner, I also exhibit kinesthetic learning tendencies. Kinesthetic learners thrive in hands-on activities and practical experiences. For me, actively engaging in experiments, simulations, or interactive learning modules enhances my understanding and retention of information. By incorporating physical movement or tactile experiences into my learning process, I am better able to internalize concepts and make meaningful connections. To cater to my visual and kinesthetic learning preferences, I have adopted various study techniques that align with these styles. For instance, I create colorful study guides with visual cues and incorporate hands-on activities like creating models or conducting experiments to reinforce theoretical concepts. Additionally, I make use of educational videos and interactive online resources that provide a multi-sensory learning experience, combining visual and kinesthetic elements for optimal comprehension. Understanding one's learning style is not about limiting oneself to a single mode of learning but rather about leveraging strengths to enhance the learning process. By recognizing my visual and kinesthetic preferences, I have been able to adapt my study strategies to maximize comprehension and retention. Embracing a variety of learning methods that cater to different styles can lead to a more enriching and effective learning experience, ultimately fostering academic growth and success....

• Studying Process

Personal Learning Styles Essay

Understanding one's personal learning style is crucial for effective learning and academic success. There are several different learning styles that individuals may possess, including visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and reading/writing learners. Visual learners prefer to process information through images and visual aids, such as diagrams, charts, and videos. They often benefit from color-coded notes and mind maps to enhance their learning experience. Auditory learners, on the other hand, learn best through listening and verbal instruction. They may excel in lectures, group discussions, and audiobooks. Kinesthetic learners learn best through hands-on experiences and physical activities. They thrive in interactive learning environments where they can engage in practical tasks and experiments. Lastly, reading/writing learners prefer to absorb information through written text. They excel in reading books, writing notes, and engaging in written assignments. Identifying one's learning style can significantly enhance the effectiveness of studying and retaining information. For visual learners, incorporating visual aids like flashcards, diagrams, and color-coded notes can make studying more engaging and memorable. Auditory learners may benefit from recording lectures, participating in group discussions, and explaining concepts aloud to reinforce their understanding. Kinesthetic learners can improve their learning experience by incorporating hands-on activities, conducting experiments, and engaging in role-playing exercises. Reading/writing learners can enhance their learning by summarizing information in written form, creating outlines, and engaging in reading-intensive study sessions. In conclusion, recognizing and adapting to one's personal learning style is key to maximizing academic performance and achieving learning goals. By understanding how we best absorb and process information, we can tailor our study techniques to suit our individual preferences and strengths. Whether you are a visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or reading/writing learner, embracing your unique learning style can lead to more efficient studying, improved retention of information, and ultimately, academic success....

• Higher Education
• Academic Concerns

Essay Vak Learning Styles Self-Assessment Questionnaire

The VAK Learning Styles Self-Assessment Questionnaire is a valuable tool for individuals seeking to understand their preferred learning style. Developed by Neil Fleming in 1987, this questionnaire categorizes learners into three main styles: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. By identifying one's dominant learning style, individuals can tailor their learning experiences to maximize effectiveness and efficiency. Visual learners absorb information best through visual aids such as charts, diagrams, and written instructions. These individuals have a strong preference for seeing information presented in a visual format. They often benefit from color-coded materials, presentations with slides, and mind maps. Visual learners tend to excel in subjects like art, design, and geography where visual representation plays a significant role in comprehension. Auditory learners, on the other hand, thrive in environments where information is presented orally. They prefer lectures, discussions, and audiobooks over visual aids. Auditory learners have a keen sense of hearing and are adept at processing information through listening. They often excel in subjects like language arts, music, and public speaking where verbal communication is key to learning and understanding. Kinesthetic learners learn best through hands-on experiences and physical activities. They prefer to engage with materials through touch and movement. Kinesthetic learners benefit from experiments, simulations, and role-playing exercises that allow them to interact directly with the subject matter. These individuals often excel in subjects like physical education, science labs, and vocational training where practical application is central to learning. Understanding one's preferred learning style can greatly enhance the learning process. By leveraging techniques and strategies that align with their dominant style, individuals can improve their retention, comprehension, and overall learning outcomes. Moreover, recognizing the diversity of learning styles within a group or classroom allows educators to adopt a more inclusive and effective teaching approach, catering to the needs of all learners. In conclusion, the VAK Learning Styles Self-Assessment Questionnaire provides valuable insights into individual learning preferences. Whether one is a visual, auditory, or kinesthetic learner, understanding and embracing one's dominant learning style can lead to more efficient and effective learning experiences. By tailoring learning activities and environments to accommodate different styles, both learners and educators can optimize the learning process and achieve greater success....

Part 13 – How to Create Inventory Adjustment in MYOB Premier Now that you have learned how to

Inventory adjustment is a crucial aspect of effective inventory management in any business setting. It involves the process of updating the quantity or value of inventory items to reflect the actual count or changes in value due to various factors such as loss, damage, or theft. Creating inventory adjustments accurately ensures that businesses maintain accurate records of their inventory levels, which in turn enables them to make informed decisions regarding purchasing, sales, and overall inventory management strategies. To initiate the process of creating inventory adjustments, it is essential to access the inventory management system or software utilized by the business. This system serves as the central hub where all inventory-related data is stored and managed. Upon accessing the system, the user should navigate to the inventory adjustment module, which is typically found within the inventory or warehouse management section of the software. Once within the inventory adjustment module, the user is presented with options to input various details regarding the adjustment. This includes selecting the specific inventory items for which adjustments are required, specifying whether the adjustment pertains to quantity or value, and providing a reason or explanation for the adjustment. It is crucial to provide clear and accurate explanations for each adjustment, as this helps maintain transparency and accountability in the inventory management process. After inputting the necessary details, the user must proceed to execute the adjustment within the system. This typically involves confirming the adjustments and saving the changes made. Depending on the specific software being used, additional steps such as approving the adjustment by a designated authority may be required to finalize the process. Once the inventory adjustments have been successfully created and executed within the system, it is essential to review and reconcile the updated inventory records. This involves comparing the adjusted inventory levels with physical inventory counts or other relevant documentation to ensure accuracy and integrity. Any discrepancies or errors identified during the reconciliation process should be promptly investigated and corrected to maintain the reliability of the inventory data. In conclusion, creating inventory adjustments is a fundamental aspect of effective inventory management, allowing businesses to maintain accurate records of their inventory levels and make informed decisions regarding inventory-related activities. By following the proper procedures and utilizing the appropriate tools and systems, businesses can streamline the process of creating inventory adjustments and ensure the integrity of their inventory data....

Learning Style for Student Nurses

Nursing education is a dynamic process that requires adaptability to various learning styles to ensure the effective development of future healthcare professionals. Among the diverse range of learning styles, the visual, auditory, and kinesthetic modalities play pivotal roles in shaping the educational experiences of student nurses. Understanding and accommodating these learning styles is essential for nurse educators to create inclusive learning environments conducive to optimal student engagement and knowledge retention. Visual learners, characterized by their preference for visual aids such as diagrams, charts, and videos, thrive in environments where information is presented in a visually stimulating manner. For student nurses with this learning style, incorporating multimedia resources into lectures and demonstrations can enhance comprehension and retention of complex nursing concepts. Utilizing anatomical models and interactive virtual simulations can further reinforce visual learning by providing hands-on experiences that bridge theoretical knowledge with practical application. Auditory learners, on the other hand, excel in environments where information is delivered verbally and through active discussion. For student nurses with this learning style, engaging in group discussions, peer teaching sessions, and verbal presentations can foster deeper understanding and critical thinking skills. Additionally, incorporating audio recordings of lectures and podcasts allows auditory learners to reinforce learning through auditory stimuli, enabling them to absorb information more effectively. Kinesthetic learners, characterized by their preference for hands-on experiences and physical movement, benefit from interactive learning activities that allow them to engage actively with the material. For student nurses with this learning style, incorporating hands-on clinical simulations, role-playing scenarios, and skills labs can enhance skill acquisition and muscle memory. Providing opportunities for real-world clinical experiences through internships and preceptorships allows kinesthetic learners to apply theoretical knowledge in practical settings, solidifying their understanding of nursing principles. In conclusion, catering to the diverse learning styles of student nurses is essential for fostering a supportive and inclusive learning environment in nursing education. By incorporating visual, auditory, and kinesthetic modalities into educational practices, nurse educators can enhance student engagement, comprehension, and skill acquisition, ultimately preparing future nurses to deliver high-quality patient care in a dynamic healthcare landscape....

• Health Care
• Public Health Issues
• Global Health Challenges
• Alternative Medicine and Therapies

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White House Plan to Limit Rent Increases Nationwide Reignites Debate

A proposal to make landlords’ tax breaks contingent on rent limits has drawn industry pushback, progressive applause and some alternative approaches.

By Talmon Joseph Smith

When the Biden administration laid out a suite of plans this week to address housing affordability, it added a bold update to previous proposals — and sent the housing industry and the economics world buzzing.

The White House called on Congress to pass legislation giving “corporate landlords” — defined by the White House as those with over 50 rental units — a choice to cap annual rent increases on existing units at 5 percent annually or lose federal tax breaks based on property depreciation.

The proposal is expected to go largely unaddressed this year, with Congress in campaign mode. But public reaction has been lively.

Tenant organizations and progressive leaders generally allied with the administration’s economic team cheered the news. Yet a range of economists, Wall Street analysts, real estate groups and landlord associations responded with forceful critiques, assailing the limits as counterproductive.

“Increasing the supply of affordable rental housing nationwide — not politically motivated and self-defeating rent control proposals floated during election campaigns — is the best way to alleviate affordability constraints for renters,” Robert D. Broeksmit, the president of Mortgage Bankers Association, said in a statement.

The policy would affect about 20 million units in the country, roughly half of all rental properties.

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