how to create a table for research paper

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Tables and Figures

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Note:  This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), which released in October 2019. The equivalent resources for the older APA 6 style  can be found at this page  as well as at this page (our old resources covered the material on this page on two separate pages).

The purpose of tables and figures in documents is to enhance your readers' understanding of the information in the document; usually, large amounts of information can be communicated more efficiently in tables or figures. Tables are any graphic that uses a row and column structure to organize information, whereas figures include any illustration or image other than a table.

General guidelines

Visual material such as tables and figures can be used quickly and efficiently to present a large amount of information to an audience, but visuals must be used to assist communication, not to use up space, or disguise marginally significant results behind a screen of complicated statistics. Ask yourself this question first: Is the table or figure necessary? For example, it is better to present simple descriptive statistics in the text, not in a table.

Relation of Tables or Figures and Text

Because tables and figures supplement the text, refer in the text to all tables and figures used and explain what the reader should look for when using the table or figure. Focus only on the important point the reader should draw from them, and leave the details for the reader to examine on their own.

Documentation

If you are using figures, tables and/or data from other sources, be sure to gather all the information you will need to properly document your sources.

Integrity and Independence

Each table and figure must be intelligible without reference to the text, so be sure to include an explanation of every abbreviation (except the standard statistical symbols and abbreviations).

Organization, Consistency, and Coherence

Number all tables sequentially as you refer to them in the text (Table 1, Table 2, etc.), likewise for figures (Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.). Abbreviations, terminology, and probability level values must be consistent across tables and figures in the same article. Likewise, formats, titles, and headings must be consistent. Do not repeat the same data in different tables.

Data in a table that would require only two or fewer columns and rows should be presented in the text. More complex data is better presented in tabular format. In order for quantitative data to be presented clearly and efficiently, it must be arranged logically, e.g. data to be compared must be presented next to one another (before/after, young/old, male/female, etc.), and statistical information (means, standard deviations, N values) must be presented in separate parts of the table. If possible, use canonical forms (such as ANOVA, regression, or correlation) to communicate your data effectively.

A generic example of a table with multiple notes formatted in APA 7 style.

Elements of Tables

Number all tables with Arabic numerals sequentially. Do not use suffix letters (e.g. Table 3a, 3b, 3c); instead, combine the related tables. If the manuscript includes an appendix with tables, identify them with capital letters and Arabic numerals (e.g. Table A1, Table B2).

Like the title of the paper itself, each table must have a clear and concise title. Titles should be written in italicized title case below the table number, with a blank line between the number and the title. When appropriate, you may use the title to explain an abbreviation parenthetically.

Comparison of Median Income of Adopted Children (AC) v. Foster Children (FC)

Keep headings clear and brief. The heading should not be much wider than the widest entry in the column. Use of standard abbreviations can aid in achieving that goal. There are several types of headings:

• Stub headings describe the lefthand column, or stub column , which usually lists major independent variables.
• Column headings describe entries below them, applying to just one column.
• Column spanners are headings that describe entries below them, applying to two or more columns which each have their own column heading. Column spanners are often stacked on top of column headings and together are called decked heads .
• Table Spanners cover the entire width of the table, allowing for more divisions or combining tables with identical column headings. They are the only type of heading that may be plural.

All columns must have headings, written in sentence case and using singular language (Item rather than Items) unless referring to a group (Men, Women). Each column’s items should be parallel (i.e., every item in a column labeled “%” should be a percentage and does not require the % symbol, since it’s already indicated in the heading). Subsections within the stub column can be shown by indenting headings rather than creating new columns:

Chemical Bonds

     Ionic

     Covalent

     Metallic

The body is the main part of the table, which includes all the reported information organized in cells (intersections of rows and columns). Entries should be center aligned unless left aligning them would make them easier to read (longer entries, usually). Word entries in the body should use sentence case. Leave cells blank if the element is not applicable or if data were not obtained; use a dash in cells and a general note if it is necessary to explain why cells are blank.   In reporting the data, consistency is key: Numerals should be expressed to a consistent number of decimal places that is determined by the precision of measurement. Never change the unit of measurement or the number of decimal places in the same column.

There are three types of notes for tables: general, specific, and probability notes. All of them must be placed below the table in that order.

General  notes explain, qualify or provide information about the table as a whole. Put explanations of abbreviations, symbols, etc. here.

Example:  Note . The racial categories used by the US Census (African-American, Asian American, Latinos/-as, Native-American, and Pacific Islander) have been collapsed into the category “non-White.” E = excludes respondents who self-identified as “White” and at least one other “non-White” race.

Specific  notes explain, qualify or provide information about a particular column, row, or individual entry. To indicate specific notes, use superscript lowercase letters (e.g.  a ,  b ,  c ), and order the superscripts from left to right, top to bottom. Each table’s first footnote must be the superscript  a .

a  n = 823.  b  One participant in this group was diagnosed with schizophrenia during the survey.

Probability  notes provide the reader with the results of the tests for statistical significance. Asterisks indicate the values for which the null hypothesis is rejected, with the probability ( p value) specified in the probability note. Such notes are required only when relevant to the data in the table. Consistently use the same number of asterisks for a given alpha level throughout your paper.

* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001

If you need to distinguish between two-tailed and one-tailed tests in the same table, use asterisks for two-tailed p values and an alternate symbol (such as daggers) for one-tailed p values.

* p < .05, two-tailed. ** p < .01, two-tailed. † p <.05, one-tailed. †† p < .01, one-tailed.

Borders 

Tables should only include borders and lines that are needed for clarity (i.e., between elements of a decked head, above column spanners, separating total rows, etc.). Do not use vertical borders, and do not use borders around each cell. Spacing and strict alignment is typically enough to clarify relationships between elements.

Example of a table in the text of an APA 7 paper. Note the lack of vertical borders.

Tables from Other Sources

If using tables from an external source, copy the structure of the original exactly, and cite the source in accordance with  APA style .

Table Checklist

(Taken from the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7th ed., Section 7.20)

• Is the table necessary?
• Does it belong in the print and electronic versions of the article, or can it go in an online supplemental file?
• Are all comparable tables presented consistently?
• Are all tables numbered with Arabic numerals in the order they are mentioned in the text? Is the table number bold and left-aligned?
• Are all tables referred to in the text?
• Is the title brief but explanatory? Is it presented in italicized title case and left-aligned?
• Does every column have a column heading? Are column headings centered?
• Are all abbreviations; special use of italics, parentheses, and dashes; and special symbols explained?
• Are the notes organized according to the convention of general, specific, probability?
• Are table borders correctly used (top and bottom of table, beneath column headings, above table spanners)?
• Does the table use correct line spacing (double for the table number, title, and notes; single, one and a half, or double for the body)?
• Are entries in the left column left-aligned beneath the centered stub heading? Are all other column headings and cell entries centered?
• Are confidence intervals reported for all major point estimates?
• Are all probability level values correctly identified, and are asterisks attached to the appropriate table entries? Is a probability level assigned the same number of asterisks in all the tables in the same document?
• If the table or its data are from another source, is the source properly cited? Is permission necessary to reproduce the table?

Figures include all graphical displays of information that are not tables. Common types include graphs, charts, drawings, maps, plots, and photos. Just like tables, figures should supplement the text and should be both understandable on their own and referenced fully in the text. This section details elements of formatting writers must use when including a figure in an APA document, gives an example of a figure formatted in APA style, and includes a checklist for formatting figures.

Preparing Figures

In preparing figures, communication and readability must be the ultimate criteria. Avoid the temptation to use the special effects available in most advanced software packages. While three-dimensional effects, shading, and layered text may look interesting to the author, overuse, inconsistent use, and misuse may distort the data, and distract or even annoy readers. Design properly done is inconspicuous, almost invisible, because it supports communication. Design improperly, or amateurishly, done draws the reader’s attention from the data, and makes him or her question the author’s credibility. Line drawings are usually a good option for readability and simplicity; for photographs, high contrast between background and focal point is important, as well as cropping out extraneous detail to help the reader focus on the important aspects of the photo.

Parts of a Figure

All figures that are part of the main text require a number using Arabic numerals (Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.). Numbers are assigned based on the order in which figures appear in the text and are bolded and left aligned.

Under the number, write the title of the figure in italicized title case. The title should be brief, clear, and explanatory, and both the title and number should be double spaced.

The image of the figure is the body, and it is positioned underneath the number and title. The image should be legible in both size and resolution; fonts should be sans serif, consistently sized, and between 8-14 pt. Title case should be used for axis labels and other headings; descriptions within figures should be in sentence case. Shading and color should be limited for clarity; use patterns along with color and check contrast between colors with free online checkers to ensure all users (people with color vision deficiencies or readers printing in grayscale, for instance) can access the content. Gridlines and 3-D effects should be avoided unless they are necessary for clarity or essential content information.

Legends, or keys, explain symbols, styles, patterns, shading, or colors in the image. Words in the legend should be in title case; legends should go within or underneath the image rather than to the side. Not all figures will require a legend.

Notes clarify the content of the figure; like tables, notes can be general, specific, or probability. General notes explain units of measurement, symbols, and abbreviations, or provide citation information. Specific notes identify specific elements using superscripts; probability notes explain statistical significance of certain values.

A generic example of a figure formatted in APA 7 style.

Figure Checklist 

(Taken from the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7 th ed., Section 7.35)

• Is the figure necessary?
• Does the figure belong in the print and electronic versions of the article, or is it supplemental?
• Is the figure simple, clean, and free of extraneous detail?
• Is the figure title descriptive of the content of the figure? Is it written in italic title case and left aligned?
• Are all elements of the figure clearly labeled?
• Are the magnitude, scale, and direction of grid elements clearly labeled?
• Are parallel figures or equally important figures prepared according to the same scale?
• Are the figures numbered consecutively with Arabic numerals? Is the figure number bold and left aligned?
• Has the figure been formatted properly? Is the font sans serif in the image portion of the figure and between sizes 8 and 14?
• Are all abbreviations and special symbols explained?
• If the figure has a legend, does it appear within or below the image? Are the legend’s words written in title case?
• Are the figure notes in general, specific, and probability order? Are they double-spaced, left aligned, and in the same font as the paper?
• Are all figures mentioned in the text?
• Has written permission for print and electronic reuse been obtained? Is proper credit given in the figure caption?
• Have all substantive modifications to photographic images been disclosed?
• Are the figures being submitted in a file format acceptable to the publisher?
• Have the files been produced at a sufficiently high resolution to allow for accurate reproduction?

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Home » Tables in Research Paper – Types, Creating Guide and Examples

Tables in Research Paper – Types, Creating Guide and Examples

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Tables in Research Paper

Definition:

In Research Papers , Tables are a way of presenting data and information in a structured format. Tables can be used to summarize large amounts of data or to highlight important findings. They are often used in scientific or technical papers to display experimental results, statistical analyses, or other quantitative information.

Importance of Tables in Research Paper

Tables are an important component of a research paper as they provide a clear and concise presentation of data, statistics, and other information that support the research findings . Here are some reasons why tables are important in a research paper:

• Visual Representation : Tables provide a visual representation of data that is easy to understand and interpret. They help readers to quickly grasp the main points of the research findings and draw their own conclusions.
• Organize Data : Tables help to organize large amounts of data in a systematic and structured manner. This makes it easier for readers to identify patterns and trends in the data.
• Clarity and Accuracy : Tables allow researchers to present data in a clear and accurate manner. They can include precise numbers, percentages, and other information that may be difficult to convey in written form.
• Comparison: Tables allow for easy comparison between different data sets or groups. This makes it easier to identify similarities and differences, and to draw meaningful conclusions from the data.
• Efficiency: Tables allow for a more efficient use of space in the research paper. They can convey a large amount of information in a compact and concise format, which saves space and makes the research paper more readable.

Types of Tables in Research Paper

Most common Types of Tables in Research Paper are as follows:

• Descriptive tables : These tables provide a summary of the data collected in the study. They are usually used to present basic descriptive statistics such as means, medians, standard deviations, and frequencies.
• Comparative tables : These tables are used to compare the results of different groups or variables. They may be used to show the differences between two or more groups or to compare the results of different variables.
• Correlation tables: These tables are used to show the relationships between variables. They may show the correlation coefficients between variables, or they may show the results of regression analyses.
• Longitudinal tables : These tables are used to show changes in variables over time. They may show the results of repeated measures analyses or longitudinal regression analyses.
• Qualitative tables: These tables are used to summarize qualitative data such as interview transcripts or open-ended survey responses. They may present themes or categories that emerged from the data.

How to Create Tables in Research Paper

Here are the steps to create tables in a research paper:

• Plan your table: Determine the purpose of the table and the type of information you want to include. Consider the layout and format that will best convey your information.
• Choose a table format : Decide on the type of table you want to create. Common table formats include basic tables, summary tables, comparison tables, and correlation tables.
• Choose a software program : Use a spreadsheet program like Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets to create your table. These programs allow you to easily enter and manipulate data, format the table, and export it for use in your research paper.
• Input data: Enter your data into the spreadsheet program. Make sure to label each row and column clearly.
• Format the table : Apply formatting options such as font, font size, font color, cell borders, and shading to make your table more visually appealing and easier to read.
• Insert the table into your paper: Copy and paste the table into your research paper. Make sure to place the table in the appropriate location and refer to it in the text of your paper.
• Label the table: Give the table a descriptive title that clearly and accurately summarizes the contents of the table. Also, include a number and a caption that explains the table in more detail.
• Check for accuracy: Review the table for accuracy and make any necessary changes before submitting your research paper.

Examples of Tables in Research Paper

Examples of Tables in the Research Paper are as follows:

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Study Participants

This table shows the demographic characteristics of 200 participants in a research study. The table includes information about age, gender, and education level. The mean age of the participants was 35.2 years with a standard deviation of 8.6 years, and the age range was between 21 and 57 years. The table also shows that 46% of the participants were male and 54% were female. In terms of education, 10% of the participants had less than a high school education, 30% were high school graduates, 35% had some college education, and 25% had a bachelor’s degree or higher.

Table 2: Summary of Key Findings

This table summarizes the key findings of a study comparing three different groups on a particular variable. The table shows the mean score, standard deviation, t-value, and p-value for each group. The asterisk next to the t-value for Group 1 indicates that the difference between Group 1 and the other groups was statistically significant at p < 0.01, while the differences between Group 2 and Group 3 were not statistically significant.

Purpose of Tables in Research Paper

The primary purposes of including tables in a research paper are:

• To present data: Tables are an effective way to present large amounts of data in a clear and organized manner. Researchers can use tables to present numerical data, survey results, or other types of data that are difficult to represent in text.
• To summarize data: Tables can be used to summarize large amounts of data into a concise and easy-to-read format. Researchers can use tables to summarize the key findings of their research, such as descriptive statistics or the results of regression analyses.
• To compare data : Tables can be used to compare data across different variables or groups. Researchers can use tables to compare the characteristics of different study populations or to compare the results of different studies on the same topic.
• To enhance the readability of the paper: Tables can help to break up long sections of text and make the paper more visually appealing. By presenting data in a table, researchers can help readers to quickly identify the most important information and understand the key findings of the study.

Advantages of Tables in Research Paper

Some of the advantages of using tables in research papers include:

• Clarity : Tables can present data in a way that is easy to read and understand. They can help readers to quickly and easily identify patterns, trends, and relationships in the data.
• Efficiency: Tables can save space and reduce the need for lengthy explanations or descriptions of the data in the main body of the paper. This can make the paper more concise and easier to read.
• Organization: Tables can help to organize large amounts of data in a logical and meaningful way. This can help to reduce confusion and make it easier for readers to navigate the data.
• Comparison : Tables can be useful for comparing data across different groups, variables, or time periods. This can help to highlight similarities, differences, and changes over time.
• Visualization : Tables can also be used to visually represent data, making it easier for readers to see patterns and trends. This can be particularly useful when the data is complex or difficult to understand.

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Table Setup

Tables are visual displays composed of columns and rows in which numbers, text, or a combination of numbers and text are presented. There are many common kinds of tables, including demographic characteristics tables, correlation tables, factor analysis tables, analysis of variance tables, and regression tables.

This page addresses the basics of table setup, including table components, principles of table construction (including the use of borders and how to handle long or wide tables), and placement of tables in the paper. Note that tables and figures have the same overall setup.

View the sample tables to see these guidelines in action.

Table components

APA Style tables have the following basic components:

• number: The table number (e.g., Table 1) appears above the table title and body in bold font. Number tables in the order in which they are mentioned in your paper.
• title: The table title appears one double-spaced line below the table number. Give each table a brief but descriptive title, and capitalize the table title in italic title case .
• headings: Tables may include a variety of headings depending on the nature and arrangement of the data. All tables should include column headings, including a stub heading (heading for the leftmost, or stub, column). The heading “Variable” is often used for the stub column if no other heading is suitable. Some tables also include column spanners, decked heads, and table spanners; these are described in the Publication Manual . Center column headings and capitalize them in sentence case .
• The table body may be single-spaced, one-and-a-half-spaced, or double-spaced.
• Left-align the information in the leftmost column or stub column of the table body (but center the heading).
• In general, center information in all other cells of the table. However, left-align the information if doing so would improve readability, particularly when cells contain lots of text.
• note: Three types of notes (general, specific, and probability) appear below the table as needed to describe contents of the table that cannot be understood from the table title or body alone (e.g., definitions of abbreviations, copyright attribution, explanations of asterisks used to indicate p values). Include table notes only as needed.

This diagram is an illustration of the basic table components.

Tables are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Sections 7.8 to 7.21 and the Concise Guide Sections 7.8 to 7.21

Related handout

• Student Paper Setup Guide (PDF, 3MB)

Principles of table construction

The most important principle to follow when creating a table is to present information in a way that is easy for readers to understand. Provide sufficient information in the table itself so that readers do not need to read the text to understand it.

When creating a table, place entries that are to be compared next to each other. In general, place different indices (e.g., means and standard deviations) in different columns rather than in the same column. Use the same font in tables as in the rest of your paper.

Use the tables feature of your word-processing program to create tables in APA Style papers. Do not use the tab key or space bar to manually create the look of a table.

Table borders

Limit the use of borders or lines in a table to those needed for clarity. In general, use a border at the top and bottom of the table, beneath column headings (including decked heads), and above column spanners. You may also use a border to separate a row containing totals or other summary information from other rows in the table.

Do not use vertical borders to separate data, and do not use borders around every cell in a table. Use spacing between columns and rows and strict alignment to clarify relations among the elements in a table.

Long or wide tables

If a table is longer than one page, use the tables feature of your word-processing program to make the headings row repeat on the second and any subsequent pages. No other adjustments are necessary. If a table is too wide to fit on one page, use landscape orientation on the page with the wide table. It does not matter if the page header also moves when switching to landscape orientation.

Placement of tables in a paper

There are two options for the placement of tables (and figures) in a paper. The first is to embed tables in the text after each is first mentioned (or “called out”); the second is to place each table on a separate page after the reference list.

An embedded table may take up an entire page; if the table is short, however, text may appear on the same page as the table. In that case, place the table at either the top or bottom of the page rather than in the middle. Also add one blank double-spaced line between the table and any text to improve the visual presentation.

View the sample tables for more information on tables.

How to make a scientific table | Step-by-step and Formatting

It’s time to learn how to make a scientific table to increase the readability and attractiveness of your research paper.

When writing a research paper, there is frequently a massive quantity of data that must be incorporated to meet the research’s purpose. Instead of stuffing your research paper with all this information, you can employ visual assets to make it simpler to read and use to your advantage to make it more appealing to readers.

In this Mind The Graph article, you will learn how to make a scientific table properly, to attract readers and improve understandability.

What is a scientific table and what are its purposes?

Tables are typically used to organize data that is too extensive or nuanced to properly convey in the text, allowing the reader to quickly see and comprehend the findings. Tables can be used to summarize information, explain variables, or organize and present surveys. They can be used to highlight trends or patterns in data and to make research more readable by separating numerical data from text. Tables, although full, should not be overly convoluted.

Tables can only display numerical values and text in columns and rows. Any other type of illustration, such as a chart, graph, photograph, drawing, and so on is called a figure.

If you’re not sure whether to use tables or figures in your research, see How to Include Figures in a Research Paper to find out.

Table formatting

This section teaches you all you need to know on how to make a scientific table to include in your research paper. The proper table format is extremely basic and straightforward to accomplish, here’s a simple guideline to help you:

• Number: If you have more than one table, number them sequentially (Table 1, Table 2…).
• Referencing: Each table must be referred to in the text with a capital T: “as seen in Table 1”.
• Title: Make sure the title corresponds to the topic of the table. Tables should have a precise, informative title that serves as an explanation for the table. Titles can be short or long depending on their subject.
• Column headings: Headings must be helpful and clear when representing the type of data provided. The reader’s attention is drawn progressively from the headline to the column title. A solid collection of column headings will help the reader understand what the table is about immediately.
• Table body: This is the major section of the table that contains numerical or textual data. Make your table such that the elements read from top to bottom, not across.
• Needed information: Make sure to include units, error values and number of samples, as well as explain whatever abbreviation or symbol is used in tables. 
• Lines: Limit the use of lines, only use what’s necessary. 

Steps to make an effective scientific table

Now that you understand the fundamentals of how to make a scientific table , consider the following ideas and best practices for creating the most effective tables for your research work:

• If your study includes both a table and a graph, avoid including the same information in both.
• Do not duplicate information from a table in a text.
• Make your table aesthetically appealing and easy to read by leaving enough space between columns and rows and using a basic yet effective structure.
• If your table has a lot of information, consider categorizing it and dividing it into columns.
• Consider merging tables with repeated information or deleting those that may not be essential.
• Use footnotes to highlight important information for any of the cells. Use an alphabetical footnote marker if your table contains numerical data. 
• Cite the reference if the table you’re displaying contains data from prior research to avoid plagiarism.

Make scientifically accurate infographics in minutes

Aside from adding tables to make your research paper more precise and appealing, consider using infographics, Mind the Graph is a simple tool for creating excellent scientific infographics that may help you solidify and improve the authority of your research.

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Creating tables in scientific papers: basic formatting and title

Tables are a very important part of scientific papers. A good table should present the data simply, clearly and neatly, and allow the reader to understand the results without having to look at other sections of the paper. A bad table can be very confusing, and may reduce the chances of your paper being accepted.

In this post, we will look at the basic rules for creating effective scientific tables.

Let’s begin with an example of a bad table, highlighting some common errors and showing how the table can be improved.

Can you see anything wrong with this table?

Fig. 1: Example of a poorly formatted table that can be improved

Let’s start with the table formatting and editing.

Rule 1. Use a separate cell for each value

In the top row of Fig. 2 (below), the author has placed two columns of data in the same cell. We often see tables with only one row and column, with the rows of data arranged using the space bar or "tab" button.

If the table is adjusted or moved (for example, if the table size or text size is changed) the table layout will change, causing the data to be misplaced (as shown in the bottom of Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Tables created without cells can become disorganised if resized or moved

Additionally, if there are empty cells, rows or columns, it can be difficult to know if data is missing from the table, and impossible to know which columns or rows the data should be in.

Therefore, tables should be created with the correct number of rows and columns - use one cell for each piece of data.

You can add new rows and columns to an existing table by right clicking on the table, selecting “Insert” and choosing to insert new rows and columns above or below the existing rows or columns.

It is also possible to insert multiple rows/columns to a table at the same time. For example, if you would like to add three columns to the left of your table, highlight the first three columns, right click and choose “Insert Columns to the Left”.

Rule 2. Use only horizontal line borders and double line spacing

Most journals ask that tables only contain only horizontal lines as borders. Additionally, most journals require the text in tables to be double-spaced. It is always a good idea to look at the “Instructions to Authors” for your journal, and check if there are any special instructions for tables.

In Microsoft Word (version 2007 onwards), you can change the table borders by clicking on the table and using the menu that appears in the “Design” section under “Table Tools” - as indicated by the red arrows in Fig. 3.

Alternatively, right click your mouse over the table, and click “Borders and Shading” to change the table borders.

Fig. 3: How to format table borders in Microsoft Word

Rule 3. Use clear and informative titles

Generally, you should include information on the test system (e.g. the species, cell line or type of patients), as well as the type of treatment (e.g. salinity or the drug name) and what was measured (e.g. plant height, blood pressure or cell proliferation).

So the title for the Table 1 could be:

• Table 1. Height of wheat plants after salinity treatment
• Table 1. Effect of salinity on the growth of wheat plants

Sometimes, it can also be a good idea to describe the main result in the table title. This will help the reader quickly understand your data.

For example:

• Table 1. Salinity reduces the growth of wheat plants
• Table 1. Exposure to salinity reduces the growth of wheat plants

It’s not always possible or necessary to include the result in the table title, for example tables that show a list of data (such as patient characteristics, plant cultivars or PCR primers) or tables that contain complex or conflicting data.

Let’s see how the table changes if we apply these rules to the Table 1. I’ll insert a new column to the left of the table and place each value in a separate cell (rule 1), only use vertical rules and double space the table (rule 2) and use an informative title (rule 3).

Fig. 4: Improved table after placing values in individual cells, formatting and double spacing, and adding an informative title

At Science Editing Experts, we help scientists like you to submit well-written journal papers with confidence and complete your thesis without headaches, so you can focus on your research and career.

Andrea Devlin PhD

Chief editor and owner of Science Editing Experts

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Effective Use of Tables and Figures in Research Papers

Research papers are often based on copious amounts of data that can be summarized and easily read through tables and graphs. When writing a research paper , it is important for data to be presented to the reader in a visually appealing way. The data in figures and tables, however, should not be a repetition of the data found in the text. There are many ways of presenting data in tables and figures, governed by a few simple rules. An APA research paper and MLA research paper both require tables and figures, but the rules around them are different. When writing a research paper, the importance of tables and figures cannot be underestimated. How do you know if you need a table or figure? The rule of thumb is that if you cannot present your data in one or two sentences, then you need a table .

Using Tables

Tables are easily created using programs such as Excel. Tables and figures in scientific papers are wonderful ways of presenting data. Effective data presentation in research papers requires understanding your reader and the elements that comprise a table. Tables have several elements, including the legend, column titles, and body. As with academic writing, it is also just as important to structure tables so that readers can easily understand them. Tables that are disorganized or otherwise confusing will make the reader lose interest in your work.

• Title: Tables should have a clear, descriptive title, which functions as the “topic sentence” of the table. The titles can be lengthy or short, depending on the discipline.
• Column Titles: The goal of these title headings is to simplify the table. The reader’s attention moves from the title to the column title sequentially. A good set of column titles will allow the reader to quickly grasp what the table is about.
• Table Body: This is the main area of the table where numerical or textual data is located. Construct your table so that elements read from up to down, and not across.

Related: Done organizing your research data effectively in tables? Check out this post on tips for citing tables in your manuscript now!

The placement of figures and tables should be at the center of the page. It should be properly referenced and ordered in the number that it appears in the text. In addition, tables should be set apart from the text. Text wrapping should not be used. Sometimes, tables and figures are presented after the references in selected journals.

Using Figures

Figures can take many forms, such as bar graphs, frequency histograms, scatterplots, drawings, maps, etc. When using figures in a research paper, always think of your reader. What is the easiest figure for your reader to understand? How can you present the data in the simplest and most effective way? For instance, a photograph may be the best choice if you want your reader to understand spatial relationships.

• Figure Captions: Figures should be numbered and have descriptive titles or captions. The captions should be succinct enough to understand at the first glance. Captions are placed under the figure and are left justified.
• Image: Choose an image that is simple and easily understandable. Consider the size, resolution, and the image’s overall visual attractiveness.
• Additional Information: Illustrations in manuscripts are numbered separately from tables. Include any information that the reader needs to understand your figure, such as legends.

Common Errors in Research Papers

Effective data presentation in research papers requires understanding the common errors that make data presentation ineffective. These common mistakes include using the wrong type of figure for the data. For instance, using a scatterplot instead of a bar graph for showing levels of hydration is a mistake. Another common mistake is that some authors tend to italicize the table number. Remember, only the table title should be italicized .  Another common mistake is failing to attribute the table. If the table/figure is from another source, simply put “ Note. Adapted from…” underneath the table. This should help avoid any issues with plagiarism.

Using tables and figures in research papers is essential for the paper’s readability. The reader is given a chance to understand data through visual content. When writing a research paper, these elements should be considered as part of good research writing. APA research papers, MLA research papers, and other manuscripts require visual content if the data is too complex or voluminous. The importance of tables and graphs is underscored by the main purpose of writing, and that is to be understood.

Frequently Asked Questions

"Consider the following points when creating figures for research papers: Determine purpose: Clarify the message or information to be conveyed. Choose figure type: Select the appropriate type for data representation. Prepare and organize data: Collect and arrange accurate and relevant data. Select software: Use suitable software for figure creation and editing. Design figure: Focus on clarity, labeling, and visual elements. Create the figure: Plot data or generate the figure using the chosen software. Label and annotate: Clearly identify and explain all elements in the figure. Review and revise: Verify accuracy, coherence, and alignment with the paper. Format and export: Adjust format to meet publication guidelines and export as suitable file."

"To create tables for a research paper, follow these steps: 1) Determine the purpose and information to be conveyed. 2) Plan the layout, including rows, columns, and headings. 3) Use spreadsheet software like Excel to design and format the table. 4) Input accurate data into cells, aligning it logically. 5) Include column and row headers for context. 6) Format the table for readability using consistent styles. 7) Add a descriptive title and caption to summarize and provide context. 8) Number and reference the table in the paper. 9) Review and revise for accuracy and clarity before finalizing."

"Including figures in a research paper enhances clarity and visual appeal. Follow these steps: Determine the need for figures based on data trends or to explain complex processes. Choose the right type of figure, such as graphs, charts, or images, to convey your message effectively. Create or obtain the figure, properly citing the source if needed. Number and caption each figure, providing concise and informative descriptions. Place figures logically in the paper and reference them in the text. Format and label figures clearly for better understanding. Provide detailed figure captions to aid comprehension. Cite the source for non-original figures or images. Review and revise figures for accuracy and consistency."

"Research papers use various types of tables to present data: Descriptive tables: Summarize main data characteristics, often presenting demographic information. Frequency tables: Display distribution of categorical variables, showing counts or percentages in different categories. Cross-tabulation tables: Explore relationships between categorical variables by presenting joint frequencies or percentages. Summary statistics tables: Present key statistics (mean, standard deviation, etc.) for numerical variables. Comparative tables: Compare different groups or conditions, displaying key statistics side by side. Correlation or regression tables: Display results of statistical analyses, such as coefficients and p-values. Longitudinal or time-series tables: Show data collected over multiple time points with columns for periods and rows for variables/subjects. Data matrix tables: Present raw data or matrices, common in experimental psychology or biology. Label tables clearly, include titles, and use footnotes or captions for explanations."

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How to Use Tables and Figures effectively in Research Papers

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Table of Contents

Data is the most important component of any research. It needs to be presented effectively in a paper to ensure that readers understand the key message in the paper. Figures and tables act as concise tools for clear presentation . Tables display information arranged in rows and columns in a grid-like format, while figures convey information visually, and take the form of a graph, diagram, chart, or image. Be it to compare the rise and fall of GDPs among countries over the years or to understand how COVID-19 has impacted incomes all over the world, tables and figures are imperative to convey vital findings accurately.

So, what are some of the best practices to follow when creating meaningful and attractive tables and figures? Here are some tips on how best to present tables and figures in a research paper.

Guidelines for including tables and figures meaningfully in a paper:

• Self-explanatory display items: Sometimes, readers, reviewers and journal editors directly go to the tables and figures before reading the entire text. So, the tables need to be well organized and self-explanatory.
• Avoidance of repetition: Tables and figures add clarity to the research. They complement the research text and draw attention to key points. They can be used to highlight the main points of the paper, but values should not be repeated as it defeats the very purpose of these elements.
• Consistency: There should be consistency in the values and figures in the tables and figures and the main text of the research paper.
• Informative titles: Titles should be concise and describe the purpose and content of the table. It should draw the reader’s attention towards the key findings of the research. Column heads, axis labels, figure labels, etc., should also be appropriately labelled.
• Adherence to journal guidelines: It is important to follow the instructions given in the target journal regarding the preparation and presentation of figures and tables, style of numbering, titles, image resolution, file formats, etc.

Now that we know how to go about including tables and figures in the manuscript, let’s take a look at what makes tables and figures stand out and create impact.

How to present data in a table?

For effective and concise presentation of data in a table, make sure to:

• Combine repetitive tables: If the tables have similar content, they should be organized into one.
• Divide the data: If there are large amounts of information, the data should be divided into categories for more clarity and better presentation. It is necessary to clearly demarcate the categories into well-structured columns and sub-columns.
• Keep only relevant data: The tables should not look cluttered. Ensure enough spacing.

Example of table presentation in a research paper

For comprehensible and engaging presentation of figures:

• Ensure clarity: All the parts of the figure should be clear. Ensure the use of a standard font, legible labels, and sharp images.
• Use appropriate legends: They make figures effective and draw attention towards the key message.
• Make it precise: There should be correct use of scale bars in images and maps, appropriate units wherever required, and adequate labels and legends.

It is important to get tables and figures correct and precise for your research paper to convey your findings accurately and clearly. If you are confused about how to suitably present your data through tables and figures, do not worry. Elsevier Author Services are well-equipped to guide you through every step to ensure that your manuscript is of top-notch quality.

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Figures and tables

Figures and tables (display items) are often the quickest way to  communicate large amounts of complex information that would be complicated to explain in text.

Many readers will only look at your display items without reading the main text of your manuscript. Therefore, ensure your display items can stand alone from the text and communicate clearly your most significant results.

Display items are also important for  attracting readers  to your work. Well designed and attractive display items will hold the interest of readers, compel them to take time to understand a figure and can even entice them to read your full manuscript.

Finally, high-quality display items give your work a  professional appearance . Readers will assume that a professional-looking manuscript contains good quality science. Thus readers may be more likely to trust your results and your interpretation of those results.

When deciding which of your results to present as display items consider the following questions:

• Are there any data that readers might rather see as a display item rather than text?
• Do your figures supplement the text and not just repeat what you have already stated?
• Have you put data into a table that could easily be explained in the text such as simple statistics or p values?

Tables are a concise and effective way to present large amounts of data. You should design them carefully so that you clearly communicate your results to busy researchers.

The following is an example of a well-designed table:

• Clear and concise legend/caption
• Data divided into categories for clarity
• Sufficient spacing between columns and rows
• Units are provided
• Font type and size are legible

How to create tables from data

What is a table? Tables present the results of data or information collected from a study. The purpose of a table is to present data summaries to help the reader to understand what was found. Not all data needs to go into a table: some results are simply presented as written text in the results section; data that shows a trend or a pattern in between variables is presented in figures, while additional data not necessary to explain the study should go into the appendix. Tables should convey data or information clearly and concisely and allow the key message to be interpreted at a glance. Tables often include detailed data in rows and columns, while sub-columns are often nested within larger columns.

Designing your table Once you have decided what data to present, jot down a rough draft of the table headings on paper to determine how many columns and rows you need. Choose categories with accurate labels that match your methodology and analysis. Before you spend too much time designing the layout of your table, check that you are following the format expected within your discipline or organisation as table formatting requirements often vary considerably; if you are preparing a science report, refer to the relevant In-House Style Guide(s) or if you are preparing a journal article, meticulously follow the journal’s Instruction to Authors. Title or Legend Consider the objective and key message of each table. The table title is typically placed at the top of the table. It should stand alone: it needs to be clearly understood by your target audience without them needing to go back to the results or methods sections. The title should be concise and describe what was measured, e.g. ‘Reproductive hormone levels during contraceptive administration in men’. Frame the title so that it conveys the key results, e.g. ‘Reproductive hormones are suppressed during contraceptive administration in men’. Sub-headings Take care to ensure the sub-headings are meaningful and accurate. The row and column headings clearly explain the treatment or data type, and include units. In the sample table below, the experimental details are given in the row headings (time points during the administration of a contraceptive), and the data measured (hormones) are given in the column headings. 

Example Table

          In this example table, horizontal lines have been used sparingly to improve clarity.

Explanatory notes Explanatory notes and footnotes are placed at the end of the table. Make sure that all abbreviations are defined and that the values are explained. For example, if the values are a percentage, mean ± SEM, n per group. Drawing and formatting the table Tables for publication can be created in Word, using the 'Insert Table' function. For instructions see: Office Support: Insert or create a table .

- Tables can also be created from existing datasets in Excel, and then cut and pasted into Word, or exported into Word as an image.

- Use a separate cell for each piece of information; avoid having to insert tabs or spaces which may cause the text to be unintentionally moved when the formatting is adjusted.

- Add your headings and data to each cell. Cells can be merged to create headings above sub-headings. Select the cells you want to merge then select the 'Merge Cells' option.

- The table then needs to be formatted to improve readability and clarity. Select the entire table or individual rows or columns and right click. Options will appear where you can modify the table size, cell height and width, and format the borders. Word tables will have borders on each side of the cell by default.

- Format the borders by selecting columns, rows or individual cells will help the table to take shape and improve visual clarity.  Text within the table can be formatted by selecting the text, then formatting it as normal.

- Make sure that the columns and rows are well separated and that the table is not cluttered and is easy to read. Imagine the reader looking at your table: do they have access to all of the information they need and can they easily understand the results?

Formatting borders helps a table to take shape and improve clarity. Select and de-select the horizontal and vertical lines you want to use as borders

Citing the table

Always cite the table at the relevant point in your text. Avoid repeating the details that are presented in the table, and use the text to direct the reader to the main message, e.g. ‘ Contraceptive administration at 14 and 20 weeks significantly suppressed FSH, LH and testosterone levels in men (Table 1) ’. Tables should be numbered consecutively throughout the document.

Further reading: (external links)

* Creating tables in scientific papers: basic formatting and titles * How to create and customize tables in Microsoft Word * Tips on effective use of tables and figures in research papers * Tables and Figures * Office Support: Insert or create a table

© Dr Liza O’Donnell & Dr Marina Hurley 2019 www.writingclearscience.com.au

Any suggestions or comments please email  [email protected] 

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FURTHER READING

• Co-authors should define their roles and responsibilities before they start writing
• The difference between a writing rule and a good idea
• When to cite and when not to
• How to create figures from data
• Back to basics: science knowledge is gained while information is produced
• How to build and maintain confidence as a writer
• If science was perfect, it wouldn’t be science
• The essentials of science writing: What is science writing?
• 8 steps to writing your first draft
• Two ways to be an inefficient writer
• Work-procrastination: important stuff that keeps us from writing

Preparing tables for research papers

Tables and illustrations are important tools for efficiently communicating information and data contained in your research paper to the readers. They present complex results in a comprehensible and organized manner.

However, it is advisable to use tables and illustrations wisely so as to maximize the impact of your research.They should be organized in an easy-to-understand format to convey the information and findings collected in your research. The tabular information helps the reader identify the theme of the study more readily. Although data tables should be complete,they should not be too complex. Instead of including a large volume of data in a single unwieldy table, it is prudent to use small tables to help readers identify the important information easily.

Here are some points you should consider before drafting the tables in your research paper:

• Finalize the results that are required to be presented in tabular form.
• Include the data or results that are relevant to the main aim of the study without being choosy and including only those results that support your hypothesis.
• Create each table in a lucid manner and style without cluttering it with in-table citations.
• Number the tables in a sequence according to their occurrence in the text.
• Don’t mix tables with figures. Maintain separate numbering systems for tables and figures.
• Create tables in a storytelling manner. Remember that your tables communicate a story to the reader that runs parallel to the text.
• If you are using or reproducing tables from other published articles, obtain permission from the copyright holder (usually the publisher) or/andacknowledge the source.
• Do not repeat the tabular contents in the text again; that will create confusion among readers.
• Use clear and informative text for each table title.
• Take extra care while extending the data in your tables. If you have too many tables, consider using them as appendices or supplementary materials.
• Create tables with sufficient spacing in the layout so that they do not look messy, crowded, or cluttered.
• Do not forget to spell out abbreviations used in the tables, ideally in the footnotes.

For the reader, a research paper that is dense and text-heavy can be tiresome. Conversely, tables not only encapsulate your data lucidly, but also welcome a visual relief for the reader. They add value to the layout of your paper. Besides, and more importantly, reviewers often glance at your tabulated data and illustrations first before delving into the text. Therefore, tables can be the initial draw for a reviewer and deliver a positive impact about your research paper. If you can achieve an optimum balance among your text, tables, and illustrations, it can go a long way toward being published.

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Your Guide to Creating Effective Tables and Figures in Research Papers

Research papers are full of data and other information that needs to be effectively illustrated and organized. Without a clear presentation of a study's data, the information will not reach the intended audience and could easily be misunderstood. Clarity of thought and purpose is essential for any kind of research. Using tables and figures to present findings and other data in a research paper can be effective ways to communicate that information to the chosen audience.

When manuscripts are screened, tables and figures can give reviewers and publication editors a quick overview of the findings and key information. After the research paper is published or accepted as a final dissertation, tables and figures will offer the same opportunity for other interested readers. While some readers may not read the entire paper, the tables and figures have the chance to still get the most important parts of your research across to those readers.

However, tables and figures are only valuable within a research paper if they are succinct and informative. Just about any audience—from scientists to the general public—should be able to identify key pieces of information in well-placed and well-organized tables. Figures can help to illustrate ideas and data visually. It is important to remember that tables and figures should not simply be repetitions of data presented in the text. They are not a vehicle for superfluous or repetitious information. Stay focused, stay organized, and you will be able to use tables and figures effectively in your research papers. The following key rules for using tables and figures in research papers will help you do just that.

Check style guides and journal requirements

The first step in deciding how you want to use tables and figures in your research paper is to review the requirements outlined by your chosen style guide or the submission requirements for the journal or publication you will be submitting to. For example, JMIR Publications states that for readability purposes, we encourage authors to include no more than 5 tables and no more than 8 figures per article. They continue to outline that tables should not go beyond the 1-inch margin of a portrait-orientation 8.5"x11" page using 12pt font or they may not be able to be included in your main manuscript because of our PDF sizing.

Consider the reviewers that will be examining your research paper for consistency, clarity, and applicability to a specific publication. If your chosen publication usually has shorter articles with supplemental information provided elsewhere, then you will want to keep the number of tables and figures to a minimum.

According to the Purdue Online Writing Lab (Purdue OWL), the American Psychological Association (APA) states that Data in a table that would require only two or fewer columns and rows should be presented in the text. More complex data is better presented in tabular format. You can avoid unnecessary tables by reviewing the data and deciding if it is simple enough to be included in the text. There is a balance, and the APA guideline above gives a good standard cutoff point for text versus table. Finally, when deciding if you should include a table or a figure, ask yourself is it necessary. Are you including it because you think you should or because you think it will look more professional, or are you including it because it is necessary to articulate the data? Only include tables or figures if they are necessary to articulate the data.

Table formatting

Creating tables is not as difficult as it once was. Most word processing programs have functions that allow you to simply select how many rows and columns you want, and then it builds the structure for you. Whether you create a table in LaTeX , Microsoft Word , Microsoft Excel , or Google Sheets , there are some key features that you will want to include. Tables generally include a legend, title, column titles, and the body of the table.

When deciding what the title of the table should be, think about how you would describe the table's contents in one sentence. There isn't a set length for table titles, and it varies depending on the discipline of the research, but it does need to be specific and clear what the table is presenting. Think of this as a concise topic sentence of the table.

Column titles should be designed in such a way that they simplify the contents of the table. Readers will generally skim the column titles first before getting into the data to prepare their minds for what they are about to see. While the text introducing the table will give a brief overview of what data is being presented, the column titles break that information down into easier-to-understand parts. The Purdue OWL gives a good example of what a table format could look like:

When deciding what your column titles should be, consider the width of the column itself when the data is entered. The heading should be as close to the length of the data as possible. This can be accomplished using standard abbreviations. When using symbols for the data, such as the percentage "%" symbol, place the symbol in the heading, and then you will not use the symbol in each entry, because it is already indicated in the column title.

For the body of the table, consistency is key. Use the same number of decimal places for numbers, keep the alignment the same throughout the table data, and maintain the same unit of measurement throughout each column. When information is changed within the same column, the reader can become confused, and your data may be considered inaccurate.

When creating tables, especially those derived from complex datasets or scanned documents, tools like JPG to Excel converter can be incredibly useful. These tools can automate the extraction of tabular data from images, ensuring accuracy and saving time. By converting image-based data into editable Excel sheets, researchers can easily format, analyze, and integrate the information into their papers. Utilizing such converters can enhance the efficiency of your data management process, making the preparation of tables for your research paper more seamless.

Figures in research papers

Figures can be of many different graphical types, including bar graphs, scatterplots, maps, photos, and more. Compared to tables, figures have a lot more variation and personalization. Depending on the discipline, figures take different forms. Sometimes a photograph is the best choice if you're illustrating spatial relationships or data hiding techniques in images. Sometimes a map is best to illustrate locations that have specific characteristics in an economic study. Carefully consider your reader's perspective and what detail you want them to see.

As with tables, your figures should be numbered sequentially and follow the same guidelines for titles and labels. Depending on your chosen style guide, keep the figure or figure placeholder as close to the text introducing it as possible. Similar to the figure title, any captions should be succinct and clear, and they should be placed directly under the figure.

Using the wrong kind of figure is a common mistake that can affect a reader's experience with your research paper. Carefully consider what type of figure will best describe your point. For example, if you are describing levels of decomposition of different kinds of paper at a certain point in time, then a scatter plot would not be the appropriate depiction of that data; a bar graph would allow you to accurately show decomposition levels of each kind of paper at time "t." The Writing Center of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill has a good example of a bar graph offering easy-to-understand information:

If you have taken a figure from another source, such as from a presentation available online, then you will need to make sure to always cite the source. If you've modified the figure in any way, then you will need to say that you adapted the figure from that source. Plagiarism can still happen with figures – and even tables – so be sure to include a citation if needed.

Using the tips above, you can take your research data and give your reader or reviewer a clear perspective on your findings. As The Writing Center recommends, Consider the best way to communicate information to your audience, especially if you plan to use data in the form of numbers, words, or images that will help you construct and support your argument. If you can summarize the data in a couple of sentences, then don't try and expand that information into an unnecessary table or figure. Trying to use a table or figure in such cases only lengthens the paper and can make the tables and figures meaningless instead of informative.

Carefully choose your table and figure style so that they will serve as quick and clear references for your reader to see patterns, relationships, and trends you have discovered in your research. For additional assistance with formatting and requirements, be sure to review your publication or style guide's instructions to ensure success in the review and submission process.

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How to clearly articulate results and construct tables and figures in a scientific paper?

The writing of the results section of a scientific paper is very important for the readers for clearly understanding of the study. This review summarizes the rules for writing the results section of a scientific paper and describes the use of tables and figures.

Introduction

Medical articles consist of review articles, case reports, and letters to the editor which are prepared with the intention of publishing in journals related to the medical discipline of the author. For an academician to be able to progress in carreer, and make his/her activities known in the academic environment, require preparation of the protocol of his/her academic research article, and acquiring sufficient information, and experience related to the composition of this article. In this review article, the information related to the writing of the ‘Results’ section, and use of tables, and figures will be presented to the attention of the readers.

Writing the ‘Results’ section

The ‘Results’ section is perhaps the most important part of a research article. In fact the authors will share the results of their research/study with their readers. Renown British biologist Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895) indicated his feelings as “The great tragedy of science: the slaying of a beautiful hypothesis by an ugly fact.” which emphasizes the importance of accurately, and impressively written results.

In essence results provide a response for the question” What is found in the research performed?”. Therefore, it is the most vital part of the article. As a priority, while drafting the ‘Results’ section of a manuscript one should not firstly write down methods in the ‘Material and Method’ section. The first sentence should give information about the number of patients who met the inclusion criteria, and thus enrolled in the study. [ 1 ] Besides information about the number of patients excluded from the study, and the reasons for exclusion is very important in that they will enlighten the readers, and reviewers who critically evaluate the manuscript, and also reflect the seriousness of the study. On the other hand, the results obtained should be recorded in chronological order, and without any comments. [ 2 ] In this section use of simple present tense is more appropriate. The findings should be expressed in brief, lucid, and explicable words. The writing style should not be boring for the reader. During writing process of a research article, a generally ill-conceived point is that positive, and significant findings are more important, attractive, and valuable, while negative, and insignificant findings are worthless, and less attractive. A scientific research is not performed to confirm a hypothesis, rather to test it. Not only positive, and significant results are worth writing, on the other hand negative or statistically insignificant result which support fallacy of a widely accepted opinion might be valuable. Therefore, all findings obtained during research should be inclıuded in the ‘Results’ section. [ 1 ]

While writing the ‘Results’ section, the sequence of results, tabulated data, and information which will be illustrated as figures should be definitively indicated. In indicating insignificant changes, do not use expressions as “decreased” or “increased”, these words should be reserved for significant changes. If results related to more than one parameter would be reported, it is appropriate to write the results under the subheading of its related parameter so as to facilitate reading, and comprehension of information. [ 2 ] Only data, and information concerning the study in question should be included in the ‘Results’ section. Results not mentioned in this section should not be included in the ‘Discussion’ and ‘Summary’ sections. Since the results obtained by the authors are cited in the ‘Results’ section, any reference should not be indicated in this section. [ 3 ]

In the ‘Results’ section, numerical expressions should be written in technically appropriate terms. The number of digits (1, 2 or 3 digits) to be written after a comma (in Turkish) or a point (in especially American English) should be determined The number of digits written after the punctuation marks should not be changed all throughout the text. Data should be expressed as mean/median ± standard deviation. Data as age, and scale scores should be indicated together with ranges of values. Absolute numerical value corresponding to a percentage must be also indicated. P values calculated in statistical analysis should be expressed in their absolute values. While writing p values of statistically significant data, instead of p<0.05 the actual level of significance should be recorded. If p value is smaller than 0.001, then it can be written as p <0.01. [ 2 ] While writing the ‘Results’ section, significant data which should be recalled by the readers must be indicated in the main text. It will be appropriate to indicate other demographic numerical details in tables or figures.

As an example elucidating the abovementioned topics a research paper written by the authors of this review article, and published in the Turkish Journal of Urology in the year 2007 (Türk Üroloji Dergisi 2007;33:18–23) is presented below:

“A total of 9 (56.2%) female, and 7 (43.8%) male patients with were included in this study. Mean age of all the patients was 44.3±13.8 (17–65) years, and mean dimensions of the adrenal mass was 4.5±3.4 (1–14) cm. Mean ages of the male, and female patients were 44.1 (30–65), and 42.4 (17–64) years, while mean diameters of adrenal masses were 3.2 (1–5), and 4.5 (1–14) cm (p age =0.963, p mass size =0.206). Surgical procedures were realized using transperitoneal approach through Chevron incision in 1 (6.2%), and retroperitoneal approach using flank incision with removal of the 11. rib in 15 (93.7%) patients. Right (n=6; 37.5%), and left (n=2; 12.5%) adrenalectomies were performed. Two (12.5%) patients underwent bilateral adrenalectomy in the same session because of clinical Cushing’s syndrome persisted despite transsphenoidal hipophysectomy. Mean operative time, and length of the hospital stay were 135 (65–190) min, and 3 (2–6) days, respectively. While resecting 11. rib during retroperitoneal adrenalectomy performed in 1 patient, pleura was perforated for nearly 1.5 cm. The perforated region was drained, and closed intraoperatively with 4/0 polyglyctan sutures. The patient did not develop postoperative pneumothorax. In none of the patients postoperative complications as pneumothorax, bleeding, prolonged drainage were seen. Results of histopathological analysis of the specimens retrieved at the end of the operation were summarized in Table 1 .” Table 1. Histopathological examination results of the patients Histopathological diagnosis Men n (%) Women n (%) Total n (%) Adrenal cortical adenoma 5 (31.3) 6 (37.6) 11 (68.8) Pheochromocytoma 1 (6.2) 1 (6.2) 2 (12.6) Ganglioneuroma 1 (6.2) - 1 (6.2) Myelolipoma - 1 (6.2) 1 (6.2) Adrenal carcinoma - 1 (6.2) 1 (6.2) Total 7 (43.7) 9 (56.2) 16 (100) Open in a separate window

Use of tables, and figures

To prevent the audience from getting bored while reading a scientific article, some of the data should be expressed in a visual format in graphics, and figures rather than crowded numerical values in the text. Peer-reviewers frequently look at tables, and figures. High quality tables, and figures increase the chance of acceptance of the manuscript for publication.

Number of tables in the manuscript should not exceed the number recommended by the editorial board of the journal. Data in the main text, and tables should not be repeated many times. Tables should be comprehensible, and a reader should be able to express an opinion about the results just at looking at the tables without reading the main text. Data included in tables should comply with those mentioned in the main text, and percentages in rows, and columns should be summed up accurately. Unit of each variable should be absolutely defined. Sampling size of each group should be absolutely indicated. Values should be expressed as values±standard error, range or 95% confidence interval. Tables should include precise p values, and level of significance as assessed with statistical analysis should be indicated in footnotes. [ 2 ] Use of abbreviations in tables should be avoided, if abbreviations are required they should be defined explicitly in the footnotes or legends of the tables. As a general rule, rows should be arranged as double-spaced Besides do not use pattern coloring for cells of rows, and columns. Values included in tables should be correctly approximated. [ 1 , 2 ]

As an example elucidating the abovementioned topics a research paper written by the authors of this review article, and published in the Turkish Journal of Urology in the year 2007 (Türk Üroloji Dergisi 2007;33:18–23).is shown in Table 1 .

Most of the readers priorly prefer to look at figures, and graphs rather than reading lots of pages. Selection of appropriate types of graphs for demonstration of data is a critical decision which requires artist’s meticulousness. As is the case with tables, graphs, and figures should also disploay information not provided in the text. Bar, line, and pie graphs, scatter plots, and histograms are some examples of graphs. In graphs, independent variables should be represented on the horizontal, and dependent variables on the vertical axis. Number of subjects in every subgroup should be indicated The labels on each axis should be easily understandable. [ 2 ] The label of the Y axis should be written vertically from bottom to top. The fundamental point in writing explanatory notes for graphs, and figures is to help the readers understand the contents of them without referring to the main text. Meanings of abbreviations, and acronyms used in the graphs, and figures should be provided in explanatory notes. In the explanatory notes striking data should be emphasized. Statistical tests used, levels of significance, sampling size, stains used for analyses, and magnification rate should be written in order to facilitate comprehension of the study procedures. [ 1 , 2 ]

Flow diagram can be utilized in the ‘Results’ section. This diagram facilitates comprehension of the results obtained at certain steps of monitorization during the research process. Flow diagram can be used either in the ‘Results’ or ‘Material and Method’ section. [ 2 , 3 ]

Histopathological analyses, surgical technique or radiological images which are considered to be more useful for the comprehension of the text by the readers can be visually displayed. Important findings should be marked on photos, and their definitions should be provided clearly in the explanatory legends. [ 1 ]

As an example elucidating the abovementioned issues, graphics, and flow diagram in the ‘Results’ section of a research paper written by the authors of this review article, and published in the World Journal of Urology in the year 2010 (World J Urol 2010;28:17–22.) are shown in Figures 1 , and ​ and2 2 .

a The mean SHIM scores of the groups before and after treatment. SHIM sexual health inventory for male. b The mean IPSS scores of the groups before and after treatment. IPSS international prostate symptom score

Flowchart showing patients’ progress during the study. SHIM sexual health inventory for male, IIEF international index of erectile function, IPSS international prostate symptom score, QoL quality of life, Q max maximum urinary flow rate. PRV post voiding residual urine volume

In conclusion, in line with the motto of the famous German physicist Albert Einstein (1879–1955). ‘If you are out to describe the truth, leave elegance to the tailor .’ results obtained in a scientific research article should be expressed accurately, and with a masterstroke of a tailor in compliance with certain rules which will ensure acceptability of the scientific manuscript by the editorial board of the journal, and also facilitate its intelligibility by the readers.

How to Write a Research Proposal: (with Examples & Templates)

Table of Contents

Before conducting a study, a research proposal should be created that outlines researchers’ plans and methodology and is submitted to the concerned evaluating organization or person. Creating a research proposal is an important step to ensure that researchers are on track and are moving forward as intended. A research proposal can be defined as a detailed plan or blueprint for the proposed research that you intend to undertake. It provides readers with a snapshot of your project by describing what you will investigate, why it is needed, and how you will conduct the research.  

Your research proposal should aim to explain to the readers why your research is relevant and original, that you understand the context and current scenario in the field, have the appropriate resources to conduct the research, and that the research is feasible given the usual constraints.  

This article will describe in detail the purpose and typical structure of a research proposal , along with examples and templates to help you ace this step in your research journey.  

What is a Research Proposal ?  

A research proposal¹ ,²  can be defined as a formal report that describes your proposed research, its objectives, methodology, implications, and other important details. Research proposals are the framework of your research and are used to obtain approvals or grants to conduct the study from various committees or organizations. Consequently, research proposals should convince readers of your study’s credibility, accuracy, achievability, practicality, and reproducibility.   

With research proposals , researchers usually aim to persuade the readers, funding agencies, educational institutions, and supervisors to approve the proposal. To achieve this, the report should be well structured with the objectives written in clear, understandable language devoid of jargon. A well-organized research proposal conveys to the readers or evaluators that the writer has thought out the research plan meticulously and has the resources to ensure timely completion.  

Purpose of Research Proposals  

A research proposal is a sales pitch and therefore should be detailed enough to convince your readers, who could be supervisors, ethics committees, universities, etc., that what you’re proposing has merit and is feasible . Research proposals can help students discuss their dissertation with their faculty or fulfill course requirements and also help researchers obtain funding. A well-structured proposal instills confidence among readers about your ability to conduct and complete the study as proposed.  

Research proposals can be written for several reasons:³  

• To describe the importance of research in the specific topic  
• Address any potential challenges you may encounter  
• Showcase knowledge in the field and your ability to conduct a study  
• Apply for a role at a research institute  
• Convince a research supervisor or university that your research can satisfy the requirements of a degree program  
• Highlight the importance of your research to organizations that may sponsor your project  
• Identify implications of your project and how it can benefit the audience  

What Goes in a Research Proposal?    

Research proposals should aim to answer the three basic questions—what, why, and how.  

The What question should be answered by describing the specific subject being researched. It should typically include the objectives, the cohort details, and the location or setting.  

The Why question should be answered by describing the existing scenario of the subject, listing unanswered questions, identifying gaps in the existing research, and describing how your study can address these gaps, along with the implications and significance.  

The How question should be answered by describing the proposed research methodology, data analysis tools expected to be used, and other details to describe your proposed methodology.   

Research Proposal Example  

Here is a research proposal sample template (with examples) from the University of Rochester Medical Center. 4 The sections in all research proposals are essentially the same although different terminology and other specific sections may be used depending on the subject.  

Structure of a Research Proposal  

If you want to know how to make a research proposal impactful, include the following components:¹  

1. Introduction  

This section provides a background of the study, including the research topic, what is already known about it and the gaps, and the significance of the proposed research.  

2. Literature review  

This section contains descriptions of all the previous relevant studies pertaining to the research topic. Every study cited should be described in a few sentences, starting with the general studies to the more specific ones. This section builds on the understanding gained by readers in the Introduction section and supports it by citing relevant prior literature, indicating to readers that you have thoroughly researched your subject.  

3. Objectives  

Once the background and gaps in the research topic have been established, authors must now state the aims of the research clearly. Hypotheses should be mentioned here. This section further helps readers understand what your study’s specific goals are.  

4. Research design and methodology  

Here, authors should clearly describe the methods they intend to use to achieve their proposed objectives. Important components of this section include the population and sample size, data collection and analysis methods and duration, statistical analysis software, measures to avoid bias (randomization, blinding), etc.  

5. Ethical considerations  

This refers to the protection of participants’ rights, such as the right to privacy, right to confidentiality, etc. Researchers need to obtain informed consent and institutional review approval by the required authorities and mention this clearly for transparency.  

6. Budget/funding  

Researchers should prepare their budget and include all expected expenditures. An additional allowance for contingencies such as delays should also be factored in.  

7. Appendices  

This section typically includes information that supports the research proposal and may include informed consent forms, questionnaires, participant information, measurement tools, etc.  

8. Citations  

Important Tips for Writing a Research Proposal  

Writing a research proposal begins much before the actual task of writing. Planning the research proposal structure and content is an important stage, which if done efficiently, can help you seamlessly transition into the writing stage. 3,5  

The Planning Stage  

• Manage your time efficiently. Plan to have the draft version ready at least two weeks before your deadline and the final version at least two to three days before the deadline.
• What is the primary objective of your research?  
• Will your research address any existing gap?  
• What is the impact of your proposed research?  
• Do people outside your field find your research applicable in other areas?  
• If your research is unsuccessful, would there still be other useful research outcomes?  

  The Writing Stage  

• Create an outline with main section headings that are typically used.  
• Focus only on writing and getting your points across without worrying about the format of the research proposal , grammar, punctuation, etc. These can be fixed during the subsequent passes. Add details to each section heading you created in the beginning.   
• Ensure your sentences are concise and use plain language. A research proposal usually contains about 2,000 to 4,000 words or four to seven pages.  
• Don’t use too many technical terms and abbreviations assuming that the readers would know them. Define the abbreviations and technical terms.  
• Ensure that the entire content is readable. Avoid using long paragraphs because they affect the continuity in reading. Break them into shorter paragraphs and introduce some white space for readability.  
• Focus on only the major research issues and cite sources accordingly. Don’t include generic information or their sources in the literature review.  
• Proofread your final document to ensure there are no grammatical errors so readers can enjoy a seamless, uninterrupted read.  
• Use academic, scholarly language because it brings formality into a document.  
• Ensure that your title is created using the keywords in the document and is neither too long and specific nor too short and general.  
• Cite all sources appropriately to avoid plagiarism.  
• Make sure that you follow guidelines, if provided. This includes rules as simple as using a specific font or a hyphen or en dash between numerical ranges.  
• Ensure that you’ve answered all questions requested by the evaluating authority.  

Key Takeaways   

Here’s a summary of the main points about research proposals discussed in the previous sections:  

• A research proposal is a document that outlines the details of a proposed study and is created by researchers to submit to evaluators who could be research institutions, universities, faculty, etc.  
• Research proposals are usually about 2,000-4,000 words long, but this depends on the evaluating authority’s guidelines.  
• A good research proposal ensures that you’ve done your background research and assessed the feasibility of the research.  
• Research proposals have the following main sections—introduction, literature review, objectives, methodology, ethical considerations, and budget.  

Frequently Asked Questions  

Q1. How is a research proposal evaluated?  

A1. In general, most evaluators, including universities, broadly use the following criteria to evaluate research proposals . 6  

• Significance —Does the research address any important subject or issue, which may or may not be specific to the evaluator or university?  
• Content and design —Is the proposed methodology appropriate to answer the research question? Are the objectives clear and well aligned with the proposed methodology?  
• Sample size and selection —Is the target population or cohort size clearly mentioned? Is the sampling process used to select participants randomized, appropriate, and free of bias?  
• Timing —Are the proposed data collection dates mentioned clearly? Is the project feasible given the specified resources and timeline?  
• Data management and dissemination —Who will have access to the data? What is the plan for data analysis?  

Q2. What is the difference between the Introduction and Literature Review sections in a research proposal ?  

A2. The Introduction or Background section in a research proposal sets the context of the study by describing the current scenario of the subject and identifying the gaps and need for the research. A Literature Review, on the other hand, provides references to all prior relevant literature to help corroborate the gaps identified and the research need.  

Q3. How long should a research proposal be?  

A3. Research proposal lengths vary with the evaluating authority like universities or committees and also the subject. Here’s a table that lists the typical research proposal lengths for a few universities.  

Q4. What are the common mistakes to avoid in a research proposal ?  

A4. Here are a few common mistakes that you must avoid while writing a research proposal . 7  

• No clear objectives: Objectives should be clear, specific, and measurable for the easy understanding among readers.  
• Incomplete or unconvincing background research: Background research usually includes a review of the current scenario of the particular industry and also a review of the previous literature on the subject. This helps readers understand your reasons for undertaking this research because you identified gaps in the existing research.  
• Overlooking project feasibility: The project scope and estimates should be realistic considering the resources and time available.   
• Neglecting the impact and significance of the study: In a research proposal , readers and evaluators look for the implications or significance of your research and how it contributes to the existing research. This information should always be included.  
• Unstructured format of a research proposal : A well-structured document gives confidence to evaluators that you have read the guidelines carefully and are well organized in your approach, consequently affirming that you will be able to undertake the research as mentioned in your proposal.  
• Ineffective writing style: The language used should be formal and grammatically correct. If required, editors could be consulted, including AI-based tools such as Paperpal , to refine the research proposal structure and language.  

Thus, a research proposal is an essential document that can help you promote your research and secure funds and grants for conducting your research. Consequently, it should be well written in clear language and include all essential details to convince the evaluators of your ability to conduct the research as proposed.  

This article has described all the important components of a research proposal and has also provided tips to improve your writing style. We hope all these tips will help you write a well-structured research proposal to ensure receipt of grants or any other purpose.  

References  

• Sudheesh K, Duggappa DR, Nethra SS. How to write a research proposal? Indian J Anaesth. 2016;60(9):631-634. Accessed July 15, 2024. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5037942/  
• Writing research proposals. Harvard College Office of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships. Harvard University. Accessed July 14, 2024. https://uraf.harvard.edu/apply-opportunities/app-components/essays/research-proposals  
• What is a research proposal? Plus how to write one. Indeed website. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/research-proposal  
• Research proposal template. University of Rochester Medical Center. Accessed July 16, 2024. https://www.urmc.rochester.edu/MediaLibraries/URMCMedia/pediatrics/research/documents/Research-proposal-Template.pdf  
• Tips for successful proposal writing. Johns Hopkins University. Accessed July 17, 2024. https://research.jhu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Tips-for-Successful-Proposal-Writing.pdf  
• Formal review of research proposals. Cornell University. Accessed July 18, 2024. https://irp.dpb.cornell.edu/surveys/survey-assessment-review-group/research-proposals  
• 7 Mistakes you must avoid in your research proposal. Aveksana (via LinkedIn). Accessed July 17, 2024. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/7-mistakes-you-must-avoid-your-research-proposal-aveksana-cmtwf/  

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Sharing research data

As a researcher, you are increasingly encouraged, or even mandated, to make your research data available, accessible, discoverable and usable.

Sharing research data is something we are passionate about too, so we’ve created this short video and written guide to help you get started.

Research Data

What is research data.

While the definition often differs per field, generally, research data refers to the results of observations or experiments that validate your research findings. These span a range of useful materials associated with your research project, including:

Raw or processed data files

Research data  does not  include text in manuscript or final published article form, or data or other materials submitted and published as part of a journal article.

Why should I share my research data?

There are so many good reasons. We’ve listed just a few:

How you benefit

You get credit for the work you've done

Leads to more citations! 1

Can boost your number of publications

Increases your exposure and may lead to new collaborations

What it means for the research community

It's easy to reuse and reinterpret your data

Duplication of experiments can be avoided

New insights can be gained, sparking new lines of inquiry

Empowers replication

And society at large…

Greater transparency boosts public faith in research

Can play a role in guiding government policy

Improves access to research for those outside health and academia

Benefits the public purse as funding of repeat work is reduced

How do I share my research data?

The good news is it’s easy.

Yet to submit your research article?  There are a number of options available. These may vary depending on the journal you have chosen, so be sure to read the  Research Data  section in its  Guide for Authors  before you begin.

Already published your research article?  No problem – it’s never too late to share the research data associated with it.

Two of the most popular data sharing routes are:

Publishing a research elements article

These brief, peer-reviewed articles complement full research papers and are an easy way to receive proper credit and recognition for the work you have done. Research elements are research outputs that have come about as a result of following the research cycle – this includes things like data, methods and protocols, software, hardware and more.

You can publish research elements articles in several different Elsevier journals, including  our suite of dedicated Research Elements journals . They are easy to submit, are subject to a peer review process, receive a DOI and are fully citable. They also make your work more sharable, discoverable, comprehensible, reusable and reproducible.

The accompanying raw data can still be placed in a repository of your choice (see below).

Uploading your data to a repository like Mendeley Data

Mendeley Data is a certified, free-to-use repository that hosts open data from all disciplines, whatever its format (e.g. raw and processed data, tables, codes and software). With many Elsevier journals, it’s possible to upload and store your data to Mendeley Data during the manuscript submission process. You can also upload your data directly to the repository. In each case, your data will receive a DOI, making it independently citable and it can be linked to any associated article on ScienceDirect, making it easy for readers to find and reuse.

View an article featuring Mendeley data opens in new tab/window  (just select the  Research Data  link in the left-hand bar or scroll down the page).

What if I can’t submit my research data?

Data statements offer transparency.

We understand that there are times when the data is simply not available to post or there are good reasons why it shouldn’t be shared.  A number of Elsevier journals encourage authors to submit a data statement alongside their manuscript. This statement allows you to clearly explain the data you’ve used in the article and the reasons why it might not be available.  The statement will appear with the article on ScienceDirect. 

View a sample data statement opens in new tab/window  (just select the  Research Data  link in the left-hand bar or scroll down the page).

Showcasing your research data on ScienceDirect

We have 3 top tips to help you maximize the impact of your data in your article on ScienceDirect.

Link with data repositories

You can create bidirectional links between any data repositories you’ve used to store your data and your online article. If you’ve published a data article, you can link to that too.

Enrich with interactive data visualizations

The days of being confined to static visuals are over. Our in-article interactive viewers let readers delve into the data with helpful functions such as zoom, configurable display options and full screen mode.

Cite your research data

Get credit for your work by citing your research data in your article and adding a data reference to the reference list. This ensures you are recognized for the data you shared and/or used in your research. Read the  References  section in your chosen journal’s  Guide for Authors  for more information.

Ready to get started?

If you have yet to publish your research paper, the first step is to find the right journal for your submission and read the  Guide for Authors .

Find a journal by matching paper title and abstract of your manuscript in Elsevier's  JournalFinder opens in new tab/window

Find journal by title opens in new tab/window

Already published? Just view the options for sharing your research data above.

1 Several studies have now shown that making data available for an article increases article citations.

• Open access
• Published: 24 July 2024

Strategies used to detect and mitigate system-related errors over time: A qualitative study in an Australian health district

• Madaline Kinlay 1 ,
• Wu Yi Zheng 2 ,
• Rosemary Burke 3 ,
• Ilona Juraskova 4 ,
• Lai Mun Ho 3 ,
• Hannah Turton 3 ,
• Jason Trinh 3 &
• Melissa T. Baysari 1  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  839 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Electronic medical record (EMR) systems provide timely access to clinical information and have been shown to improve medication safety. However, EMRs can also create opportunities for error, including system-related errors or errors that were unlikely or not possible with the use of paper medication charts. This study aimed to determine the detection and mitigation strategies adopted by a health district in Australia to target system-related errors and to explore stakeholder views on strategies needed to curb future system-related errors from emerging.

A qualitative descriptive study design was used comprising semi-structured interviews. Data were collected from three hospitals within a health district in Sydney, Australia, between September 2020 and May 2021. Interviews were conducted with EMR users and other key stakeholders (e.g. clinical informatics team members). Participants were asked to reflect on how system-related errors changed over time, and to describe approaches taken by their organisation to detect and mitigate these errors. Thematic analysis was conducted iteratively using a general inductive approach, where codes were assigned as themes emerged from the data.

Interviews were conducted with 25 stakeholders. Participants reported that most system-related errors were detected by front-line clinicians. Following error detection, clinicians either reported system-related errors directly to the clinical informatics team or submitted reports to the incident information management system. System-related errors were also reported to be detected via reports run within the EMR, or during organisational processes such as incident investigations or system enhancement projects. EMR redesign was the main approach described by participants for mitigating system-related errors, however other strategies, like regular user education and minimising the use of hybrid systems, were also reported.

Conclusions

Initial detection of system-related errors relies heavily on front-line clinicians, however other organisational strategies that are proactive and layered can improve the systemic detection, investigation, and management of errors. Together with EMR design changes, complementary error mitigation strategies, including targeted staff education, can support safe EMR use and development.

Peer Review reports

An electronic medical record (EMR) provides access to longitudinal patient data and clinical information in a timely and convenient manner, [ 1 ] while allowing clinicians to prescribe, review and administer medications on a single digital platform, often with the assistance of clinical decision support. Although the use of EMR systems results in fewer medication errors, [ 2 ] they can also create new system-related errors; errors that were highly unlikely or not possible with the use of paper medication charts (e.g. a doctor selecting the wrong dose from a drop-down menu). Previous research has identified the types and factors contributing to system-related errors, [ 3 , 4 , 5 ] as well as their prevalence [ 6 ], but the detection of these errors can be challenging in both a clinical and research context. Research investigating the types and rates of system-related errors at two hospitals revealed that of the 493 system-related errors that were discovered, only 13% were detected by hospital staff prior to the study [ 4 ]. Further, the rate of system-related errors varies between studies, ranging from 1.2 to 34.8% of all errors [ 7 ] with this rate dependent on the detection method employed [ 6 ].

To our knowledge, there has been no research that has specifically examined how system-related errors are detected by the organisations impacted by them. While the first step in reducing system-related errors is error detection, another important component of error management is learning from previous errors and improving on processes and systems [ 8 , 9 ]. Our previous work has described EMR system enhancements made to target system-related errors, [ 10 ] however research on how system-related errors are rectified or managed once error detection has occurred is in its infancy. Therefore, the current study asked the following research questions: (1) what are the detection and mitigation strategies adopted by a health district to target system-related errors? and (2) what are stakeholder views on strategies needed to curb future system-related errors from emerging?

This study formed part of a larger qualitative research project examining stakeholder understanding and experiences of system-related errors [ 11 ]. The research was conducted at three hospitals in Sydney, Australia, that used the same commercial EMR system (Cerner Millennium ® ). The system had been in place for different durations at each site (14 years, 4 years and 2 years) and roll-out strategies varied in length and approach.

Recruitment and data collection

Participants included any hospital employee who dealt with the EMR directly or indirectly, including end-users (i.e., doctors, nurses, pharmacists), clinical informatics team members (e.g. system trainers), members of relevant committees (e.g. medicine safety committee) and department directors. A clinical informatics pharmacist at each site identified individuals who they believed were knowledgeable about the EMR or had relevant roles, and the research team invited these potential participants to take part via email. This technique was combined with snowball sampling, where participants were asked to propose additional staff members for inclusion. In total, 45 email invitations were distributed.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted either by video conference or in-person at the hospital. Interviews were in two parts. In Part 1, reported elsewhere, [ 11 ] participants were asked to describe common system-related errors and factors contributing to them. In Part 2, reported here, participants were asked to reflect on how system-related errors changed over time, and to describe detection and mitigation strategies their organisation had adopted. Separate interview guides were created for end-users and for individuals who supported EMR use (see the Additional file 1 and 2 ). Interview guides were developed by a multi-disciplinary team, including clinicians, and those with extensive knowledge of the EMR. Participants had the option to contact the researcher with any additional questions or comments following the interview. The lead investigator (MK), a student completing interviews as part of her doctoral degree, obtained written consent from participants and conducted all interviews. The interviewer was not known to participants before interviews commenced. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim and de-identified. Data collection ceased upon reaching thematic saturation across the overall dataset [ 12 ].

Data analysis

Interviews were thematically analysed using a general inductive approach, where codes were assigned as themes emerged from the data [ 13 ]. Three researchers (MK, MB and WYZ) independently coded data from individual interviews into themes and met at regular intervals to discuss categories and resolve discrepancies. Data from the two different interview groups (end-users and individuals who supported EMR use) were analysed together, but general participant identifiers (users/EMR team) were maintained to allow any differences in the two groups to be identified. After agreeing upon a coding framework, researchers coded the remaining interviews and undertook a final review to discuss ambiguities, inconsistencies and confirm major themes and subthemes. Themes were checked by multi-disciplinary members of the research team, including clinicians and EMR experts, who confirmed face validity.

This project was approved by the district’s Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC reference number: 2020/ETH00198). All participants provided informed written consent to participate, including to be audio-recorded.

Participant demographics

Interviews were conducted with 25 stakeholders, comprising 15 clinicians (end users of the EMR) and 10 staff from the EMR implementation and support team. Participant demographics appear in Table  1 (see [1] for more detailed demographics). Interviews occurred between September 2020 and May 2021 and took an average of 35 min, ranging from 9 to 55 min. No differences emerged in the results from end-users and individuals who supported EMR use, and therefore themes for these groups are presented together. Note that CI preceding a participant code (e.g. CIDR vs. DR) indicates the quotation relates to a clinical informatics (EMR) expert, not end-user.

An overview of the themes and subthemes, along with corresponding codes and quotations from interviews, is presented in Table  2 .

Detection of system-related errors

Participants described several methods by which system-related errors were detected by the hospital sites (see Fig.  1 ).

Flowchart depicting the process by which system-related errors are detected and mitigated by hospital staff, based on the themes extracted from interviews with key stakeholders. SRE = System-related error, IIMS = Incident information management system, EMR = Electronic medication record

Detection of system-related errors by clinicians

Detection by front-line clinicians was the primary method of system-related error detection reported by participants. Specifically, participants explained that pharmacists identified system-related errors during medication review or reconciliation, and nurses detected system-related errors when completing routine checks prior to administering medications. ‘All orders get verified by a pharmacist , so that pharmacist might intervene if they recognise that an error has occurred by reviewing the order. And nursing staff will also check orders and before administering medications , and they may recognise one of these system errors.’ (CIDR2).

However, some participants noted that detecting system-related errors was often difficult for nurses as it required them to discern the intended prescription from the recorded prescription.

Organisational processes in place to detect system-related errors

One of the most frequent organisational strategies highlighted by participants to complement clinicians’ detection of system-related errors was clinicians reporting potential system-related errors to the clinical informatics team, who then ascertained whether the error was in fact system-related. Clinical informatics team members noted that system-related errors were difficult to detect without clinician input, and investigations into system-related errors were often dependent on clinicians bringing potential cases to their attention. ‘Frankly speaking , you don’t have anything that can alert you […] It requires a lot of clinicians reporting these issues back to me , for me to be able to know these things are happening on the ward.’ (CIPH2).

Participants also explained that system-related errors could be detected via the Incident Information Management System (IIMS); the organisation’s voluntary reporting system for clinical, work health and safety, and security events. ‘So , at a high level they can be reported through our incident monitoring system.’ (PH3).

However, interviewees also noted that this detection strategy relied upon clinicians identifying and proactively self-reporting system-related errors. ‘In terms of how we found out about them , incident reporting is something I think we are hoping to be more and more proactive about.’ (CIDR2).

Another method reportedly used by clinical informatics staff to detect system-related errors was the generation of specific reports within the EMR, such as a monthly report of pharmacy interventions to identify reports that cited the involvement of an EMR system issue. These reports displayed trends in error types and were viewed as useful for determining whether specific system-related errors occurred regularly and what factors could be contributing to error occurrence. ‘I will run reports on the EMR to see whether there is a consistent pattern that is happening across the facility. […] Identifying patterns , identifying whether it’s a prescribing issue or whether it’s a nursing workflow issues , or whether it is actually an EMR issue.’ (CIPH2).

Some participants reported that errors were detected by a clinician or project team during inquiries into adverse patient events or during EMR system enhancements when intensive testing sometimes uncovered system-related errors. For instance, when creating a new cancer module in the EMR, project team members discovered that chemotherapy prescriptions did not display all the necessary order components to the user.

Management and mitigation of system-related errors over time

Participants described various approaches to manage and reduce system-related errors, including EMR design changes and organisational strategies (see Fig.  1 ).

EMR design changes to mitigate system-related errors

Participants explained that after clinicians escalated concerns to the clinical informatics team and a system-related error was confirmed, the EMR system design was modified, if this was deemed to be essential and possible. Modification of the EMR system design could occur when the clinical informatics team recognised a patient safety or workflow benefit from the change and the system was able to be altered (i.e. no system configuration limitations). ‘Where we have found people making mistakes , we’ve been able to implement some actions to circumvent them.’ (PH3).

Looking forward, participants stated that over time they would expect fewer system-related errors, attributing this reduction to the fact that errors had been identified and rectified.

‘Because , one , we are better aware of how to design the system to reduce the likelihood of some of these errors.’ (CIDR2).

Participants provided specific examples of system redesign to target system-related errors (see Table  3 ). A frequently reported category of system redesign was the addition of alerts for specific processes and medications, such as high-risk medications. Improved visibility and clarity of information in the EMR was another strategy reported by participants to mitigate system-related errors. Participants also described a more intuitive and consistent system. References were made to incorporating human factors design principles into the EMR and ensuring the system aligns with workflow. For example, one doctor suggested that the system become more user-friendly when adjusting doses and times, while a pharmacist proposed that the system provide more clarity of the job role required so that clinicians know which tasks to attend to on the system (i.e., checking off a box is only for nurses).

Although EMR design changes were said to decrease system-related errors, participants highlighted that it was possible for these system functionality changes to result in new types of errors over time.

‘As we continue to change it and change the workflows , we will get different errors’ (CIPH3).

Participants also noted that some current system-related errors would remain, citing constraints in the system build, preventing design changes that could resolve errors and therefore requiring other strategies to manage these system-related errors. ‘There’s always going to be the [errors] that we can’t resolve , in that we can’t change the way the system is built’ (CINU1).

Organisational strategies to mitigate system-related errors

The most frequently reported organisational strategy employed to minimise system-related errors was education, either to an individual user, a group of clinicians, or hospital-wide. Providing individual feedback or training was said to occur in response to a specific incident, usually in cases where unfamiliarity with the EMR was believed to have contributed to the error. When system-related errors were more widespread, occurring across a particular cohort, ward or hospital, participants explained that education was delivered more broadly.

‘Once [nurses] have flagged the problem to the helpdesk , the supervisor or whoever’s in charge , […] they will try to find the problem and then give us advice on what to do next.’ (NU7).

Participants referred to examples where system functionality or configuration was unable to be changed after identification of a system-related error, and so staff education and training focused on safely bypassing system limitations or constraints so that work could continue.

Although education was viewed to be an effective strategy for reducing system-related errors, some participants reported the challenge of system-related errors persisting due to staff turnover and the employment of new clinicians.

‘Because its constantly new staff coming in , they then don’t know the messages that have been sent out last year… They tend to make the same mistake again at some point or another.’ (PH3).

However, participants explained that with more widespread EMR use in the future, users would become more familiar and confident with the system, and fewer system-related errors would result. Despite this, new errors were reported to also arise when users take more shortcuts or workarounds as they become more familiar with the system. For example, a clinical informatics pharmacist described clinicians exporting information from previous admissions into the patient’s current medication chart without consulting the patient.

‘You’re seeing different types of errors where prescribers are very comfortable now with using information from previous admissions but forgetting that they also need to talk to patient and get updated information … When you’re familiar with the system , you kind of take certain shortcuts.’ (CIPH2).

Some clinical informatics team members noted that raising issues with the chief executive or chief information officer was another organisational strategy used to mitigate system-related errors, particularly when system-related errors were likely to be occurring at other hospital sites and system changes at a broader level were necessary.

Finally, minimising the use of hybrid systems (i.e., paper and electronic systems, dual electronic systems), was mentioned by some participants as another strategy to reduce system-related errors. However, participants also noted that as users become less familiar with paper-based medication charts, new errors may arise when clinicians are required to use paper charts during EMR downtime. ‘Some of the new , younger generation , they find it difficult to use as a paper form , when a downtime happens.’ (NU5).

Interviews uncovered detection and mitigation strategies implemented by a health district to target system-related errors, including existing and potential methods required to prevent future errors from occurring. Participants explained that initial detection of system-related errors was highly dependent on clinicians identifying errors. Once error detection occurred, participants highlighted that clinicians either directly reported these errors to the clinical informatics team or submitted an IIMS report for escalation. EMR redesign was described as the main approach for error reduction, however other organisational strategies, like regular user education and minimising the use of hybrid systems were also reported.

It is noteworthy that many of the reported approaches for system-related error detection put the onus on clinicians to identify and subsequently report errors. Although verbal and incident reporting by clinicians are conventional methods of error detection, irrespective of EMR involvement, [ 14 ] system-related errors are challenging for clinicians to recognise and may go unnoticed unless they lead to an error (i.e. medication error) or adverse patient event [ 15 ]. Clinicians’ reliance on the EMR system for care delivery is growing due to an increase in automation and system guidance, [ 16 , 17 ] influencing their ability to recognise a system-related error. Additionally, the complexity of the EMR system, [ 18 ] unfamiliarity with the EMR, and distraction caused by competing priorities [ 19 ] can all hinder detection of system-related errors.

In addition to difficulties in error detection, challenges associated with reporting of system-related errors are also likely. Clinicians may not report system-related errors if they fear individual blame or punishment, [ 20 ] or are unsupported in their efforts to improve patient safety [ 21 , 22 ]. Factors driving under-reporting of incidents are likely to also be at play in reporting of system-related errors to clinical informatics teams, including a perception of low value of reporting if reports are not used to identify error patterns and prevent future incidents [ 23 ].

Implementing a systematic feedback process, where clinicians are informed of changes to EMR systems or processes that result from reporting, would increase the perceived value, confidence and motivation to report system-related errors. The challenges associated with clinician detection and reporting of system-related errors highlight the importance of utilising complementary strategies to detect these errors. We found that system enhancement projects, as well as EMR reports, were other proactive methods of detection, though reported less often. Combining reactive front-line detection with proactive clinical surveillance and monitoring is likely to ensure system-related errors are promptly identified and investigated [ 15 ].

EMR design changes were the most common approach suggested by participants to reduce system related errors, with many believing EMR redesign would result in fewer system-related errors. However, an unintended consequence of modifying system configuration was the generation of different system-related errors, and several participants stated that certain errors would persist as constraints in the EMR system build limited design alterations. While incremental design changes are necessary for maintenance and development of the EMR system, [ 24 ] the possibility of design changes resulting in the emergence of different system-related errors reinforces the importance of testing environments that simulate real-life EMR situations prior to the go-live of any modifications [ 25 ].

Education, either one-on-one, to a particular cohort, or hospital wide, was another mitigation strategy we identified to reduce system-related errors. Despite the reported benefits of education, participants noted that staff turnover and the employment of new staff could contribute to an increase in errors. By regularly updating training material and providing periodic, targeted education (e.g. as part of onboarding new staff), this would ensure new staff are aware of the most up-to-date material and minimise the risk of medication errors [ 26 ]. Participants indicated that as more staff become proficient in using EMRs, there are likely be fewer system-related errors, but potentially larger numbers of workarounds, with previous research supporting this latter suggestion [ 27 , 28 ]. Although workarounds can compromise patient safety and quality of care, [ 29 ] comprehensive training about EMR risks and ongoing support for EMR users, can reduce clinicians’ use of workarounds [ 3 ].

Strengths and limitations

Qualitative research methods allowed the authors to conduct, for the first time, an in-depth investigation of detection and mitigation strategies, however this research did not measure how often system-related errors were detected or the effectiveness of improvement methods. Additionally, interviews were conducted with clinicians and key stakeholders in one Local Health District, across only three hospitals, and therefore results may not be generalisable to other settings and the detection and mitigation approaches identified may not be exhaustive.

To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine how system-related errors are detected by organisations and adds to the growing body of evidence exploring error mitigation. Front-line clinicians play a critical role in system-related error detection, however other organisational approaches, such as system enhancement projects, improve systemic error detection, investigation, and management. Organisations must take a proactive approach to error identification and ensure detection processes are layered. Although EMR design changes were highlighted as important for error reduction, changes were not always possible. Complementary strategies, such as targeted staff education, can support safe use of the EMR and its ongoing development.

Data availability

The qualitative data collected from participants for this study are not available.

Abbreviations

• Electronic medical record

Medication Administration Record

Incident Information Management System

Clinical Informatics

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This work was supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) Scholarship to MK.

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Contributions

MK, MB and WYS designed the study. RB, LMH, HT and JT assisted in the recruitment of participants. MK analysed the data, with assistance from MB and WYZ. All authors assisted in interpreting results and writing the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Melissa T. Baysari .

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Kinlay, M., Zheng, W.Y., Burke, R. et al. Strategies used to detect and mitigate system-related errors over time: A qualitative study in an Australian health district. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 839 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11309-0

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11309-0

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This Research Topic aims to collect all the Case Reports submitted to the Intensive Care Cardiovascular section. If submitted directly to this collection, the paper will be personally assessed by the Specialty Chief Editor, before the beginning of the peer-review process. Please make sure your article adheres to the following guidelines before submitting it. Case Reports highlight unique cases of patients that present with an unexpected diagnosis, treatment outcome, or clinical course: 1) RARE cases with TYPICAL features 2) FREQUENT cases with ATYPICAL features 3) Cases with a convincing response to new treatments, i.e. single case of off-label use Case Report format: - Maximum word count: 3000 words - Title: Case Report: “Area of focus” - Abstract: Include a visual or graphical abstract representation of the case. - Introduction: including what is unique about the case and medical literature references. - Case description: including de-identified patient information, relevant physical examination and other clinical findings, relevant past interventions, and their outcomes. - A figure or table showcasing a timeline with relevant data from the episode of care. - Diagnostic assessment, details on the therapeutic intervention, follow-up, and outcomes, as specified in the CARE guidelines. - Discussion: strengths and limitations of the approach to the case, discussion of the relevant medical literature (similar and contrasting cases), take-away lessons from the case. - Patient perspective. Please, note that authors are required to obtain written informed consent from the patients (or their legal representatives) for the publication. IMPORTANT: Only Case Reports that are original and significantly advance the field will be considered.

Keywords : intensive care, case reports

Important Note : All contributions to this Research Topic must be within the scope of the section and journal to which they are submitted, as defined in their mission statements. Frontiers reserves the right to guide an out-of-scope manuscript to a more suitable section or journal at any stage of peer review.

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