essay about communication history

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1.1 Communication: History and Forms

Learning objectives.

• Define communication.
• Discuss the history of communication from ancient to modern times.
• List the five forms of communication.
• Distinguish among the five forms of communication.
• Review the various career options for students who study communication.

Before we dive into the history of communication, it is important that we have a shared understanding of what we mean by the word communication . For our purposes in this book, we will define communication as the process of generating meaning by sending and receiving verbal and nonverbal symbols and signs that are influenced by multiple contexts. This definition builds on other definitions of communication that have been rephrased and refined over many years. In fact, since the systematic study of communication began in colleges and universities a little over one hundred years ago, there have been more than 126 published definitions of communication (Dance & Larson, 1976). In order to get a context for how communication has been conceptualized and studied, let’s look at a history of the field.

From Aristotle to Obama: A Brief History of Communication

While there are rich areas of study in animal communication and interspecies communication, our focus in this book is on human communication. Even though all animals communicate, as human beings we have a special capacity to use symbols to communicate about things outside our immediate temporal and spatial reality (Dance & Larson). For example, we have the capacity to use abstract symbols, like the word education , to discuss a concept that encapsulates many aspects of teaching and learning. We can also reflect on the past and imagine our future. The ability to think outside our immediate reality is what allows us to create elaborate belief systems, art, philosophy, and academic theories. It’s true that you can teach a gorilla to sign words like food and baby , but its ability to use symbols doesn’t extend to the same level of abstraction as ours. However, humans haven’t always had the sophisticated communication systems that we do today.

Some scholars speculate that humans’ first words were onomatopoetic. You may remember from your English classes that onomatopoeia refers to words that sound like that to which they refer—words like boing , drip , gurgle , swoosh , and whack . Just think about how a prehistoric human could have communicated a lot using these words and hand gestures. He or she could use gurgle to alert others to the presence of water or swoosh and whack to recount what happened on a hunt. In any case, this primitive ability to communicate provided an evolutionary advantage. Those humans who could talk were able to cooperate, share information, make better tools, impress mates, or warn others of danger, which led them to have more offspring who were also more predisposed to communicate (Poe, 2011). This eventually led to the development of a “Talking Culture” during the “Talking Era.” During this 150,000 year period of human existence, ranging from 180,000 BCE to 3500 BCE, talking was the only medium of communication, aside from gestures, that humans had (Poe, 2011).

The beginning of the “Manuscript Era,” around 3500 BCE, marked the turn from oral to written culture. This evolution in communication corresponded with a shift to a more settled, agrarian way of life (Poe, 2011). As hunter-gatherers settled into small villages and began to plan ahead for how to plant, store, protect, and trade or sell their food, they needed accounting systems to keep track of their materials and record transactions. While such transactions were initially tracked with actual objects that symbolized an amount—for example, five pebbles represented five measures of grain—symbols, likely carved into clay, later served as the primary method of record keeping. In this case, five dots might equal five measures of grain.

During this period, villages also developed class systems as more successful farmers turned businessmen prospered and took leadership positions. Religion also became more complex, and a new class of spiritual leaders emerged. Soon, armies were needed to protect the stockpiled resources from others who might want to steal it. The emergence of elite classes and the rise of armies required records and bookkeeping, which furthered the spread of written symbols. As clergy, the ruling elite, and philosophers began to take up writing, the systems became more complex. The turn to writing didn’t threaten the influential place of oral communication, however. During the near 5,000-year period of the “Manuscript Era,” literacy, or the ability to read and write, didn’t spread far beyond the most privileged in society. In fact, it wasn’t until the 1800s that widespread literacy existed in the world.

The end of the “Manuscript Era” marked a shift toward a rapid increase in communication technologies. The “Print Era” extended from 1450 to 1850 and was marked by the invention of the printing press and the ability to mass-produce written texts. This 400-year period gave way to the “Audiovisual Era,” which only lasted 140 years, from 1850 to 1990, and was marked by the invention of radio, telegraph, telephone, and television. Our current period, the “Internet Era,” has only lasted from 1990 until the present. This period has featured the most rapid dispersion of a new method of communication, as the spread of the Internet and the expansion of digital and personal media signaled the beginning of the digital age.

The evolution of communication media, from speaking to digital technology, has also influenced the field of communication studies. To better understand how this field of study developed, we must return to the “Manuscript Era,” which saw the production of the earliest writings about communication. In fact, the oldest essay and book ever found were written about communication (McCroskey, 1984). Although this essay and book predate Aristotle, he is a logical person to start with when tracing the development of the communication scholarship. His writings on communication, although not the oldest, are the most complete and systematic. Ancient Greek philosophers and scholars such as Aristotle theorized about the art of rhetoric , which refers to speaking well and persuasively. Today, we hear the word rhetoric used in negative ways. A politician, for example, may write off his or her opponent’s statements as “just rhetoric.” This leads us to believe that rhetoric refers to misleading, false, or unethical communication, which is not at all in keeping with the usage of the word by ancient or contemporary communication experts. While rhetoric does refer primarily to persuasive communication messages, much of the writing and teaching about rhetoric conveys the importance of being an ethical rhetor , or communicator. So when a communicator, such as a politician, speaks in misleading, vague, or dishonest ways, he or she isn’t using rhetoric; he or she is being an unethical speaker.

The study of rhetoric focused on public communication, primarily oratory used in discussions or debates regarding laws and policy, speeches delivered in courts, and speeches intended to praise or blame another person. The connections among rhetoric, policy making, and legal proceedings show that communication and citizenship have been connected since the study of communication began. Throughout this book, we will continue to make connections between communication, ethics, and civic engagement.

Much of the public speaking in ancient Greece took place in courtrooms or in political contexts.

Karen Neoh – Courtroom – CC BY 2.0.

Ancient Greek rhetoricians like Aristotle were followed by Roman orators like Cicero. Cicero contributed to the field of rhetoric by expanding theories regarding the five canons of rhetoric, which include invention, arrangement, style, delivery, and memory. Invention refers to the use of evidence and arguments to think about things in new ways and is the most studied of the five canons. Arrangement refers to the organization of speech, style refers to the use of language, and delivery refers to the vocal and physical characteristics of a speaker. Memory is the least studied of the five canons and refers to the techniques employed by speakers of that era to retain and then repeat large amounts of information. The Age of Enlightenment in the 1700s marked a societal turn toward scientific discovery and the acquisition of knowledge, which led to an explosion of philosophical and scientific writings on many aspects of human existence. This focus on academic development continued into the 1900s and the establishment of distinct communication studies departments.

Communication studies as a distinct academic discipline with departments at universities and colleges has only existed for a little over one hundred years (Keith, 2008). Although rhetoric has long been a key part of higher education, and colleges and universities have long recognized the importance of speaking, communication departments did not exist. In the early 1900s, professors with training and expertise in communication were often housed in rhetoric or English departments and were sometimes called “professors of speech.” During this time, tension began to build between professors of English who studied rhetoric as the written word and professors of speech who studied rhetoric as the spoken word. In 1914, a group of ten speech teachers who were members of the National Council of Teachers of English broke off from the organization and started the National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking, which eventually evolved into today’s National Communication Association. There was also a distinction of focus and interest among professors of speech. While some focused on the quality of ideas, arguments, and organization, others focused on coaching the performance and delivery aspects of public speaking (Keith, 2008). Instruction in the latter stressed the importance of “oratory” or “elocution,” and this interest in reading and speaking aloud is sustained today in theatre and performance studies and also in oral interpretation classes, which are still taught in many communication departments.

The formalization of speech departments led to an expanded view of the role of communication. Even though Aristotle and other ancient rhetoricians and philosophers had theorized the connection between rhetoric and citizenship, the role of the communicator became the focus instead of solely focusing on the message. James A. Winans, one of the first modern speech teachers and an advocate for teaching communication in higher education, said there were “two motives for learning to speak. Increasing one’s chance to succeed and increasing one’s power to serve” (Keith, 2008). Later, as social psychology began to expand in academic institutions, speech communication scholars saw places for connection to further expand definitions of communication to include social and psychological contexts.

Today, you can find elements of all these various aspects of communication being studied in communication departments. If we use President Obama as a case study, we can see the breadth of the communication field. Within one department, you may have fairly traditional rhetoricians who study the speeches of President Obama in comparison with other presidential rhetoric. Others may study debates between presidential candidates, dissecting the rhetorical strategies used, for example, by Mitt Romney and Barack Obama. Expanding from messages to channels of communication, scholars may study how different media outlets cover presidential politics. At an interpersonal level, scholars may study what sorts of conflicts emerge within families that have liberal and conservative individuals. At a cultural level, communication scholars could study how the election of an African American president creates a narrative of postracial politics. Our tour from Aristotle to Obama was quick, but hopefully instructive. Now let’s turn to a discussion of the five major forms of communication.

Forms of Communication

Forms of communication vary in terms of participants, channels used, and contexts. The five main forms of communication, all of which will be explored in much more detail in this book, are intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass communication. This book is designed to introduce you to all these forms of communication. If you find one of these forms particularly interesting, you may be able to take additional courses that focus specifically on it. You may even be able to devise a course of study around one of these forms as a communication major. In the following we will discuss the similarities and differences among each form of communication, including its definition, level of intentionality, goals, and contexts.

Intrapersonal Communication

Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself using internal vocalization or reflective thinking. Like other forms of communication, intrapersonal communication is triggered by some internal or external stimulus. We may, for example, communicate with our self about what we want to eat due to the internal stimulus of hunger, or we may react intrapersonally to an event we witness. Unlike other forms of communication, intrapersonal communication takes place only inside our heads. The other forms of communication must be perceived by someone else to count as communication. So what is the point of intrapersonal communication if no one else even sees it?

Intrapersonal communication is communication with ourselves that takes place in our heads.

Sarah – Pondering – CC BY 2.0.

Intrapersonal communication serves several social functions. Internal vocalization, or talking to ourselves, can help us achieve or maintain social adjustment (Dance & Larson, 1972). For example, a person may use self-talk to calm himself down in a stressful situation, or a shy person may remind herself to smile during a social event. Intrapersonal communication also helps build and maintain our self-concept. We form an understanding of who we are based on how other people communicate with us and how we process that communication intrapersonally. The shy person in the earlier example probably internalized shyness as a part of her self-concept because other people associated her communication behaviors with shyness and may have even labeled her “shy” before she had a firm grasp on what that meant. We will discuss self-concept much more in Chapter 2 “Communication and Perception” , which focuses on perception. We also use intrapersonal communication or “self-talk” to let off steam, process emotions, think through something, or rehearse what we plan to say or do in the future. As with the other forms of communication, competent intrapersonal communication helps facilitate social interaction and can enhance our well-being. Conversely, the breakdown in the ability of a person to intrapersonally communicate is associated with mental illness (Dance & Larson, 1972).

Sometimes we intrapersonally communicate for the fun of it. I’m sure we have all had the experience of laughing aloud because we thought of something funny. We also communicate intrapersonally to pass time. I bet there is a lot of intrapersonal communication going on in waiting rooms all over the world right now. In both of these cases, intrapersonal communication is usually unplanned and doesn’t include a clearly defined goal (Dance & Larson, 1972). We can, however, engage in more intentional intrapersonal communication. In fact, deliberate self-reflection can help us become more competent communicators as we become more mindful of our own behaviors. For example, your internal voice may praise or scold you based on a thought or action.

Of the forms of communication, intrapersonal communication has received the least amount of formal study. It is rare to find courses devoted to the topic, and it is generally separated from the remaining four types of communication. The main distinction is that intrapersonal communication is not created with the intention that another person will perceive it. In all the other levels, the fact that the communicator anticipates consumption of their message is very important.

Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives mutually influence one another. Interpersonal communication builds, maintains, and ends our relationships, and we spend more time engaged in interpersonal communication than the other forms of communication. Interpersonal communication occurs in various contexts and is addressed in subfields of study within communication studies such as intercultural communication, organizational communication, health communication, and computer-mediated communication. After all, interpersonal relationships exist in all those contexts.

Interpersonal communication can be planned or unplanned, but since it is interactive, it is usually more structured and influenced by social expectations than intrapersonal communication. Interpersonal communication is also more goal oriented than intrapersonal communication and fulfills instrumental and relational needs. In terms of instrumental needs, the goal may be as minor as greeting someone to fulfill a morning ritual or as major as conveying your desire to be in a committed relationship with someone. Interpersonal communication meets relational needs by communicating the uniqueness of a specific relationship. Since this form of communication deals so directly with our personal relationships and is the most common form of communication, instances of miscommunication and communication conflict most frequently occur here (Dance & Larson, 1972). Couples, bosses and employees, and family members all have to engage in complex interpersonal communication, and it doesn’t always go well. In order to be a competent interpersonal communicator, you need conflict management skills and listening skills, among others, to maintain positive relationships.

Group Communication

Group communication is communication among three or more people interacting to achieve a shared goal. You have likely worked in groups in high school and college, and if you’re like most students, you didn’t enjoy it. Even though it can be frustrating, group work in an academic setting provides useful experience and preparation for group work in professional settings. Organizations have been moving toward more team-based work models, and whether we like it or not, groups are an integral part of people’s lives. Therefore the study of group communication is valuable in many contexts.

Since many businesses and organizations are embracing team models, learning about group communication can help these groups be more effective.

RSNY – Team – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Group communication is more intentional and formal than interpersonal communication. Unlike interpersonal relationships, which are voluntary, individuals in a group are often assigned to their position within a group. Additionally, group communication is often task focused, meaning that members of the group work together for an explicit purpose or goal that affects each member of the group. Goal-oriented communication in interpersonal interactions usually relates to one person; for example, I may ask my friend to help me move this weekend. Goal-oriented communication at the group level usually focuses on a task assigned to the whole group; for example, a group of people may be tasked to figure out a plan for moving a business from one office to another.

You know from previous experience working in groups that having more communicators usually leads to more complicated interactions. Some of the challenges of group communication relate to task-oriented interactions, such as deciding who will complete each part of a larger project. But many challenges stem from interpersonal conflict or misunderstandings among group members. Since group members also communicate with and relate to each other interpersonally and may have preexisting relationships or develop them during the course of group interaction, elements of interpersonal communication occur within group communication too. Chapter 13 “Small Group Communication” and Chapter 14 “Leadership, Roles, and Problem Solving in Groups” of this book, which deal with group communication, will help you learn how to be a more effective group communicator by learning about group theories and processes as well as the various roles that contribute to and detract from the functioning of a group.

Public Communication

Public communication is a sender-focused form of communication in which one person is typically responsible for conveying information to an audience. Public speaking is something that many people fear, or at least don’t enjoy. But, just like group communication, public speaking is an important part of our academic, professional, and civic lives. When compared to interpersonal and group communication, public communication is the most consistently intentional, formal, and goal-oriented form of communication we have discussed so far.

Public communication, at least in Western societies, is also more sender focused than interpersonal or group communication. It is precisely this formality and focus on the sender that makes many new and experienced public speakers anxious at the thought of facing an audience. One way to begin to manage anxiety toward public speaking is to begin to see connections between public speaking and other forms of communication with which we are more familiar and comfortable. Despite being formal, public speaking is very similar to the conversations that we have in our daily interactions. For example, although public speakers don’t necessarily develop individual relationships with audience members, they still have the benefit of being face-to-face with them so they can receive verbal and nonverbal feedback. Later in this chapter, you will learn some strategies for managing speaking anxiety, since presentations are undoubtedly a requirement in the course for which you are reading this book. Then, in Chapter 9 “Preparing a Speech” , Chapter 10 “Delivering a Speech” , Chapter 11 “Informative and Persuasive Speaking” , and Chapter 12 “Public Speaking in Various Contexts” , you will learn how to choose an appropriate topic, research and organize your speech, effectively deliver your speech, and evaluate your speeches in order to improve.

Mass Communication

Public communication becomes mass communication when it is transmitted to many people through print or electronic media. Print media such as newspapers and magazines continue to be an important channel for mass communication, although they have suffered much in the past decade due in part to the rise of electronic media. Television, websites, blogs, and social media are mass communication channels that you probably engage with regularly. Radio, podcasts, and books are other examples of mass media. The technology required to send mass communication messages distinguishes it from the other forms of communication. A certain amount of intentionality goes into transmitting a mass communication message since it usually requires one or more extra steps to convey the message. This may involve pressing “Enter” to send a Facebook message or involve an entire crew of camera people, sound engineers, and production assistants to produce a television show. Even though the messages must be intentionally transmitted through technology, the intentionality and goals of the person actually creating the message, such as the writer, television host, or talk show guest, vary greatly. The president’s State of the Union address is a mass communication message that is very formal, goal oriented, and intentional, but a president’s verbal gaffe during a news interview is not.

Technological advances such as the printing press, television, and the more recent digital revolution have made mass communication a prominent feature of our daily lives.

Savannah River Site – Atmospheric Technology – CC BY 2.0.

Mass communication differs from other forms of communication in terms of the personal connection between participants. Even though creating the illusion of a personal connection is often a goal of those who create mass communication messages, the relational aspect of interpersonal and group communication isn’t inherent within this form of communication. Unlike interpersonal, group, and public communication, there is no immediate verbal and nonverbal feedback loop in mass communication. Of course you could write a letter to the editor of a newspaper or send an e-mail to a television or radio broadcaster in response to a story, but the immediate feedback available in face-to-face interactions is not present. With new media technologies like Twitter, blogs, and Facebook, feedback is becoming more immediate. Individuals can now tweet directly “at” (@) someone and use hashtags (#) to direct feedback to mass communication sources. Many radio and television hosts and news organizations specifically invite feedback from viewers/listeners via social media and may even share the feedback on the air.

The technology to mass-produce and distribute communication messages brings with it the power for one voice or a series of voices to reach and affect many people. This power makes mass communication different from the other levels of communication. While there is potential for unethical communication at all the other levels, the potential consequences of unethical mass communication are important to consider. Communication scholars who focus on mass communication and media often take a critical approach in order to examine how media shapes our culture and who is included and excluded in various mediated messages. We will discuss the intersection of media and communication more in Chapter 15 “Media, Technology, and Communication” and Chapter 16 “New Media and Communication” .

“Getting Real”

What Can You Do with a Degree in Communication Studies?

You’re hopefully already beginning to see that communication studies is a diverse and vibrant field of study. The multiple subfields and concentrations within the field allow for exciting opportunities for study in academic contexts but can create confusion and uncertainty when a person considers what they might do for their career after studying communication. It’s important to remember that not every college or university will have courses or concentrations in all the areas discussed next. Look at the communication courses offered at your school to get an idea of where the communication department on your campus fits into the overall field of study. Some departments are more general, offering students a range of courses to provide a well-rounded understanding of communication. Many departments offer concentrations or specializations within the major such as public relations, rhetoric, interpersonal communication, electronic media production, corporate communication. If you are at a community college and plan on transferring to another school, your choice of school may be determined by the course offerings in the department and expertise of the school’s communication faculty. It would be unfortunate for a student interested in public relations to end up in a department that focuses more on rhetoric or broadcasting, so doing your research ahead of time is key.

Since communication studies is a broad field, many students strategically choose a concentration and/or a minor that will give them an advantage in the job market. Specialization can definitely be an advantage, but don’t forget about the general skills you gain as a communication major. This book, for example, should help you build communication competence and skills in interpersonal communication, intercultural communication, group communication, and public speaking, among others. You can also use your school’s career services office to help you learn how to “sell” yourself as a communication major and how to translate what you’ve learned in your classes into useful information to include on your resume or in a job interview.

The main career areas that communication majors go into are business, public relations / advertising, media, nonprofit, government/law, and education. [1] Within each of these areas there are multiple career paths, potential employers, and useful strategies for success. For more detailed information, visit http://whatcanidowiththismajor.com/major/communication-studies .

• Business. Sales, customer service, management, real estate, human resources, training and development.
• Public relations / advertising. Public relations, advertising/marketing, public opinion research, development, event coordination.
• Media. Editing, copywriting, publishing, producing, directing, media sales, broadcasting.
• Nonprofit. Administration, grant writing, fund-raising, public relations, volunteer coordination.
• Government/law. City or town management, community affairs, lobbying, conflict negotiation / mediation.
• Education. High school speech teacher, forensics/debate coach, administration and student support services, graduate school to further communication study.
• Which of the areas listed above are you most interested in studying in school or pursuing as a career? Why?
• What aspect(s) of communication studies does/do the department at your school specialize in? What concentrations/courses are offered?
• Whether or not you are or plan to become a communication major, how do you think you could use what you have learned and will learn in this class to “sell” yourself on the job market?

Key Takeaways

• Getting integrated: Communication is a broad field that draws from many academic disciplines. This interdisciplinary perspective provides useful training and experience for students that can translate into many career fields.
• Communication is the process of generating meaning by sending and receiving symbolic cues that are influenced by multiple contexts.
• Ancient Greeks like Aristotle and Plato started a rich tradition of the study of rhetoric in the Western world more than two thousand years ago. Communication did not become a distinct field of study with academic departments until the 1900s, but it is now a thriving discipline with many subfields of study.

There are five forms of communication: intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass communication.

• Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself and occurs only inside our heads.
• Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives mutually influence one another and typically occurs in dyads, which means in pairs.
• Group communication occurs when three or more people communicate to achieve a shared goal.
• Public communication is sender focused and typically occurs when one person conveys information to an audience.
• Mass communication occurs when messages are sent to large audiences using print or electronic media.
• Getting integrated: Review the section on the history of communication. Have you learned any of this history or heard of any of these historical figures in previous classes? If so, how was this history relevant to what you were studying in that class?
• Come up with your own definition of communication. How does it differ from the definition in the book? Why did you choose to define communication the way you did?
• Over the course of a day, keep track of the forms of communication that you use. Make a pie chart of how much time you think you spend, on an average day, engaging in each form of communication (intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass).

Dance, F. E. X. and Carl E. Larson, The Functions of Human Communication: A Theoretical Approach (New York, NY: Holt, Reinhart, and Winston, 1976), 23.

Keith, W., “On the Origins of Speech as a Discipline: James A. Winans and Public Speaking as Practical Democracy,” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 38, no. 3 (2008): 239–58.

McCroskey, J. C., “Communication Competence: The Elusive Construct,” in Competence in Communication: A Multidisciplinary Approach , ed. Robert N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1984), 260.

Poe, M. T., A History of Communications: Media and Society from the Evolution of Speech to the Internet (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 27.

• What Can I Do with This Major? “Communication Studies,” accessed May 18, 2012, http://whatcanidowiththismajor.com/major/communication-studies ↵

Communication in the Real World Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

The Early History of Communication

• Invention Timelines
• Famous Inventions
• Famous Inventors
• Patents & Trademarks
• Computers & The Internet
• American History
• African American History
• African History
• Ancient History and Culture
• Asian History
• European History
• Latin American History
• Medieval & Renaissance History
• Military History
• The 20th Century
• Women's History

Humans have communicated with one another in some shape or form ever since time immemorial. But to understand the history of communication, all we have to go by are written records that date as far back as ancient Mesopotamia. And while every sentence starts with a letter, back then people began with a picture.

The BCE Years

powerofforever / Getty Images

The Kish tablet, discovered in the ancient Sumerian city of Kish, has inscriptions considered by some experts to be the oldest form of known writing. Dated to 3500 B.C., the stone features proto-cuneiform signs, basically rudimentary symbols that convey meaning through its pictorial resemblance to a physical object. Similar to this early form of writing are the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, which date back to around 3200 B.C.

Written Language

Elsewhere, written language appears to have come about around 1200 B.C. in China and around 600 B.C. in the Americas. Some similarities between the early Mesopotamian language and the one that developed in ancient Egypt suggests that a writing system originated in the Middle East. However, any kind of connection between Chinese characters and these early language systems is less likely since the cultures don’t seem to have had any contact.

Among the first non-glyph writing systems not to use pictorial signs is the phonetic system . With phonetic systems, symbols refer to spoken sounds. If this sounds familiar, it’s because the modern alphabets that many people in the world use today represent a phonetic form of communication. Remnants of such systems first appeared either around 19th century B.C. thanks to an early Canaanite population or 15th century B.C. in connection with a Semitic community that lived in central Egypt. 

Phoenician System

Over time, various forms of the Phoenician system of written communication began to spread and were picked up along the Mediterranean city-states. By the 8th century B.C., the Phoenician system reached Greece, where it was altered and adapted to the Greek oral language. The biggest alterations were the addition of vowel sounds and having the letters read from left to right.

Around that time, long-distance communication had its humble beginnings as the Greeks—for the first time in recorded history—had a messenger pigeon deliver results of the first Olympiad in the year 776 B.C. Another important communication milestone from the Greeks was the establishment of the first library in 530 B.C.

Long-Distance Communication

And as humans neared the end of the B.C. period, systems of long-distance communication started to become more commonplace. A historical entry in the book “Globalization and Everyday Life” noted that around 200 to 100 B.C:

"Human messengers on foot or horseback (were) common in Egypt and China with messenger relay stations built. Sometimes fire messages (were) used from relay station to station instead of humans."

Communication Comes to the Masses

In the year 14, the Romans established the first postal service in the western world. While it’s considered to be the first well-documented mail delivery system, others in India and China had already long been in place. The first legitimate postal service likely originated in ancient Persia around 550 B.C. However, historians feel that in some ways it wasn’t a true postal service because it was used primarily for intelligence gathering and later to relay decisions from the king.

Well-Developed Writing System

Meanwhile, in the Far East, China was making its own progress in opening channels for communication among the masses. With a well-developed writing system and messenger services, the Chinese would be the first to invent paper and papermaking when in 105 an official named Cai Lung submitted a proposal to the emperor in which he, according to a biographical account, suggested using “the bark of trees, remnants of hemp, rags of cloth, and fishing nets” instead of the heavier bamboo or costlier silk material.

First Moveable Type

The Chinese followed that up sometime between 1041 and 1048 with the invention of the first moveable type for printing paper books. Han Chinese inventor Bi Sheng was credited with developing the porcelain device, which was described in statesman Shen Kuo’s book “Dream Pool Essays.” He wrote:

“…he took sticky clay and cut in it characters as thin as the edge of a coin. Each character formed, as it were, a single type. He baked them in the fire to make them hard. He had previously prepared an iron plate and he had covered his plate with a mixture of pine resin, wax, and paper ashes. When he wished to print, he took an iron frame and set it on the iron plate. In this, he placed the types, set close together. When the frame was full, the whole made one solid block of type. He then placed it near the fire to warm it. When the paste [at the back] was slightly melted, he took a smooth board and pressed it over the surface, so that the block of type became as even as a whetstone.”

While the technology underwent other advancements, such as metal movable type, it wasn’t until a German smithy named Johannes Gutenberg built Europe’s first metal movable type system that mass printing would experience a revolution. Gutenberg’s printing press, developed between 1436 and 1450, introduced several key innovations that included oil-based ink, mechanical movable type, and adjustable molds. Altogether, this allowed for a practical system for printing books in a way that was efficient and economical.

World's First Newspaper

Around 1605, a German publisher named Johann Carolus printed and distributed the world’s first newspaper . The paper was called "Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien,” which translated to “Account of all distinguished and commemorable news.” However, some may argue that the honor should be bestowed upon the Dutch “Courante uyt Italien, Duytslandt, &c.” since it was the first to be printed in a broadsheet-sized format. 

Photography, Code, and Sound

Bettmann / Getty Images

By the 19th century, the world was ready to move beyond the printed word. People wanted photographs, except they didn’t know it yet. That was until French inventor Joseph Nicephore Niepce captured the world’s first photographic image in 1822 . The early process he pioneered, called heliography, used a combination of various substances and their reactions to sunlight to copy the image from an engraving.

Color Photographs

Other notable later contributions to the advancement of photography include a technique for producing color photographs called the three-color method, initially put forth by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1855 and the Kodak roll film camera, invented by American George Eastman in 1888.

The foundation for the invention of electric telegraphy was laid by inventors Joseph Henry and Edward Davey. In 1835, both had independently and successfully demonstrated electromagnetic relay, where a weak electrical signal can be amplified and transmitted across long distances.

First Commercial Electric Telegraph System

A few years later, shortly after the invention of the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph, the first commercial electric telegraph system, an American inventor named Samuel Morse developed a version that sent signals several miles from Washington, D.C., to Baltimore. And soon after, with the help of his assistant Alfred Vail, he devised the Morse code, a system of signal-induced indentations that correlated to numbers, special characters, and letters of the alphabet.

The Telephone

Naturally, the next hurdle was to figure out a way to transmit sound to far off distances. The idea for a “speaking telegraph” was kicked around as early as 1843 when Italian inventor Innocenzo Manzetti began broaching the concept. And while he and others explored the notion of transmitting sound across distances, it was Alexander Graham Bell who ultimately was granted a patent in 1876 for "Improvements in Telegraphy," which laid out the underlying technology for electromagnetic telephones . 

Answering Machine Introduced

But what if someone tried to call and you weren't available? Sure enough, right at the turn of the 20th century, a Danish inventor named Valdemar Poulsen set the tone for the answering machine with the invention of the telegraphone, the first device capable of recording and playing back the magnetic fields produced by sound. The magnetic recordings also became the foundation for mass data storage formats such as audio disc and tape.

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Communication History by Richard B. Kielbowicz LAST REVIEWED: 30 August 2016 LAST MODIFIED: 30 August 2016 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756841-0027

All aspects of communication have historical dimensions. Historians of communication thus have a wide purview, studying the role of technology, institutional developments in the media, the production of messages, the reciprocal influences of communication and society, and much more. These studies—numbering in the tens of thousands—range from antiquarian accounts of single newspapers to expansive investigations of communication’s role in the rise and fall of civilizations. Eclectic in their research approaches, communication historians draw on the concepts and tools used in both the social sciences and the humanities. As social scientists, communication historians investigate broad patterns across time; some findings emphasize change, while others highlight continuity. As a humanistic endeavor, communication history considers unique events, persons, and developments—the contingencies that confound tidy social-scientific generalizations. Although communication history stands as a subdiscipline in its own right, it also serves as a valuable complement to nonhistorical inquiries. Many scholars use history as a backdrop for studies about contemporary issues in communication.

Overviews of the field take many forms. Encyclopedias such as Blanchard 1998 can serve as a good entry point to the literature. Recent studies often use communication networks and technology as their overarching theme. Lubar 1993 provides accessible discussions of each major communication innovation, while Chandler and Cortada 2000 emphasizes the social and especially economic consequences of technologies. Carey 1989 and Czitrom 1982 combine an interest in technology with intellectual and cultural history. Starr 2004 moves political decisions to center stage in analyzing the development of communication. Edited works such as Solomon and McChesney 1993 suggest the varied themes tackled by communication historians.

Blanchard, Margaret A., ed. 1998. History of the mass media in the United States . Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn.

Possibly a first stop when starting a research project, this encyclopedia features nearly five hundred entries on individuals, technologies, businesses, and issues that figured prominently in media history. A thorough index and ample cross-references facilitate use. Each entry lists references for further reading.

Carey, James W. 1989. Communication as culture: Essays on media and society . Boston: Unwin Hyman.

Reprints essays by one of the most insightful and original communication historians. One section focuses on communication as culture; another, following in the tradition of Harold Innis, highlights enduring patterns of media technologies in transforming culture.

Chandler, Alfred D., Jr., and James W. Cortada, eds. 2000. A nation transformed by information: How information has shaped the United States from colonial times to the present . New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

Essays by scholars from several fields emphasize the antecedents of today’s information age. Strong coverage of people’s 19th-century information environments and transformations wrought by computers and communication in the 20th century.

Czitrom, Daniel J. 1982. Media and the American mind: From Morse to McLuhan . Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.

A clever balance of technological and intellectual history. One part addresses popular reactions to telegraphy, motion pictures, and broadcasting; another analyzes the contributions to understanding communication of John Dewey, Robert Park, Harold Innis, Marshall McLuhan, and behavioral scientists.

Lubar, Steven. 1993. InfoCulture: The Smithsonian book of information age inventions . Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Written to accompany a Smithsonian exhibition on the roots of the modern information revolution, this lavishly illustrated book focuses on technologies. Each chapter traces a medium from its origins to modern forms and includes easy-to-understand technical explanations of how it works.

Solomon, William S., and Robert W. McChesney, eds. 1993. Ruthless criticism: New perspectives in U.S. communication history . Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press.

Early works by fourteen of today’s most accomplished communication historians. The essays suggest the almost boundless range of the field—public sphere analysis, the local press, labor issues, media for minority audiences, communication policy, television in diplomacy, and more.

Starr, Paul. 2004. The creation of the media: Political origins of modern communications . New York: Basic Books.

Partly responding to recent scholarship that highlights technology as the source of most fundamental changes in communication, Starr instead looks at key political decisions. He ranges over print, telecommunication, film, and broadcasting through World War II and contrasts the American experience with developments in Europe.

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Two Hundred Years of Global Communications

From the printing press to Instagram, technological advances shape how people communicate.

Source: London Gazette; New York Times; Smithsonian.com.

Humans communicate in various ways. They have been writing to each other since the fourth millennium BCE, when one of the earliest writing systems, cuneiform, was developed in Mesopotamia. These days, the internet enables people to send and receive messages instantaneously and internationally; with the rise of social media, people share more—and more quickly—than ever before. This timeline follows nearly two hundred years of innovations in communication that have helped people all over the globe connect.

Technical innovation in the nineteenth century made the era one of rapid and significant change, and laid the groundwork for today’s interconnected world. Railway lines were being laid extensively, as were telegraph lines, which allowed people to send messages across long distances at unprecedented speed. As telegrams grew in popularity, the telephone was not far behind. Meanwhile, improvements to the press made printing news much quicker. The combination of these changes meant that news began to travel much faster during this period: for the first time, news could reach people in hours instead of days or weeks. 

Currier & Ives via the Metropolitan Museum of Art

Philip B. Meggs, A History of Graphic Design

Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg perfected his printing press, which could print 3,600 pages in one day, facilitating access to media; book prices dropped by two-thirds between 1450 and 1500. Printing technology continued to improve throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. An important milestone was the steam-powered printing press. When the Times of London acquired one in 1814, the speedier technology—it could print at least 1,100 pages in an hour—helped boost circulation tenfold in just a few decades.

Mathew Brady

Samuel Morse sent the first message from an electrical telegraph in 1844, from Washington, DC, to Baltimore. His message: “What hath God wrought?” Coinciding with the rise of the railroad, the telegraph profoundly changed communications by making it easier and faster to send near-instantaneous messages across long distances. In just six years, twelve thousand miles of cable crisscrossed the United States; by 1861, Western Union had finished work on the first telegraph line that reached the East Coast from the West. In 1929, at its apex, Western Union transmitted more than 200 million telegrams.

Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper via Library of Congress

Before people relied on nearly 750,000 miles of undersea fiber optic cables to facilitate their internet communication, they used telegraph cables to exchange messages. The first transatlantic telegram was sent fourteen years after Samuel Morse sent the first telegram. In 1858, Queen Victoria sent the first transatlantic telegram to President James Buchanan in just sixteen hours, and Buchanan’s response arrived in ten, as opposed to the twelve days it would have taken via ship and land. The telegraph would continue to be the dominant mode of long-distance communication, used to share both personal news and major world events. When the Titanic sank in 1912, for example, the news was transmitted via telegram.

U.S. Library of Congress

As the popularity of the telegram grew, Alexander Graham Bell was working on an even more direct form of communication: the telephone. He was granted a U.S. patent for the device in 1876. Once adopted, the telephone’s popularity grew rapidly: in 1900, there were 600,000 telephones in the United States; by 1910, there were 5.8 million. In 1927—the same year as the first television transmission—the telephone officially went international. That year,  the first commercial transatlantic telephone conversation , happened, between Evelyn Murray, secretary to the British General Post Office and W. S. Gifford, president of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T), still a leading telecommunications company.

The twentieth century was defined by many great technological achievements, including advancements in mass communications. Radio and television gave a broader audience immediate access to news and entertainment—a significant leap from receiving information by train or telegraph. Later, people could communicate on the go with cellular phones. And satellites—introduced for military purposes—enhanced the global reach of them all.

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Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi received a U.S. patent for radio technology in 1904, three years after he claimed to have sent the first transatlantic radio signal. Radio was the first technology that could instantaneously communicate to a mass audience. Because it allowed continuous, up-to-date news and entertainment for people regardless of their income or literacy levels, it became immensely popular. In many parts of the world today, radio remains a dominant source of news and entertainment; it is considered to be the most important means of mass communication in Africa, where literacy rates are relatively low and electricity access is inconsistent. In 2010, an estimated 44,000 radio stations operated around the globe.

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Around the same time as the radio, another form of mass entertainment also became widely popular: movies. By 1907, just over a decade after the first motion picture was released in France, two million Americans were going to the movies at nearly eight thousand movie theaters nationwide. Two-thirds of the films being shown at that time were European imports. But soon, World War I destroyed the European film industry. By 1918, 80 percent of movies globally were produced in the United States. Today, despite Hollywood’s enduring status as the commercial center of cinema, the industry is largely global. The top-grossing Hollywood films make the bulk of their revenues abroad. And the top producer of movies these days, in terms of films released per year, is India.

The first television broadcast, in 1928, marked the beginning of a new era of mass consumption of news and entertainment. However, television didn’t become popular until after World War II: in 1946, about six thousand TV sets were in use in the United States; by 1960, 90 percent of American homes had a TV. Television programs produced in the United States have global viewership. In 2016, the crime drama NCIS was the most watched television drama globally, with forty-seven million viewers. 

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In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 , the first artificial satellite. As the United States sought to catch up, and the space race took off, scientific developments pioneered a wide range of uses for satellite technology. Since the launch of the first communications satellite in 1962, satellites have been an integral part of global communications. That year, the first transatlantic broadcast of live television entertained an audience of tens of millions. In North America, viewers saw, among other highlights, the Big Ben, the Louvre, and Sicilian fishermen at work; in Europe, viewers were treated to sights of an American baseball game, the Statue of Liberty, and a press conference by President John F. Kennedy. Today, more than 2,500 satellites orbit the earth to track weather, monitor military movements, give users accurate directions through the Global Positioning System (GPS), and more.

Rico Shen via Wikimedia Commons under GFDL and CC BY-SA 3.0

A century after the telephone’s invention, Motorola placed the world’s first call from a cell phone (to its rival AT&T, of course). Motorola’s cell phone looked nothing like the ones available today: it was big, weighed almost three pounds, and could be used only for about thirty-five minutes. As a research prototype, it also wasn’t publicly available. Motorola’s first cell phone for sale, based on this prototype, could cost up to $4,000, meaning cell phones were even more of a luxury item then than they are today, when 96 percent of Americans own cell phones.

In 1989, British engineer and computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee pioneered the World Wide Web, which paved the way for today’s internet communication. Access to the internet has gone up: in 2000, only 6.5 percent of people globally used the internet; as of 2018, around 51 percent do—thanks in part to technological advancements such as high-speed broadband and smartphones. The internet has given rise to new developments in communication too, including search engines and social media. The internet has become so integral to modern life that in 2016 the United Nations passed a resolution declaring access to the internet a human right.

Mohammad Ismail/Reuters

Ferran Paredes/Reuters

Short message service (SMS), the first form of text messaging, debuted in 1992 in the United Kingdom with a “Merry Christmas” from a software developer to a Vodafone employee. In 2000, AT&T began offering text messaging on cell phones in the United States. In 2018, cell phone users in the United States sent each other two trillion texts.

Clay McLachlan/Reuters

Google’s official launch in 1998 altered the digital landscape with its ability to search for and identify information on the internet in less than a second—so much so that “google” eventually became a verb in the English language synonymous with “search.” Over the years, the number of Google searches has consistently increased—in 2016, the company fielded trillions of searches—with many conducted on mobile phones. Google is so ubiquitous, in fact, that when, in 2013, Google’s server crashed for five minutes, total internet traffic decreased by 40 percent. And Google has expanded beyond its search engine. Google-owned products such as Gmail, Google Maps, and YouTube provide communications, navigation, and entertainment services to billions of people.

Christiaan Colen via Flickr under CC BY-SA 2.0

The internet gave rise to social media platforms on which people around the world could connect and share ideas, personal updates, and more. Facebook got its start at Harvard University in 2004 and eventually evolved into one of the most influential social media websites. In the years since, many more social media services have emerged, including Twitter, WhatsApp, Instagram, Snapchat, and TikTok, all of which give users a platform to share their stories and connect with each other from anywhere in the world. Social media has definite advantages, but its global interconnectivity and growing influence in public discourse also raise concerns about such issues as free speech, user privacy, and data security.

Kimberly White/Reuters

When Apple released the iPhone, the first mainstream smartphone, in 2007, it revolutionized personal communication by marrying the typical functions of a cell phone (calls and texts) with those of a computer (internet access). Smartphone users can share information and communicate with people anywhere in the world on a device that weighs half a pound. Smartphones are so ubiquitous that analysts predict nearly three-in-four internet users will only surf the web on their phones by 2025. But while smartphones are increasingly popular, not everyone has equal access to them. In 2018, 94 percent of South Korean adults reported owning a smartphone, compared to 13 percent of Tanzanians.

Piero Cruciatti/AFP via Getty Images

As billions of people around the world began social distancing to limit the spread of COVID-19, schools, offices, and even orchestra performances moved online. However, not everything could be done remotely; frontline workers faced increased risks of infection conducting essential services in person, and other aspects of life simply shut down. Additionally, as learning moved online, just one in three children and young people could access the internet at home. 

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Otávio Daros, What is the history of communication?, Communication Theory , Volume 34, Issue 3, August 2024, Pages 109–117, https://doi.org/10.1093/ct/qtae009

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Communication History is an expression that proves to be problematic in the light of theoretical and conceptual analysis, as this article clarifies and discusses, when examining the proclamations made by its main spokespersons. Both methodological and empirical works are taken into account, with the purpose of evaluating how this object of knowledge is defined and approached, comparing it with what is effectively presented in the investigations, published by scholars from different generations and contexts. It is argued that there is a tendency to confuse the subject with others, especially Media History . An important exception is the cultural historian Robert Darnton, although a careful examination of his historiographical project with an ethnographic bias ends up revealing that his proposal for communication tends to reorient the field under no less problematic parameters.

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The development of communication studies has been a lively process of adoption and integration of theoretical constructs from Pragmatism, Critical Theory and Cultural Studies. Critical Communication Studies describes the intellectual and professional forces that have shaped research interests and formed alliances in the pursuit of particular goals. Hanno Hardt reflects on the need to come to terms with the role of history in academic work and locates the intellectual history within the context of competing social theories. The book provides a substantive foundation for understanding the field and will be a major text in all courses dealing with communication history and theory.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 | 30  pages, on defining the issues communication, history and theory, chapter 2 | 46  pages, on discovering communication pragmatism and the pursuit of social criticism, chapter 3 | 46  pages, on ignoring history mass communication research and the critique of society, chapter 4 | 50  pages, on introducing ideology critical theory and the critique of culture, chapter 5 | 44  pages, on understanding hegemony cultural studies and the recovery of the critical, chapter 6 | 21  pages, on locating critical concerns communication research between pragmatism and marxism, chapter 7 | 30  pages, notes and references.

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Interpersonal Communication, Theory, and History

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Communicology is a tradition in the human sciences studying discourse in all of its semiotic and phenomenological manifestations of embodied consciousness and of practice in the world of other people and their environment. Since the foundational work during the 1950s by Jürgen Ruesch in Semiotic approaches to human relations (1972), and by Ruesch and Gregory Bateson in Communication (1968), a widely accepted understanding of the networks of human discourse includes: (1) the intrapersonal level (or psychiatric/aesthetic domain), (2) the interpersonal level (or social domain), (3) the group level (or cultural domain), and (4) the intergroup level (or transcultural domain). These interconnected network levels contain the process outlined by Roman Jakobson's theory of human communication (1971, 1972). In homage to the phenomenological work in →semiotics and normative logics by Charles S. Peirce and Edmund Husserl (Phenomenology), Jakobson explicated the relationship between an Addresser who expresses (emotive function) and an Addressee who perceives (conative function) a commonly shared Message (poetic function), Code (meta-linguistic function), Contact (phatic function), and Context (referential function) (Models of Communication). Operating on at least one of the four levels of discourse, these functions jointly constitute a semiotic world of phenomenological experience, what Yuri M. Lotman (1994) termed the semiosphere. Communicology is the critical study of discourse and practice, especially the expressive body as mediated by the perception of cultural signs and codes. It uses the methodology of semiotic phenomenology in which the expressive body discloses cultural codes, and cultural codes shape the perceptive body – an ongoing, dialectical, complex helix of twists and turns constituting the reflectivity, reversibility, and reflexivity of consciousness and experience. Communicology theoretically and practically engages in the description, reduction, and interpretation of cultural phenomena as part of a transdisciplinary understanding. The scientific research result is description (rather than prediction) in which validity and reliability are logical constructs based in the necessary and sufficient conditions of discovered systems (codes), both eidetic (based in consciousness) and empirical (based in experience).

Communication Yearbook 32

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The Evolution of Untethered Communications (1997)

Chapter: 1 past, present, and future, 1 past, present, and future.

Humans have long dreamed of possessing the capability to communicate with each other anytime, anywhere. Kings, nation-states, military forces, and business cartels have sought more and better ways to acquire timely information of strategic or economic value from across the globe. Travelers have often been willing to pay premiums to communicate with family and friends back home. As the twenty-first century approaches, technical capabilities have become so sophisticated that stationary telephones, facsimile (fax) machines, computers, and other communications devices—connected by wires to power sources and telecommunications networks—are almost ubiquitous in many industrialized countries. The dream is close to becoming reality. The last major challenge is to develop affordable, reliable, widespread capabilities for "untethered" communications, a term coined by the U.S. military and referring to the union of wireless and mobile technologies. Because "untethered" is not a widely used term, this report concentrates on "wireless" communications systems that use the radio frequency (RF) part of the electromagnetic spectrum. These systems and their component technologies are widely deployed to serve mobile users.

Mobile wireless communications is a shared goal of both the U.S. military and civilian sectors, which traditionally have enjoyed a synergistic relationship in the development and deployment of communications technology. The balance of that long-standing interdependence is changing now as a result of trends in the marketplace and defense operations and budgets. These trends suggest that market forces will propel advances

in technology to meet rising consumer expectations. However, the military may need to take special measures to field cost-effective, state-of-the-art untethered communications systems that meet defense requirements.

This chapter lays the foundation for an analysis of military needs in this area by chronicling the evolution of military and civilian applications of communications technology, from ancient times leading up to the horizon of 2010. Section 1.1 is an overview of the challenge facing the U.S. military. Section 1.2 provides an historical perspective on the development of communications infrastructures. Section 1.3 outlines the wireless systems currently used by the U.S. military and the related research and development (R&D) activities. Sections 1.4 through 1.7 recount the evolution and current status of commercial wireless systems. Section 1.8 compares the development paths for wireless technologies in the United States, Europe, and Japan.

1.1 Overview

In the final years of the twentieth century, all aspects of wireless communications are subject to rapid change throughout the world. Dimensions of change include the following:

• Vigorously expanding public demand for products and services; • Dramatic changes worldwide in government policies regarding industry structure and spectrum management; • Rapidly advancing technologies in an atmosphere of uncertainty about the relative merits of competing approaches; • Emergence of a wide variety of new systems for delivering communications services to wireless terminals; and • Profound changes in communications industries as evidenced by an array of mergers, alliances, and spin-offs involving some of the world's largest corporations. These changes are fueled by opportunities for profit and public benefit as perceived by executives, investors, and governments. Although the patterns are global, the details differ significantly from country to country. Each dimension of change is complex and all of them interact. Overall, the dynamic nature of wireless communications creates a mixture of confusion and opportunity for stakeholders throughout the world. A principal attraction of wireless communications is its capability to serve mobile users. Because mobility is an important feature of military operations, the U.S. armed forces have always played a leading role in the development and deployment of wireless communications technology. In the coming years, however, it appears that the commercial sector will have sufficient incentives and momentum to push the technical envelope on its own. At the same time, flat or declining defense budgets are motivating the military to adopt commercial products and services to an increasing extent. Yet there are significant differences between military and commercial requirements. Thus, it is important to examine carefully the opportunities for, and limitations to, military use of commercial wireless communications products and services. In contrast to other areas of information technology, wireless communications has yet to converge toward a single technical standard or even a very small number of them. Instead it appears that diversity will endure for the foreseeable future. In this environment, the management and coordination of complex, diverse systems will be an ongoing challenge, particularly for the U.S. military, which coincidentally has to adapt to new threats and responsibilities after more than half a century of following the paradigm set by World War II and the Cold War. Information is now assuming greater strategic importance than ever before in warfare and other military operations, and so the wide deployment of cost-effective, state-of-the-art wireless communications systems has become particularly critical. The present situation recalls previous epochs in which breakthroughs in hardware—aircraft carriers, jet aircraft, tactical missiles, nuclear weapons—have led to radical revisions of military doctrine. The next great revolution in military affairs could be shaped by information technology: global communications, ubiquitous sensors, precision location, and pervasive information processing. Advanced command, control, communications, computing, and intelligence (C 4 I) systems could make it possible to monitor an adversary, target specific threats, and neutralize them with the best available weapon. Admiral William Owens, former vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, has called such an integrated capability a ''system of systems." Using such a system, a commander could observe the battle from a computer screen, select the most threatening targets, and destroy them with the press of a button. Battles would be won by the side with the best information, not necessarily the one with the largest battalions. But unlike the military hardware of the past, information technology is advancing at a breakneck pace in a worldwide marketplace, driven not by military requirements but by the industrial and consumer sectors. Increasingly these technologies are available worldwide, and the best technology is no longer limited to U.S. manufacture and control. Highly accurate position data transmitted by satellite are now available to any yachtsman. High-resolution satellite photographs are for sale around the world. Any nation can purchase the latest communications gadgets from the electronics stores of Tokyo. Therein lies the challenge for the U.S. military: how to exploit the advances in affordable technology fueled by worldwide consumer demand while also maintaining technical capabilities that significantly exceed those of any potential adversary. 1.2 Historical Perspective Throughout most of history, the evolution of communications technologies has been intimately intertwined with military needs and applications. Some of the earliest government-sponsored R&D projects focused on communications technologies that enabled command and control. A synergistic relationship then evolved between the military and commercial sectors that accelerated the technology development process. Now large corporations develop the latest communications technologies for international industrial and consumer markets shaped by government regulation and international agreements. World trade in telecommunications equipment and services was valued at $115 billion in 1996 ( The Economist , 1997). Modern wireless communication systems are rooted in telephony and radio technologies dating back to the end of the nineteenth century and the older telegraphy systems dating back to the eighteenth century. Wireless systems are also influenced by and increasingly linked to much newer communications capabilities, such as the Internet, which originated in the 1960s. All wireless systems transmit signals over the air using different frequency transmission bands designated by government regulation. Table 1-1 provides an overview of wireless RF communications systems and services and the frequency bands they use. 1 Each frequency band has both advantages and disadvantages. At low frequencies the signal propagates along the ground; attenuation is low but atmospheric noise levels are high. Low frequencies cannot carry enough information for video services. At higher frequencies there is less atmospheric noise but more attenuation, and a clear line of sight is needed between the transmitter and receiver because the signals cannot penetrate objects. These frequencies offer greater bandwidth, or channel capacity. 1.2.1 Communications Before the Industrial Age The annals of antiquity offer examples of muscle-powered communications: human runners, homing pigeons, and horse relays. Perhaps the earliest communications infrastructure was the road network of Rome, which carried not only the legions needed to enforce the emperor's will TABLE 1-1 Overview of Wireless Radio Frequency Communications Systems and Services Frequency Band Communications Applications Characteristics 3–30 kHz (very low, or VLF); 30–300 kHz (low, or LF) Long-range navigation, marine radio beacons Low attenuation, high atmospheric noise 300–3000 kHz (medium, or MF); 3–30 MHz (high, or HF) Maritime radio, AM radio, telephone, telegraph, facsimile Attenuation varies, noise drops at 30 MHz 30–300 MHz (very high, or VHF); 0.3–3 GHz (ultrahigh, or UHF) VHF television, FM two-way radio, UHF television, radar Cosmic noise, line-of-sight propagation 3–30 GHz (superhigh, or SHF) Satellite, radar, microwave Atmospheric attenuation 30–300 GHz (extremely high, or EHF) Experimental satellite, radar Line-of-sight propagation Frequencies are in kilohertz (kHz), megahertz (MHz), and gigahertz (GHz). SOURCE: Adapted from Couch (1995). but also messengers to direct forces far from the capital. Ancient societies also developed systems that obviated the need for physical delivery of information. These systems operated within line-of-sight distances (later extended by telescope): smoke signals, torch signaling, flashing mirrors, signal flares, and semaphore flags (Holzman and Pehrson, 1995). Observation stations were established along hilltops or roads to relay messages across great distances. 1.2.2 Telegraphy The first comprehensive infrastructure for transmitting messages faster than the fastest form of transportation was the optical telegraph, developed in 1793. Napoleon considered this his secret weapon because it brought him news in Paris and allowed him to control his armies beyond the borders of France. The optical telegraph consisted of a set of articulated arms that encoded hundreds of symbols in defined positions. Under a military contract, the signaling stations were deployed on strategic hilltops throughout France, linking Paris to its frontiers. By the mid-1800s, 556 stations enabled transmissions across more than 5,000 kilometers (km). The optical telegraph was superseded by the electrical telegraph in 1838, when Samuel Morse developed his dot-and-dash code. Now information could be transmitted beyond visible distances without significant delay. In an 1844 demonstration on a government-funded research testbed, Morse sent the message "What Hath God Wrought?" from Baltimore to the U.S. Capitol (Bray, 1995). The rapid deployment of telegraphic lines around the world was driven by the need of nineteenth-century European powers to communicate with their colonial possessions. High-risk technology investments were required. After the use of rubber coating was demonstrated on cables deployed across the Rhine River, the first transatlantic cable was laid in 1858, but it failed within months. A new cable designed by Lord Kelvin was laid in 1866 and operated successfully on a continuous basis. The result was a rapidly expanding telegraphic network that reached every corner of the globe. By 1870, Great Britain communicated directly with North America, Europe, the Middle East, and India. Other nations scrambled to duplicate that system's global reach, for no nation could trust its critical command messages to the telegraphic lines of a foreign power. 1.2.3 Early Wireless Within a few decades of its widespread deployment, telegraphy began to lose customers to a new technology—radio. In 1895 Guglielmo Marconi demonstrated that electromagnetic radiation could be detected at a distance. Great Britain's Royal Navy was an early and enthusiastic customer of the company that Marconi created to develop radio communications. In 1901 Marconi bridged the Atlantic Ocean by radio, and regular commercial service was initiated in 1907 (Masini, 1996). The importance of this new technology became evident with the onset of World War I. Soon after hostilities began, the British cut Germany's overseas telegraphic cables and destroyed its radio stations. Then Germany cut Britain's overland cables to India and those crossing the Baltic to Russia. Britain enlisted Marconi to put together a string of radio stations quickly to reestablish communications with its overseas possessions. The original Marconi radios were soon replaced by more advanced equipment that exploited the vacuum tube's capability to amplify signals and operate at higher frequencies than did older systems. In 1915 the first wireless voice transmission between New York and San Francisco signaled the beginning of the convergence of radio and telephony. The first commercial radio broadcast followed in 1920 (Lewis, 1993). The use of higher frequencies (called shortwaves) exploited the ionosphere as a reflector, greatly increasing the range of communications. By World War II, shortwave radio had developed to the point where small radio sets could be installed in trucks or jeeps or carried by a single soldier. The first portable two-way radio, the Handie-Talkie, appeared in 1940. Two-way mobile communications on a large scale revolutionized warfare, allowing for mobile operations coordinated over large areas. 1.2.4 Telephony The telephone was first demonstrated in 1876. A telephone network based on mechanical switches and copper wires then grew rapidly. The high cost of the cables limited the number of conversations possible at any one time; as demand increased, multiplexing techniques, such as time division and frequency division, were developed. A mix of independent operators ran telephone services in the early days. Subscribers to different services could not call each other even when in the same town. In 1913 the U.S. government allowed American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) to assume control of the national telephone network in return for becoming a regulated monopoly delivering "universal" service. Yet it was not until the 1950s that unified network signaling was offered to subscribers, allowing them to make direct-dial long-distance telephone calls (Calhoun, 1992). Since then, the rapid extension of the long-distance telephone network has been made possible by advances in photonic communications and network control technologies. 1.2.5 Communications Satellites The concept of using geosynchronous satellites for communications purposes was first suggested in 1945 by the science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke, then employed at Britain's Royal Aircraft Establishment, part of the Ministry of Defence. Satellites of this type are positioned above the equator and move in synch with Earth's rotation. In 1954 J.R. Pierce at AT&T's Bell Telephone Laboratories developed the concept of orbital radio relays and identified the key design issues for satellites: passive versus active transmission, station keeping, attitude control, and remote vehicle control (Bray, 1995). Pierce advocated an approach of reaching geostationary orbit in successive stages of technology development, starting with nonsynchronous, low-orbit satellites. Hughes Aircraft Company advocated a geostationary concept based on the company's patented station-keeping techniques. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the first satellite to be placed in orbit. Amateur radio operators were able to pick up its low-power transmissions all over the world. In 1960 the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and Bell Laboratories launched the first U.S. communications satellite, Echo-1, in a low Earth orbit. The first satellite-based voice message was sent by President Dwight Eisenhower using passive transmission techniques. The next advance in satellite technology was the successful launch of the TELSTAR system by NASA and Bell Laboratories. Using active transmission technology TELSTAR delivered the first television transmission across the Atlantic in 1962. Because it was placed in an elliptical orbit that varied from low to medium altitudes, the satellite was visible contemporaneously to Earth stations on both sides of the Atlantic for only about 30 minutes at a time. Clearly geostationary orbits were desirable if satellites were to be used for continuous telephone and television communications across long distances. In 1963 Hughes Aircraft and NASA achieved geosynchronous orbit (known as GEO today) with the successful launch of the SYNCOM satellite. The satellite was placed in an orbit of approximately 36,210 km, a distance that allowed it to remain stationary over a given point on Earth's surface. SYNCOM led the way for the next several decades of satellite systems by demonstrating that synchronous orbit was achievable, and that station keeping and attitude control were feasible. Today most satellites, both military and commercial, are of the GEO variety. COMSAT was formed by an act of Congress in 1962 and represented U.S. commercial interests in satellite technology development at Intelsat, established in 1964 as an international, government-chartered organization to coordinate worldwide satellite communications issues. INTELSAT-II (Early Bird) was launched into a geosynchronous orbit in 1965 and supported 240 telephone links or one television channel. Channel capacities are now measured in the tens of thousands of voice channels (the INTELSAT-VI, launched in 1987, supports 80,000 voice channels). The first military satellites, the DSCS-I group, were launched by the U.S. Air Force in 1966. Three launches placed 26 lightweight (100-pound) satellites in near-geosynchronous orbit. These systems supported digital voice and data communications using spread-spectrum technology (an important signal-processing approach discussed extensively in Chapter 2). The satellites were replaced in the 1970s by the DSCS-II group, which increased channel capacity by using spot-beam antennas with high gain to boost the received power. The first cross-linked military satellites, the LES 8/9, were launched in 1976. This demonstration fostered a vision of space-based architectures—without vulnerable ground relays—for communication, navigation, surveillance, and reconnaissance. Satellites offer several advantages over land-based communications systems. Rapid, two-way communications can be established over wide areas with only a single relay in space, and global coverage with only a few relay hops. Earth stations can now be set up and moved quickly. Furthermore, satellite systems are virtually immune to impairments such as multipath fading (channel impairments are discussed in Chapter 2). But with the rapid deployment of undersea fiber-optic links, the use of satellite channels for telephony has been on the decline. The high capacity of fiber provides for competitive costs, which, combined with low latency, have attracted consumers. The future of the satellite industry depends on the emergence of applications other than fixed telephony channels. A new generation of satellite systems is being deployed to provide mobile telephone services (see Section 1.5). 1.2.6 Mobile Radio and the Origins of Cellular Telephony The early development of mobile radio was driven by public safety needs. In 1921 Detroit became the first city to experiment with radio-dispatched police cars. However, transmission from vehicles was limited by the difficulty of producing small, low-power transmitters suitable for use in automobiles. Two-way systems were first deployed in Bayonne, New Jersey, in the 1930s. The system operated in "push-to-talk" (i.e., half-duplex) mode; simultaneous transmission and reception, or full-duplex mode, was not possible at the time (Calhoun, 1988). Frequency modulation (FM), invented in 1935, virtually eliminated background static while reducing the need for high transmission power, thus enabling the development of low-power transmitters and receivers for use in vehicles. World War II stimulated commercial FM manufacturing capacity and the rapid development of mobile radio technology. The need for thousands of portable communicators accelerated advances in system packaging and reliability and reduced costs. In 1946 public mobile telephone service was introduced in 25 cities across the United States. The initial systems used a central transmitter to cover a metropolitan area. The inefficient use of spectrum and the coarseness of the electronic filters severely limited capacity: Thirty years after the introduction of mobile telephone service the New York system could support only 543 users. A solution to this problem emerged in the 1970s when researchers at Bell Laboratories developed the concept of the cellular telephone system, in which a geographical area is divided into adjacent, non-overlapping, hexagonal-shaped "cells." Each cell has its own transmitter and receiver (called a base station) to communicate with the mobile units in that cell; a mobile switching station coordinates the handoff of mobile units crossing cell boundaries. Throughout the geographical area, portions of the radio spectrum are reused, greatly expanding system capacity but also increasing infrastructure complexity and cost. In the years following the establishment of the mobile telephone service, AT&T submitted numerous proposals to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for a dedicated block of spectrum for mobile communications. Other than allowing experimental systems in Chicago and Washington, D.C., the FCC made no allocations for mobile systems until 1983, when the first commercial cellular system—the advanced mobile phone system (AMPS)—was established in Chicago. Cellular technology became highly successful commercially with the miniaturization of subscriber handsets. 1.2.7 The Internet and Packet Radio The original concepts underlying the Internet were developed in the mid-1960s at what is now the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), then known as ARPA. The original application was the ARPANET, which was established in 1969 to provide survivable computer communications networks. The ARPANET relied heavily on packet switching concepts developed in the 1960s at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the RAND Corporation, and Great Britain's National Physical Laboratory (Kahn et al., 1978; Hafner and Lyon, 1996; Leiner et al., 1997). This approach was a departure from the circuit-switching systems used in telephone networks (see Box 1-1). The first ARPANET node was located at the University of California at Los Angeles. Additional nodes were soon established at Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International), the University of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah. The development of a host-to-host protocol, 2 the network control protocol (NCP), followed in 1970, Circuit Switching Versus Packet Switching Telephone systems are based on a connection-oriented or circuit-switched model in which connections are fixed for the duration of a call. Such systems are inefficient when transmission occurs in short bursts separated by long pauses. Packet switching replaces the centralized switches with distributed routers, each with multiple connections to adjacent routers. Messages are divided into "packets" that are independently routed on a hop-by-hop ba is. Such an approach allows messages to be multiplexed over the available paths on a statistically determined basis, gracefully adapting the transmissions to traffic level, and optimizing the use of existing link capacity without pre-allocating link bandwidth. enabling network users to develop applications. At the same time, the ALOHA Project at the University of Hawaii was investigating packet-switched networks over fixed-site radio links. The ALOHANET began operating in 1970, providing the first demonstration of packet radio access in a data network (Abramson, 1985). The contention protocols used in ALOHANET served as the basis for the "carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection" (CSMA/CD) protocols used in the Ethernet local area network (LAN) developed at Xerox Palo Alto Research Center in 1973. The widespread use of Ethernet LANs to connect personal computers (PCs) and workstations allowed broad access to the Internet, a term that emerged in the late 1970s with the design of the Internet protocol (IP). The need to link wired, packet radio, and satellite networks led to the specifications for the transmission control protocol (TCP), which replaced NCP and shifted the responsibility for transmission from the network to the end hosts, thereby enabling the protocol to operate no matter how unreliable the underlying links. 3 The development of microprocessors, surface acoustic wave filters, and communications protocols for intelligent management of the shared radio channel contributed to the advancement of packet radio technology in the 1970s. In 1972 ARPA launched the Packet Radio Program, aimed at developing techniques for the mobile battlefield, and SATNet, an experimental satellite network. In 1983 ARPA launched a second-generation packet radio program, Survivable Adaptive Networks, to demonstrate how packet radio networks could be scaled up to encompass much larger numbers of nodes and operate in the harsh environment likely to be encountered on the mobile battlefield. FIGURE 1-1 Military radios are designed for different uses. Combat net radios, for example, are designed for communications within a battle group. 1.3 Military Wireless Systems And Research 1.3.1 terrestrial systems. Radio communications technology is widely used by U.S. military units at all levels. The many different types of military radios and applications cause a variety of communication problems. The military environment magnifies common difficulties such as the failure of one radio type to communicate with another type (interoperability), failure of one user to communicate with another (connectivity), incompatibility of new radios with old radios (legacy systems), and one radio at a location interfering with another radio at the same location (co-site interference). In general, U.S. military radio systems can be categorized by the location of users and the information they broadcast and receive (see Figure 1-1). Multiple radios are often gathered together in an aircraft, shipboard radio room, or communications van to form tactical radio complexes and command-and-control centers. The radios operate simultaneously using many different waveforms across several frequency bands (e.g., high frequency [HF], very high frequency [VHF], and ultrahigh frequency [UHF]). Combat net radios take the form of either a single radio in a vehicle (much like a car radio) or a device like a "walkie-talkie" carried around by a soldier. Most of the information broadcast on combat net radios consists of voice communications, often to share position information. Many of today's combat net radios have been enhanced to carry data in addition to voice. In general, combat net radios have fewer capabilities and cost less than do tactical radios (see Table 1-2). Military radios generally cost much more than commercial systems supporting similar applications. Deployed military radios have various shortcomings. For example, the mobile subscriber equipment (MSE), the U.S. Army's mobile telephone system for the battlefield, was designed to be like a cellular telephone but is outdated compared to current technology. The single-channel TABLE 1-2 Tactical and Combat Net Radios Characteristics C4I Radios Army Tactical Radios Simultaneous channels 4-20 1 Waveforms 5-20 1-4 Waveform structure Wideband and narrowband Narrowband Cost $50,000-$500,000+ $5,000-$50,000 Deployed examples • Joint tactical information distribution system; • Joint Tactical Terminal; • Fleet broadcast (UHF-satellite naval command-and-control radio) • Single-channel ground and airborne radio system; • Enhanced position location reporting system; • Mobile subscriber equipment Command, control, communications, computing, and intelligence. ground and airborne radio system (SINCGARS) has been updated with recent technology, including programmable microprocessors, application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), and surface-mount technology, but it implements a series of outdated waveform standards for single-channel digital voice. Furthermore, SINCGARS has experienced severe co-site interference problems because it hops transmission frequencies within the VHF band, a design capability that helps prevent jamming by adversaries but results in hops onto channels already in use for other communications traffic. The mobile subscriber radio terminal (MSRT) costs $70,000 and is about the size of a microwave oven; an updated version, introduced in 1994, is no less expensive and no smaller. Numerous HF radios have been built by the Army, but most are in storage because these radios are not simple push-to-talk designs and user training for the difficult HF channel has not been widespread. The problems posed by individual radios are exacerbated by the difficulties encountered in linking communications systems of varying sophistication together (see Box 1-2). Special interfaces can be designed; SINCGARS, for example, can be interfaced into the MSRT. Inherent interoperability is among the features sought in sophisticated future systems. But in the near term, front-line troops will continue to use both existing and evolving radios, such as SINCGARS, mobile tactical satellite (TACSAT) terminals, MSE, MSRT, and packet radios. The Army is struggling with how to upgrade the MSE, a proprietary system. The SINCGARS is expected to be replaced and upgraded with a tri-service joint tactical radio in 1999. The U.S. Department of Defense established IP as the underlying ''building code" for the Army, making a commitment to migrate all communications networks to the same basic structure as the Internet to position the military to integrate and leverage the advances in commercial information technologies. The Army's Task Force XXI "Tactical Internet" (Booz-Allen & Hamilton, 1995) was the first major experimental fielding of this new architecture (Sass and Eldridge, 1994; Sass, 1996). Realities of Military Communications in Bosnia U.S. military communications systems in Bosnia have been frustrating, according to Brigade Commander Kenneth Allard (1996), who described the situation this way: Despite the imperative of supporting the warfighter, the river of information available to U.S. military forces in Bosnia often diminishes to a trickle by the time it reaches the soldiers actually executing peacekeeping missions. On one recent operation, a brigade commander who had requested overhead imagery of his area complained that "the system" took three weeks to provide photographs that eventually turned out to be six months old. The reasons are many: communications pipelines too narrow to efficiently carry digital data to the field, outmoded tactical equipment, and automation resources easily overwhelmed by what data are available. … The Army communications system has generally worked well in Bosnia, but only at great costs in manpower and effort. Because Army tactical radios operate on line-of-sight transmissions, it is essential to place repeaters and relays on mountain tops. But with large numbers of radios nets required for the 15 brigades operating in the U.S. sector, there is a real problem with interference ("signal fratricide"). When these critical relay sites must be fortified and defended, support requirements can consume 7–8 percent of combat manpower in addition to the U.S. signal brigade of over 1,100 soldiers. … Although the military communications system features free morale calls, most U.S. soldiers "phone home" with AT&T prepaid credit cards—expense outweighed by clarity and convenience. Their commanders have similar feelings. "The former warring factions have better communications," snapped one U.S. brigade commander, "because they have cellular phones and I don't." 1.3.2 Satellite Systems Satellite systems play a major role in military communications. They are attractive alternatives to land-based systems because they provide mobile and tactical communications to a large number of users over a wide geographical area. In addition, communication links can be added or deleted quickly, and satellites are less vulnerable to destruction or enemy exploitation than are land-based systems. The DOD uses both military and commercial satellites to meet its communications needs. Fleet communications are supported by the government-owned FLTSAT and contractor-owned LEASAT systems, both of which are geosynchronous. The U.S. Air Force uses FLTSAT, the elliptical-orbit Satellite Data System, and the DSCS-III satellites to support the AFSATCOM satellite system. The DSCS, a vital component of the global defense communications system, is the DOD's primary system for long-haul, high-volume trunk traffic. The operational DSCS space segment consists of a mix of DSCS-II and DSCS-III satellites. In 1982 the military began developing new satellite and terminal technology for MILSTAR, a millimeter-wave system operating in the 30–60 gigahertz (GHz) range. This new system consists of both geosynchronous and inclined-orbit satellites. The system provides enhanced antijam (AJ) capabilities as well as hardening against nuclear attack. Only a few of the planned eight MILSTAR satellites have been deployed so far. The complete system would provide two satellites per coverage area over the continental United States and the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. In general, existing tactical-satellite ground terminals incorporate new technology (e.g., microprocessors, ASICs, surface-mount technology) but are still forced to implement legacy waveforms. As a result, they have generally not kept pace with innovations in commercial communications waveforms and standards. In the case of MILSTAR, the military uses a noncommercial frequency band and is therefore unable to use—or take advantage of the price reductions in—commercial hardware. The new Joint Tactical Terminal (one of the systems listed in Table 1-2) is designed using modern radio technology, perhaps even including software-defined radios (see Section 1.3.3.2). High data rates sufficient for multimedia transmissions can be achieved only with the most advanced technology. For example, the global broadcast system (GBS), part of the U.S. Navy's UHF Follow-On satellites 8, 9, and 10, has bandwidth exceeding 100 megabits per second (Mbps) and worldwide coverage. The most widely used military satellite system is the global positioning system (GPS), which encompasses 18 to 24 satellites in inclined orbits transmitting spread-spectrum signals. The GPS receivers extract precise time and frequency information from these signals to determine with great accuracy the receiver location, velocity, and acceleration. The system can be used by anyone with a receiver. 4 Commercial GPS receivers are used for numerous applications, including surveying, aircraft and ship navigation, and even recreational activities on land. Although launching and upkeep of the entire fleet of satellites are paid for by the United States, commercial GPS receivers were used by both sides in the Gulf War. 1.3.3 Research Initiatives in Untethered Communications The DOD's vision for future communications systems is typically expressed in general terms, such as "multimedia to the foxhole" (see Box 1-3). For example, the Army's architecture for the digitized battlefield of the twenty-first century consists of fixed high-bandwidth infrastructure at the Army, theater, and corps levels, integrated with the DOD's global grid (a concept for spanning the world with high-bandwidth computing and communications systems) and based on asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) wide-area networking technology (Sass and Gorr, 1995). Bandwidth is allocated not only up and down the command hierarchy but also horizontally to cooperating formations. At the division level and below, wireless extensions provided by mobile radio access points (RAPs) will link the front-line combat communications systems to the infrastructure in the rear areas. The RAP is a wheeled or tracked vehicle with an on-the-move antenna system. The RAPs carry extensive communications systems and are interconnected by high-capacity trunk radios capable of Preparing for Battle in a Multisensor Environment The Army's Force XXI Soldier Program is developing the prototype technologies needed to make the soldier more efficient as a sensor and more lethal. Many sensors will be used in future theaters of operation: Everything that moves will have one or more sensors, and there will be many stationary sensors. Soldiers may carry position, identification, health, and imagery sensors, for example, or a networking body-worn radio. They will probably be able to image and locate anything on the battlefield and notify others of the onset of a firefight, drawing support from nearby assets. Finally, soldiers will be able to provide reconnaissance reports in far greater detail, perhaps catching important details missed in traditional daily radio reporting. The dismounted soldier is not the only user of imagery and video services; ships, aircraft, and other platforms may also carry sensors. Video and video teleconferencing applications have already been deployed on an experimental basis. All of these sensors will increase the data load on the military communications system. communicating at up to 45 Mbps over a range of 30 km. Satellites or other systems may provide back-up communications. To the committee's knowledge, the operational requirements for future untethered communications have not been translated into technical specifications. In the future, technical specifications will need to be formulated in a way that will make it possible to determine which commercial technologies are capable of meeting military needs. As an alternative, some general DOD requirements can be inferred from military plans and the known technical capabilities of existing and emerging communications technologies. For example, future military wireless systems will require high data rates—the long-range goal is at least 10 Mbps—and the capability to transmit over broad and variable frequency bands (some experimental radios are designed to span frequencies from 2 MHz to 2 GHz). The systems will need to be rapidly deployable and the infrastructure will need to be mobile. Multilevel communications security that encompasses the most secure levels possible will be needed. Furthermore, to enable worldwide strategic communications, the new equipment will need to be interoperable with older military systems as well as those used by foreign allies and international forces. There are more than 17 different U.S. defense communications networks, and none are readily interoperable at present. New concepts and technologies will clearly be needed to meet all these requirements. To meet its future communications requirements, the DOD is funding a number of research and demonstration projects, typically pursuing high-risk ventures with potentially high payoff. The most comprehensive DOD-funded initiative dealing with untethered communications is the Global Mobile Information Systems (GloMo) program initiated by DARPA in 1994. Other relevant research initiatives deal with software-defined radios, communications systems, and radio technology (Leiner et al., 1996). 1.3.3.1 Global Mobile Information Systems Program The overarching goal of GloMo is to develop technology for robust end-to-end information systems in a global mobile environment by exploiting commercial products and generating new technologies with applications in both commercial and military domains. The program supports a wide range of research projects, which are identified based on the priorities of GloMo managers rather than on a systems approach to the development of top-down solutions. Notably missing from the program, for example, is a comprehensive assessment of the suitability of various network architectures, even though all other component needs are dictated by the system design. (Network architecture issues are discussed in detail in Chapters 2 and 3.) The GloMo program currently focuses on developing innovative technologies that span the following research thrusts. Design Infrastructure . This effort spans tools, languages, and environments for designing and deploying wireless systems. Research areas include computer-aided design tools for estimating power and designing low-power systems, design libraries and models for mixed-signal integrated circuits (ICs) suitable for implementing highly integrated RF chip sets, and simulation tools for modeling the propagation of radio waves and higher-level protocols. Untethered Nodes . This effort focuses on high-performance, modular, low-cost, and low-power wireless nodes. Research activities are aimed at developing the next generation of agile, highly integrated radio technology. Radio control points are exposed to higher software layers to make radios and applications more adaptable to changing needs and conditions. Complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology (an inexpensive, low-power technology) is being pushed to its limits to achieve high-speed RF circuitry coupled to high levels of integration. Several activities are combining custom signal processing for audio and video with the radio circuitry. In these efforts radios are viewed as modular building blocks that can be combined to yield systems with different cost-performance-function attributes. Some projects are investigating the architectures of software radios, in which many of the radio functions are performed by software combined with very-high-performance processing architectures. Network Protocols and Algorithms . This effort deals with the development of robust network architectures and techniques for rapid deployment of wireless networks. Research efforts include the development of new packet-radio routing schemes such as dynamic routing protocols for ad hoc networking. The concepts being studied are not limited to end-node mobility: Other possibilities include base-station mobility and network reconfiguration as base stations are repositioned in a battlefield scenario. End-to-End Networking . This effort addresses how best to operate across a heterogeneous mix of underlying networks, both wireless and wired. Research areas include extensions to TCP/IP that will enable mobile users to access the Internet, satellite extensions to the Internet, and overlay wireless networking that supports mobility across diverse wireless subnetworks inside buildings and in the wider area. Mobile Applications Support . This effort deals with the development of distributed computing techniques that will enable applications to adapt to varying network connectivity and quality of service (QoS) needs. The techniques being studied include software agents (sometimes called mediators or proxies) that adapt data representations to the capabilities of bandwidth-constrained wireless links; methods of performing computations in the wireline infrastructure on behalf of power- and display-limited portable devices such as personal digital assistants (PDAs); capabilities to move code between wired and portable nodes to provide location-dependent or new functionality when the node is poorly connected; file system structures that operate whether well connected, disconnected, or poorly connected to a wired infrastructure; event-notification protocols that enable applications to learn of changes to the underlying network connectivity and QoS; and techniques for structuring applications to exploit information about their current location. 1.3.3.2 Software-Defined Radio Research The DOD is devoting considerable attention to designing and demonstrating software-defined radios, none of which is in production as yet. The most prominent of these initiatives is the SpeakEASY program sponsored by DARPA, the Air Force Rome Laboratory, and the Army Communication Electronics Command. The key objective of SpeakEASY is to change the paradigm for military radios. In the past, radios were based on "point designs" with negligible capabilities for functional upgrades or waveform changes—capabilities that define SpeakEASY. In phase 1 of the program, analog-to-digital (A/D) converters were used to complete the radio signal path and high-speed digital signal processors (DSPs) were used for filtering and demodulation. The key technologies demonstrated in phase 1 include digital frequency conversion and wideband signal processing. In SpeakEASY phase 2, modular radio elements (separate modules for the analog elements, A/D converter, and DSPs) will be integrated on an open-architecture bus. The key objective of phase 2 is to demonstrate a software-defined networking radio with support for legacy and future waveform evolution using a single architecture. This approach increases production volume, reduces costs, and enhances logistical support. The open-architecture design implies that competitive bids would be sought for commercial boards, modules, and software. Other goals include the use of commercial modules in the radio and the commercialization of any functions developed specifically for the radio. The Naval Research Laboratory has an ongoing research program focusing on a software-defined radio known as the Joint C 4 I Terminal (JCIT). The JCIT grew out of an Army requirement for an advanced, helicopter-based command-and-control system. The JCIT will incorporate multiple software-defined radios for combat net, intelligence communications, and military data links on a single platform. Also under development is the advanced communications engine (ACE), which evolved from a project sponsored by DARPA. The ACE is a software-defined digital radio with capabilities for multiple simultaneous band and channel transmissions (it has six receiving and transmitting channels). The initial prototypes demonstrate "dual-use" (i.e., both military and commercial) capabilities including those of combat net radios SINCGARS and Have Quick (a UHF system designed to provide secure air-to-air and air-to-ground communications with AJ capabilities) and commercial avionics radios such as GPS, VHF air to ground, and the aircraft communications addressing and reporting system. A very ambitious program, Millennium, was initiated to design an ultra-wideband radio. One objective was to demonstrate extremely high speed (approximately 1 billion samples per second) A/D data converters for both military and commercial communications. After the data conversion process, all tuning, filtering, demodulation, and decoding functions are performed by software (these processes and the associated technologies are discussed in Chapter 2). 1.3.3.3 Communications Systems Research Several important research programs focus on complete communication systems. The DARPA Battlefield Awareness and Data Dissemination (BADD) program combines radios, ATM routers, and various communications networks and airborne relays from the Army's digital battlefield technology development effort for the deployment of high-speed data and large-file image transfer to the forward area. The Bosnia Command and Control Augmentation program, which is phase 1 of the GBS and focuses on satellite communications, grew out of BADD testing. Phase 2 of the GBS involves the incorporation of DirecTV transponders into Navy UHF satellites. Phase 3 will provide the means for stand-alone satellite transfer of high-speed data and large-file images. 1.3.3.4 Radio Component Research The DOD's Extremely Lightweight Antenna program produced a compact, lightweight (under 2 pounds), and wideband (85 MHz to 2.2 GHz) antenna. The antenna incorporates a directional wideband satellite beam as well as low-gain omnidirectional radiation patterns. The DARPA Advanced Digital Receiver Technology program was initiated to demonstrate technology elements for software-defined receivers in communications, radar, and electronic warfare. Several of these functions might be merged into one digital receiver unit. 1.3.3.5 Small Unit Operations The Small Unit Operations Situational Awareness System includes a significant wireless communications component. One goal of the research is to create a radio system for exchanging information among groups of up to 12 foot soldiers operating in an area of approximately 4 km 2 . 1.3.3.6 Modeling and Simulation The Scalable Self-Organizing Simulations (S3) Program, supported by DARPA and the National Science Foundation, uses parallel computers to simulate communications networks. This program includes projects that create models and a library of computer programs for simulating mobility, radio propagation, and teletraffic patterns in large-scale wireless networks. 1.4 Commercial Terrestrial Mobile Telephone Systems And Services Commercial wireless communications systems have exhibited remarkable growth over the past decade (see Figure 1-2). There are currently more than 50 million U.S. cellular subscribers (Hill, 1997) and more than 34 million U.S. paging subscribers (Mooney, 1997). An estimated 17 percent of the U.S. population now has cellular service, compared to 95 percent with wireline telephone service (Hill, 1997). There are also 50 million subscribers to systems based on the global system for mobile communications (GSM) standard, the European cellular technology. Worldwide, the total number of subscribers to cellular systems is projected at just under 200 million (Hill, 1997). It should be noted that these figures, as market research estimates, are fundamentally imprecise and, moreover, tend to be volatile because of the dynamic nature of the wireless industry. Throughout the world, wireless communication systems are enabling developing countries to provide instant telephone service to new subscribers who otherwise would have to wait years for wireline access. Although wireless users are still far outnumbered by the approximately 700 million wireline telephone users worldwide, the number of new wireless subscribers is growing 15 times faster than the wireline subscriber base, and this pace is expected to accelerate in the coming years. Analysts predict that, by the year 2010, there will be equal numbers of wireless and wireline connections throughout the world. Wireless mobile telephone systems can be divided into three generations. FIGURE 1-2 The number of U.S. cellular subscribers and cell sites soared between 1984 and 1996. Note that 1984 figures are for January 1985. Source: Reproduced with the Cellular Telephone Industry Association's permission from the CTIA's Semi-Annual Data Survey. The first generation, introduced in the 1980s and early 1990s, uses analog cellular and cordless telephone technology. Second-generation systems transmit speech in digital format. They provide advanced calling features and some nonvoice services. There are two categories of second-generation systems. High-tier systems feature high-power transmitters, base stations with coverage ranges on the order of kilometers, and subscribers moving at vehicular speeds. Low-tier systems, serving subscribers moving at pedestrian speeds, have low-power transmitters with a range on the order of 100 meters (m). Some of these systems are designed primarily for indoor use. Third-generation systems, planned for introduction after 2002, are expected to integrate disparate services, including broadband information services that cannot be delivered with second-generation technology. Many users are looking forward to the increased convenience promised by the integration or compatibility of systems (see Box 1-4). In addition to terrestrial mobile telephone systems, other commercial wireless systems include satellite communications, mobile data systems, and wireless local area networks (LANs). 1.4.1 First-Generation Systems Of the original wireless communications systems deployed in the 1980s, the most popular was the analog cordless telephone, which uses So Many Systems, So Little Integration The proliferation of commercial communications systems can seem overwhelming, especially to international travelers. One such traveler explains: "I have a two-way pager that works in the United States. I have a one-way pager that works in some countries. I have another one-way pager that works in other countries. I've got a GSM phone. I've got a CDPD [cellular digital packet data] modem. I have a RAM [Mobile Data] and an Ardis radio. I have a cable to connect my cellular phone to the modem in my PC. I have accounts with two Internet service providers, CompuServe, America Online, an account at the office. I've got seven phone numbers in the 847 area code, one phone number in the 708 area code. I've got one phone number in New Jersey because AT&T wireless are the only people who will give you a GSM account, so I have a New Jersey phone number. I live in Chicago. … I have my own phone book which just has me in it. That's the problem today: I've got all of this stuff" (Lou Dellaverson, Motorola, Inc., December 10, 1996). radio to connect a portable handset to a unit that is wired to the public switched telephone network. Hundreds of millions of such devices have been produced, and the technology has been standardized in Europe under the cordless telephone first-generation (CT0, CT1, and CT1+) standards. There is no single U.S. standard. Analog cordless telephones have ranges limited to tens of meters and require a dedicated telephone line. Cellular systems have enabled much greater mobility. In establishing cellular service in 1983 the FCC divided the United States into 734 cellular markets (called metropolitan statistical areas and rural service areas), each with an "A-side" and "B-side" cellular service provider. Historically, the designation of A or B indicated the origins of the cellular provider: An A-side provider did not originate in the traditional telephone business and was called a nonwireline carrier, whereas a B-side provider had roots in traditional services and was called a wireline carrier. Each cellular carrier is licensed to use 25 MHz of radio spectrum in the 800-MHz band to provide two-way telephone and data communications for its particular market. Because the U.S. analog cellular system is standardized with AMPS, any cellular telephone is capable of working in any part of the country. The AMPS cellular standard uses analog FM and full-duplex radio channels. The frequency division multiple access (FDMA) technique enables multiple users to share the same region of spectrum. This standard supports clear communication and inexpensive mobile telephones, but the transmissions are easy to intercept on a standard radio receiver and therefore are susceptible to eavesdropping. As of late 1996, 88 percent of all cellular telephones in the United States used the AMPS standard (digital cellular standards have only recently become available). Outside of the United States and Canada, a wide variety of incompatible analog cellular systems have been deployed (see Table 1-3). The European cellular service, which predated the AMPS system, used the Nordic mobile telephone (NMT) standard beginning in 1982. Other European nations and Japan also developed analog standards. 1.4.2 Second-Generation Systems Spurred by growing consumer demand for wireless services, standards organizations in North America, Europe, and Japan have specified new technologies to meet consumer expectations and make efficient use of allocated spectrum bands. These second-generation systems use advanced digital signal processing, compression, coding, and network-control techniques to conserve radio bandwidth, prevent eavesdropping and unauthorized use of networks, and also support additional services (e.g., voice mail, three-way calling, and text transmission retrieval). In the United States, second-generation technologies have been deployed in the original 800-MHz cellular bands and in personal communications bands around 1900 MHz that were allocated by the FCC between 1995 and 1997. In Europe and most other parts of the world, second-generation technologies are deployed in the 900-MHz cellular bands and in 1800-MHz personal communications bands. Japan operates digital cellular systems in various bands between 800 MHz and 1500 MHz as well as a personal communications band near 1900 MHz. The most widespread second-generation techniques include three high-tier standards: the European standard, GSM; and two North American standards, IS-136, a time division multiple access (TDMA) technique, and IS-95, a code division multiple access (CDMA) technique. 5 The GSM standard, which has been adopted in more than 100 countries, specifies a complete wide-area communications system. The other two standards specify only the communications between mobile telephones and base stations. A separate standard, IS-41, governs communications between mobile switching centers and other infrastructure elements in the United States. Table 1-4 summarizes the properties of the principal high-tier second-generation systems. Among low-tier standards, the personal handyphone system (PHS) provides mobile telephone services to several million Japanese subscribers. Two other standards, digital European cordless telecommunications (DECT) and cordless telephone second generation (CT2), from the basis of several wireless business telephone (i.e., private branch exchange, or PBX) products. A fourth low-tier system is the personal access communications system (PACS), a U.S. standard. Although PACS has attracted considerable industry interest, it has not been widely deployed to date. Table 1-5 summarizes the properties of low-tier systems. TABLE 1-3 Analog Cellular Systems   Transmission Frequency (MHz)       Standard Mobile Station Base Station Channel Spacing (kHz) Regions Covered Comments AMPS 824–849 869–894 30 America, Australia, SE Asia, Africa   TACS 890–915 935–960 25 Europe Bands later allocated to GSM ETACS 872–905 917–950 25 United Kingdom   NMT 450 453–457.5 463–467.5 25 Europe   NMT 900 890–915 935–960 12.5 Europe, Africa, SE Asia Frequency overlapping C-450 450–455.74 460–465.74 10 Germany, Portugal   RTMS 450–455 460–465 25 Italy   Radiocom 2000 192.5–199.5 200.5–207.5 12.5 France First two bands are regional, second two are national   215.5–233.5 207.5–215.5         165.2–168.4 169.8–173         414.8–418 424.8–428       NTT 925–940 870–885 25/6.25 Japan First band is nationwide, others are regional   915–918.5 860–863.5 6.25       922–925 867–870 6.25     JTACS 915–925 860–870 25/12.5 Japan All are regional NTACS 898–901 843-846 25/12.5       918.5–922 863.5–867 12.5     Advanced mobile phone system. Total access communications system. Global system for mobile communications. Extended total access communications system. Nordic mobile telephone. Radio telephone mobile system. The dominant telecommunications operating company in Japan. Japanese total access communications. Narrowband total access communications. SOURCE: Reprinted from Padgett et al. (1995) with permission. Copyright © 1995 by IEEE. TABLE 1-4 High-Tier Digital Cellular Systems System IS-95 GSM IS-136 PDC Region Worldwide Worldwide Americas Japan Access method CDMA FDMA /TDMA FDMA/TDMA TDMA Frequency bands (megahertz) 824–849, 869–894, 1850–1910, 1930–1990 890–915, 935–960 1710–1785, 1805–1885 1850–1910, 1930–1990 824–849, 869–894 810–826, 940–956, 1477–1489, 1429–1441, 1501–1513, 1453–1465 Carrier spacing (kilohertz) 1250 200 30 25 Channels per carrier Soft capacity (limited by noise and interference) 8 3 3 Global system for mobile communications. Pacific digital cellular. Code division multiple access. Frequency division multiple access. Time division multiple access. SOURCE: Reprinted from Padgett et al. (1995) with permission. Copyright © 1995 by IEEE. In addition to the 1900-MHz licensed personal communications bands (see Table 1-5, the fifth column), the FCC has allocated the 1910–1930 MHz band for unlicensed low-tier systems. Commercial products based on DECT, PHS, and a modified version of PACS (designated PACS-UB, for unlicensed band) are under consideration for deployment in the 1910–1930 MHz band. Each of the second-generation systems has distinct features and limitations, but none was designed specifically with the problems of large, complex organizations such as the military in mind. Nevertheless, it is possible to combine disparate approaches in a customized network built to meet the unique voice and data communications needs of an organization with national reach (see Box 1-5). Tracking Packages Across North America TotalTrack was established by the United Parcel Service (UPS) and a consortium of more than 100 cellular carriers in the United States and Canada in response to customer demands for real-time package tracking. The system was the first nationwide cellular data service. In conjunction with the private UPS telecommunications network (UPSnet), TotalTrack provides broad coverage, enabling 60,000 UPS vehicles in the United States and Canada to transmit status information to the UPS mainframe computer within minutes of package delivery. TotalTrack uses existing cellular technology and infrastructure to process 1.25 million calls and large quantities of data daily. The UPS drivers record package information using a custom-built, handheld electronic data collection device, which is used to scan the package bar code and to capture the receiver's signature. This information is transmitted through a modem in the vehicle to the local cellular network, which provides the link to UPSnet. The system is designed to be fail-safe with cellular redundancies, dual access to UPSnet, and multiple connections to the data center. The effectiveness of cellular technology for this application was proven by a 10-city field test that compared specialized mobile radio with cellular. Initially there were concerns about cellular reliability for data transmission. Cellular was believed to be too noisy and prone to signal interference to transmit data effectively. However, UPS achieved link reliability by using a particular combination of error-control protocols. To reduce the duration and cost of data calls, the cellular carriers connected their switching systems directly into UPSnet using a multipurpose access platform. This equipment receives the cellular data from UPS vehicles, converts it from an analog circuit-switched to a digital packet-switched format, and then forwards it to one of 40 UPS packet switches around the country. Other innovations include a phone numbering plan that allows UPS vehicles to roam between the service areas of adjacent alliance members, a billing system that consolidates all carrier charges into a single UPS bill, and a unified ''help desk" that quickly resolves cellular service problems. TABLE 1-5 Low-Tier Wireless/Personal Communications Systems System CT2/CT2+ DECT PHS PACS Region Europe, Canada Europe Japan United States Access method FDMA FDMA/TDMA FDMA/TDMA FDMA/TDMA Frequency band (megahertz) 864–868, 944–948 1880–1900 1895–1918 1850–1910, 1930–1990 Carrier spacing (kilohertz) 100 1728 300 300 Number of carriers 40 10 77 16 per pair Channels per carrier 1 12 4 8 per pair Cordless telephone second generation. Digital European cordless telecommunications. Personal handyphone system. Personal access communications system. Frequency division multiple access. Time division multiple access. SOURCE: Reprinted from Padgett et al. (1995) with permission. Copyright © 1995 by IEEE. The commercial success of second-generation wireless telephone systems has stimulated widespread interest in enhancing their capabilities to meet public expectations for advanced information services. For example, new speech-coding techniques offering improved voice quality have been introduced to all three high-tier systems. Efforts are also under way to make these systems more attractive for data services. Accordingly, standards for fax-signal transmission have been established, and standards for circuit-switched data transmission at rates of up to 64 kilobits per second (kbps) are under development for GSM and CDMA. In addition, technology for packet-switched data transmission, suitable for providing wireless Internet access, is being developed for all second-generation systems. The technology base will continue to grow as R&D organizations worldwide design innovations for a third generation of wireless communications systems. 6 1.4.3 Third-Generation Systems The original concept for third-generation wireless systems emerged from an International Telecommunications Union (ITU) initiative known as the future public land mobile telecommunication system (FPLMTS). 7 Over the past decade the ITU advanced the concept of a wireless system that would encompass technical capabilities a clear step above those of second-generation cellular systems. The current name for the third-generation system is International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000). The number refers to an early target date for implementing the new technology and also the frequency band (around 2000 MHz) in which it would be deployed. As envisioned in the IMT-2000 project, the third-generation wireless system would have a worldwide common radio interface and network. It would support higher data rates than do second-generation systems yet be less expensive. It would also advance other aspects of wireless communications by reducing equipment size, extending battery life, and improving ease of operation. In addition, the system would support the services required in developing as well as developed nations. Box 1-6 lists the complete set of goals established in 1990 for FPLMTS. Since 1990 IMT-2000 recommendations have been approved that elaborate on the initial goals, establish security principles, prescribe a network architecture, present a plan for developing nations, establish radio interface requirements, and specify a framework for a satellite component. The ITU anticipated an international competition leading to a radio interface that could be developed and deployed by the year 2000. The competing radio interfaces would provide minimum outdoor data rates of 384 kpbs and an indoor rate of 2 Mbps. Other than providing a forum for discussion of Goals for Third-Generation Commercial Wireless Systems High quality and integrity comparable to the fixed network Flexibility for evolution Use of a small pocket terminal worldwide but accommodation of other terminal types Higher service quality, especially for voice Availability of a range of voice and other services, including multimedia Flexible radio bearer leading to improved spectral efficiency and lower cost per erlang Higher bit rate capability Improved security Improved ease of operation Compatibility of services within the system and with the fixed network A framework for continuing expansion of mobile network services and access to the fixed network Integration of satellite and terrestrial components Wider range of operating environments, including aeronautical and maritime Open architecture that will permit easy introduction of advances in technology and applications Services provided by more than one network in each coverage area Services provided over a wide range of user densities and coverage areas Services provided to both mobile and fixed users in urban, rural, and remote regions Modular structure to enable the system to grow in size and complexity as needed Caters to the needs of developing countries Equipment compatible with off-the-shelf products worldwide Service creation and service profile management by "intelligent" network Coherent systems management Efficient use of the radio spectrum consistent with provision of services at acceptable costs Expanded marketplace leading to lower costs Global standard promoting a high degree of design commonality while incorporating a variety of systems Worldwide common frequency band Worldwide roaming based on terminal mobility SOURCE: International Telecommunications Union Task Group 8/1 (1996). standards proposals, the ITU has not adopted clear plans of how to proceed beyond the point of reviewing the proposals. The 1995 World Radio Conference set aside spectrum for nations to consider for the deployment of IMT-2000. The bands are 1920-1980 MHz and 2110-2170 MHz for terrestrial communications and 1980-2010 MHz and 2170-2200 MHz for satellites. As noted in Table 1-4 and Table 1-5, the United States has already allocated spectrum bands to personal communications that include part of the lower IMT-2000 band, making it unlikely that U.S. service providers could deploy IMT-2000 at all. Early on, attention to the ITU work was limited in both Europe and the United States, where growth in second-generation digital cellular and personal communications markets has been strong. It was the Japanese, virtually alone among all nations, who insisted that the ITU program proceed as fast as possible because they were running out of spectrum for their cellular and personal communications systems. 8 The Japanese were able to keep the IMT-2000 program on schedule, resulting in an ITU call for radio-interface proposals, now due in mid-1998. In support of this effort, the Japanese radio standards group is developing one or more Japanese standards for use in the ITU-2000 spectrum. Presumably the standard(s) will be submitted to the ITU for possible worldwide use. Meanwhile, the European telecommunications industry established a framework for developing third-generation mobile wireless technology. The universal mobile telephone system (UMTS) is intended to replicate the commercial success achieved a decade earlier with GSM. The UMTS schedule calls for establishing the technology base by December 1997, deploying a minimum system in 2002, and achieving a full system in 2005. The technical goals of UMTS closely resemble many of the IMT-2000 goals. The Europeans plan to propose the technologies adopted for UMTS as candidates for IMT-2000. In the United States, action on this issue did not take place until mid-1997, when the four U.S. CDMA cellular infrastructure manufacturers—Lucent Technologies, Motorola, Nortel, and QUALCOMM, Inc.—announced a third-generation program called Wideband cdmaOne. Like many candidate systems under consideration in Europe and Japan, the U.S. system uses a 5-MHz CDMA signal, although the operating parameters and design features differ from those of foreign counterparts. Additional U.S. proposals for IMT-2000 could emerge from other communities of companies supporting other digital radio interface standards. 9 Among related developments, interest in "nomadicity" is growing within the Internet community in the United States. As originally conceived, the national information infrastructure (NII) placed little emphasis on the wireless delivery of information to mobile users (Computer Science and Telecommunications Board, 1994). But with the growth in demand for Internet services, reflected by the transition to private suppliers, providers are seeking to leverage Internet technology either directly or as part of heterogeneous networks. Plans are being made to accommodate nomads (i.e., mobile users) who draw on a variety of communications, computing, and information systems simultaneously, a concept that will require attention by multiple industries to issues such as security, interoperability, and synchronization within and between systems (Cross-Industry Working Team, 1995). Other ITU activities are addressing network aspects of IMT-2000. 10 Here again the Japanese have made major contributions toward the establishment of a single worldwide network to support wireless systems. Only in mid-1997 did the U.S. and European delegations begin to make significant contributions, concerned about their current investments in cellular and personal communications networks and the possible effects of establishing a worldwide network that was incompatible with their systems. The latest U.S. and European proposals emphasize the idea of a family of networks supporting a family of radio interfaces through the use of appropriate gateways to achieve worldwide roaming and interoperability. Although it is clear that many new wireless communications technologies will emerge in the 2002-2005 time frame, it is not clear when and how they will be commercialized. The robust evolution of second-generation systems will limit commercial incentives to introduce a new generation of systems. It is possible that advances in second-generation systems will meet future demand for mobile telephone services and that a demonstrated demand for high-bit-rate data services will be necessary to stimulate the commercial deployment of third-generation technology. 1.5 Commercial Satellite Systems Satellite systems can be classified by frequency and orbit. Above 1 GHz a satellite signal easily penetrates the ionosphere. Transmission at higher frequencies is desirable because additional bandwidth is available there, but then expensive components are needed to overcome signal attenuation, absorption, and path loss (see Chapter 2 for a discussion of channel impairments). Most satellite systems are of the GEO variety, offering configuration simplicity, wide footprint (i.e., one satellite covers an entire geographical region), and fixed satellite-to-ground-terminal characteristics. But GEO systems also have a number of disadvantages, including long propagation delays (a round-trip takes approximately half a second), high transmitter-power requirements, and poor coverage at the far northern and southern latitudes. Moreover, GEO satellites are expensive to launch, and, because only a handful of satellites are typically used to achieve global coverage, they are vulnerable to single points of failure. The International Maritime Satellite (INMARSAT) Organization, formed in 1979, is now backed by the governments of 75 member countries. Its first satellites (INMARSAT-A) became operational in 1982, supporting voice and low-rate data applications with analog FM technology. By the end of 1993, 30,000 ground terminals were in operation. The next generation of INMARSAT satellites (INMARSAT-B and C) used digital technology, but data rates remained low (600 bps). With the introduction of INMARSAT-M in 1996 it is now possible to use laptop computer-sized satellite terminals for voice and low-rate (2.4 kbps) data transmission. However, the voice quality of this system remains poor due to propagation delay, and data transmission rates are 10 times slower than those of a standard modem. In the late 1980s QUALCOMM deployed the OMNITracs vehicle-tracking and communications system for both North America (using GSTAR satellites) and Europe (using EUTELSAT satellites). The service provides two-way messaging and automatic position reporting. By 1997 more than 200,000 trucks, most of them in the United States, were equipped with the system. The use of such systems in Europe has been restricted by high equipment costs and expectations for less-costly alternatives with the next generation of systems. Recently introduced GEO systems for data communications include Mobilesat in Australia and MSAT in North America (see Table 1-6). Innovations in GEO systems include spot beams for custom broadcast coverage and improved on-board processing. Although GEO satellite communications systems are not fully mobile (i.e., the terminals are not handheld), innovations in terminal design have enabled the development of private networks and rapidly reconfigurable systems. Very small aperture terminals (VSATs) use small Earth-station antennas to form private networks through links to GEO satellites. The VSAT is the result of more than 20 years of advances in digital Earth-station technology. The applications have evolved from point-to-point transmission links to networking terminals that leverage the broadcasting capability of satellites. TABLE 1-6 Selected Geosynchronous Earth Orbiting Systems System Organization Number of Satellites Coverage Data Rate (kbps) MSAT AMSC , TMI 2 North America 4.8 INMARSAT-M INMARSAT 5 Global 2.4 Mobilesat Optus Communication 2 Australia 2.4 EMS European Space Agency 1 Europe, Northern Africa 10 LLM European Space Agency 1 Europe, Asia 10 Kilobits per second. Mobile satellite. American Mobile Satellite Corporation. Telesat Mobile, Inc. European mobile satellite. L-band land mobile. SOURCE: Reprinted from Abrishamkar and Siveski (1996) with permission. Copyright © 1996 by IEEE. The VSAT terminals offer various types of access. Fast-response protocols are used for time-sensitive transactions such as credit card purchases and hotel or airline reservations, throughput-efficient access is used for file transfers, and circuit-switched access is used for speech and digital video. (Throughput is the fraction of time during which a channel can be used.) An important feature of VSAT technology is ease of deployment: Installation takes approximately 2 hours. Companies are now installing VSATs at the rate of more than 1,500 per month. There are more than 200,000 VSATs worldwide, operating in nearly every country; individual networks range in size from as few as 20 nodes operating in a shared-hub environment to nearly 10,000 in the General Motors Corporation network. In 1994 direct-broadcast satellites (DBSs) became operational, some two decades after the first experiments were performed with this technology. These systems broadcast a signal from a GEO satellite with sufficient power to allow direct reception in a home, office, or vehicle with an inexpensive receiver. The two primary applications for DBS systems are television and radio; emerging applications include DirecPC and GBS. Systems for direct-broadcast television are operational in Europe, Japan, and the United States. By the end of 1996 these systems had more than 2.5 million U.S. subscribers. Digital audio broadcasting (DAB) has the potential to provide every radio within a service area with continuous transmissions of a sound quality comparable to that of a compact disc. Systems are being tested around the world that deliver DAB from satellites as well as from terrestrial antennas. Communications systems using non-GEO satellites are emerging as major players in commercial wireless applications. These satellites are characterized as either medium Earth orbit (MEO) or low Earth orbit (LEO). The LEOs, deployed in either circular or elliptical orbits of 500 to 2,000 km, offer several advantages including reduced propagation delay and low transmit-power requirements, allowing the use of handheld terminals. But at these altitudes a system requires many satellites to achieve global coverage. Furthermore, satellite movement relative to the ground terminal introduces Doppler shift in the received signal, and each satellite is visible from a ground terminal for only a few minutes at a time so that handoffs between satellites are frequent. The MEO satellites offer features that represent a compromise between LEOs and GEOs. The MEOs are deployed in circular orbits at an altitude of about 10,000 km. Approximately 10 to 15 satellites (more than GEOs but fewer than LEOs) are required for global coverage, and average visibility is one to two hours per satellite (less than for GEOs but more than for LEOs). The Doppler shift in MEOs is also considerably less than that in LEOs, but higher transmit power is required. The majority of new satellite systems that will become operational by the year 2000 are LEO or MEO systems. These satellites can be categorized further by size. Big LEO/MEOs (see Table 1-7) support voice and data communications with large satellites (weighing 400–2,000 kilograms [kg]) and operate at frequencies above 1 GHz. Little LEOs use much smaller satellites (weighing 40–100 kg) and operate in the UHF and VHF bands, thereby enabling the use of inexpensive transmission hardware for both the satellite and ground terminal. The 36-satellite Orbcomm system is an example. Most of these systems provide voice and low-rate data to mobile users with handheld terminals. The link rates for little LEOs are asymmetric, with lower rates on the uplink (ground to satellite) than on the downlink (satellite to ground) because of power limitations in the handheld unit. Teledesic is unusual because it is intended primarily for broadband wireless data communications with stationary terminals at integrated services digital network (ISDN) rates. Teledesic and Iridium have direct intersatellite communication links independent of the ground segment, enabling the provision of services to countries lacking a communications infrastructure. Iridium is designed to consist of 66 satellites arranged in six planes, all in a nearly polar orbit. Each satellite is expected to serve as a "switchboard in the sky," routing each channel of voice traffic through various other satellites in the system; communications are eventually delivered to an appropriate ground-based gateway to terrestrial telecommunications. Globalstar is a LEO digital telecommunications system that will begin offering wireless telephone, data, paging, fax, and position location services worldwide beginning in 1998. The 48-satellite constellation operating 1,410 km from the planet surface serves as a "bent-pipe" relay to local ground-based infrastructure. 1.6 Mobile Data Services Commercial packet-switched mobile data services emerged after the success of short-message, alphanumeric one-way paging systems. Mobile data networks provide two-way, low-speed, packet-switched data communication links with some restrictions on the size of the message (10 to 20 kilobytes) in early systems. Services provided by mobile data networks include the following: • Transaction processing (credit card verification, paging, notice of voice or electronic mail); • Broadcast services (general information, weather and traffic advisories, advertising); TABLE 1-7 Selected Big Low Earth Orbit (LEO)/Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) Systems System Organization Number of Satellites Orbit Coverage Data Rate (kbps) Year Operational Globalstar Loral/QUALCOMM 48 LEO Global 9.6 1998 Iridium Motorola 66 LEO Global 2.4 1998 Odyssey TRW 12 MEO Global 9.6 1998 Teledesic Teledesic 240 LEO Global 20–2,000 2002 ICO ICO Global Communications 10 MEO Global 2.4 1999 Archimedes European Space Agency 5–6 MEO Europe, Asia, Canada 256 After 2000 Kilobits per second. SOURCE: Reprinted from Abrishamkar and Siveski (1996) with permission. Copyright © 1996 by IEEE. • Interactive services (terminal access to host, remote LAN access, games); and • Multicast service (subscription information services, law enforcement, private bulletin boards). The first commercial mobile data network was Ardis, a private network developed in 1983 by IBM Corporation and Motorola to enable IBM to provide computing facilities in the field. By 1990 Ardis was deployed in more than 400 metropolitan areas and 10,700 cities and towns using 1,300 base stations. By 1994 Ardis (since then owned by Motorola) provided nationwide roaming for approximately 35,000 users, at a rate of 45 million messages per month, and a data rate of 19.2 kbps. In 1986, Swedish Telecomm and Ericsson Radio Systems AB introduced Mobitex and deployed it in Sweden. This system is available in the United States, Norway, Finland, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and France. The system supports a data rate of 8 Mbps and nationwide roaming (international roaming is planned). This service is distributed by RAM Mobile Data in the United States, where by 1994 it had 12,000 subscribers. A total of 840 base stations are connected to 40 switching centers to cover 100 metropolitan areas and 6,300 cities and towns. Cellular digital packet data (CDPD) technology was developed by IBM, which together with nine operating companies formed the CDPD Forum to develop an open standard and multivendor environment for a packet-switched network using the physical infrastructure and frequency bands of the AMPS systems. The CDPD specification was completed in 1993 with key contributions from IBM, McCaw Cellular Communications, Inc., and Pacific Communications Sciences, Inc. Deployment of the 19.2-kbps CDPD infrastructure, designed to make use of idle channels in analog cellular systems, commenced in 1995. In the 1990s Metricom, Inc., developed a metropolitan-area network that was deployed first in the San Francisco Bay area and then in Washington, D.C. The signaling rate of this system is advertised at 100 kbps but the actual data rate is substantially slower. The Metricom system uses ''frequency hopping" spread-spectrum (FHSS) technology in the lower frequencies (around 900 MHz) of the unlicensed industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) bands. 11 In 1996 the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) standard for mobile data services, trans-European trunked radio (TETRA), was completed. It is currently being used primarily for public safety purposes. Work is in progress to enhance the digital cellular and personal communications technologies. More recently, the digital cellular standards (GSM, IS-95, PHS, PACS, and IS-136) have been updated to support packet-switched mobile data services at a variety of data rates. Key features of existing mobile data services are shown in Table 1-8. Although many services are available, the mobile data market has grown more slowly than have voice services. 1.7 Wireless Local Area Networks Wireless LANs provide data rates exceeding 1 Mbps in coverage areas with dimensions on the order of tens of meters. They are used for a variety of applications, including the following: • LAN extensions in hospitals, factory floors, branch offices, and offices with wiring difficulties; • Cross-building inter-LAN bridges that serve as point-to-point, high-speed links connecting separate LANs located within a few miles of each other; • Temporary ad hoc networks used in conference registration, campaign headquarters, and military camps; • Temporary wireless access to a wired LAN from a portable device such as a laptop computer; and • Access to centralized computing facilities of a shipboard or research facility through a wireless device such as a notepad computer. In 1990 the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) formed a committee to develop a standard for wireless LANs operating at 1 and 2 Mbps. In 1992 the ETSI chartered a committee to develop a standard for high-performance radio LANs (HIPERLAN) operating at 20 Mbps. Table 1-9 indicates the technical features of various LAN products (including some that use the infrared portion of the spectrum and are therefore not examined in detail in this report). The market for wireless LAN products is growing rapidly but not nearly as fast as the market for wireless voice applications. The $200 million market for wireless LANs is tiny compared to the cellular industry, which is worth billions (Wickelgren, 1996). 1.8 Comparison Of International Research, Development, And Deployment Strategies Commercial wireless technologies have followed divergent evolutionary paths in different parts of the world. For example, strong contrasts are evident in the transition from first-generation cellular systems to second-generation systems in the United States and Europe. At first a single U.S. system was used for analog cellular communications, AMPS, and every cellular telephone in the United States and Canada could communicate TABLE 1-8 Mobile Data Services System Ardis Mobitex CDPD TETRA Metricom Frequency band (MHz) 800 bands; 45 kHz sep. 935–940, 896–961 869–894, 824–849 380–383, 390–393 902–928 (ISM bands) Channel bit rate (kbps) 19.2 8.0 19.2 36 100 RF channel spacing (kHz) 25 12.5 30 25 160 Channel access/ multiuser access FDMA /ALOHA Slotted ALOHA FDMA/ALOHA ALOHA FHSS /BTMA Cellular digital packet data. Trans-European trunked radio. Megahertz. Kilohertz. Industrial, scientific, and medical. Kilobits per second. Radio frequency. Frequency division multiple access. Frequency hopping spread spectrum. Busy tone multiple access. SOURCE: Reprinted from Cox (1995) with permission. Copyright © 1995 by IEEE. TABLE 1-9 Wireless Local Area Network Technologies Technology DFIR DBIR RF DSSS FHSS Channel bit rate (Mbps) 1–4 10–155 5–10 2–20 1–3 Mobility Stationary / portable Stationary with LOS Stationary Stationary / portable Portable Range (meters) 15–60 30 10–40 30–200 30–100 Frequency bands Infrared Infrared 18 GHz , ISM ISM ISM Systems (companies) Spectrixlite (Spectrix Corp.); Photolink (Photonics) Infralan (InfraLAN); UWIN (Jolt Ltd.) Altair (Motorola, Inc.); Fast Wave (Southwest Microwave, Inc.); RediCARDrf (Data Race, Inc.) Roamabout (Digital Equipment Corp.); ARLAN (AiroNet Wireless Communications); WaveLAN (Lucent Technologies); INTERSECT (Persoft, Inc.); AIRLAN (Solectek Corp.); RangeLAN (Proxim); FreePort (WinData); PRISM (Harris Corp.) Range-LAN2 (Proxim); PortLAN (RDC Networks); Netwave (Xircom) Diffused infrared. Directed-beam infrared. Radio frequency. Direct sequence spread spectrum. Frequency hopping spread spectrum. Megabits per second. Line of sight. Gigahertz. Industrial, scientific, and medical. SOURCES: Reproduced from material in Cox (1995) and Pahlavan et al. (1995). with every base station. By contrast, European users were faced with a complex mixture of incompatible analog systems. To maintain mobile telephone service, an international traveler in Europe needed up to five different telephones. The situation was reversed by second-generation systems. Now there is a single digital technology, GSM, deployed throughout Europe (and in more than 100 countries worldwide), whereas the United States has become a technology battleground for three competitors: GSM (DSC-1900), TDMA (IS-136), and CDMA (IS-95). The differences in technology evolution are due in large measure to different government policies in Europe, the United States, and Japan, the world's principal sources of wireless technologies. Three types of government policies influence developments in wireless systems: policies on radio spectrum regulation, approaches to R&D, and telecommunications industry structure. The reasons for the shifts in the above example can be found primarily in changes in spectrum regulation policies adopted in the 1980s. In establishing first-generation systems in the United States in the late 1970s, the FCC regulated four properties of a radio system: noninterference, quality, efficiency, and interoperability. In the 1980s, deregulation was in vogue and the scope of the FCC's authority was restricted to noninterference; the other properties were deemed commercial issues to be settled in the marketplace. Although this policy stimulated innovation in the U.S. manufacturing industry, it also meant that operating companies had to choose among various competing technologies. In Europe, the main trend in government regulation in the 1980s was a move from national authority to multinational regulation under the aegis of the European Community (EC; now the European Union [EU]). The EC had a strong interest in establishing continental standards for common products and services, including electric plugs and telephone dialing conventions. In this context the notion of a telephone that could be used throughout Europe had a strong appeal. To advance this notion, the EC offered new spectrum for cellular service on the condition that the operating industries of participating countries agree on a single standard. Attracted by the availability of free spectrum, operating companies (many of them government-owned) in 15 countries put aside national rivalries and adopted the GSM standard. Thus, a new pattern of technical cooperation was established in Europe. This cooperation was reinforced by the European Commission (the administrative unit of the EU), which funded cooperative precompetitive research focusing on advanced communications systems, first in the Research for Advanced Communications in Europe (RACE) program and then in the Advanced Communications Technologies and Services (ACTS) program. In both programs a consortium of companies and universities performs the research. Spectrum management rules continue to prescribe a single standard for each service, meaning that an industry consensus is required before a standard is introduced. Once a technology is established, companies enter the competitive phase of product development and marketing. This process promotes a thorough investigation of technologies prior to standardization and assures economies of scale when commercial service begins. In preparation for UMTS, scheduled for initial deployment in 2002, extensive R&D and evaluation of competing prototypes have been under way since 1994. All of this activity will provide European industry with a strong technical base for realizing the goals for mobile communications in the first decade of the next century. The U.S. approach to communications technology R&D is much more competitive. Individual companies perform much of this research in the context of their product marketing plans. Coordination takes place within diverse standards organizations such as the Telecommunications Industry Association, IEEE, and American National Standards Institute. Some interaction also takes place in the GloMo program, which brings together universities and industry to fill specific technology gaps identified by DARPA program managers. But for the most part standards setting is a competitive rather than cooperative process, with each company or group of companies striving to protect commercial interests. The FCC rules for spectrum management allow license holders to transmit any signals, subject only to constraints on interference with the signals of other license holders. Similar flexibility is extended to unlicensed transmissions. As a consequence, there are multiple competing standards (seven in the case of wideband personal communications) for wireless service in the United States. Government policies on industry structure also strongly influence technology development. After the FCC issued cellular operating licenses, most of the companies that began offering cellular service had limited technical resources and relied almost entirely on vendors and consultants for technical expertise. Even the cellular subsidiaries of the regional Bell operating companies had to build a new base of expertise: Under the terms of the consent decree that broke up AT&T in 1984, these cellular companies had no access to the abundant technical resources of Bellcore, the research unit of the regional Bell companies. In this environment, much of the new wireless communications technology in the United States has come from the manufacturing industry, with the result that proprietary rather than open network-interface standards have proliferated. The published technical standards for wireless communications were at first confined to the air interface between terminals and base stations. Eventually the industry adopted a standard for intersystem operation to facilitate roaming. Many other interfaces, especially those between switching centers and base stations, remain proprietary but the situation is changing to allow fully open systems. By contrast, the European cellular operating industry has been dominated by national telephone monopolies. These companies have strong research laboratories that participate fully in technology creation and standards setting. To gain the advantage of flexibility in equipment procurement, operating companies favor mandatory open interfaces, a preference reflected in the GSM standard. Little has been published concerning the factors that influence the evolution of wireless communications technology in Japan. In recent years NTT, the dominant telecommunications operating company, has provided a strong coordinating mechanism for creating and standardizing new technology. The biggest success has been PHS, which entered commercial service in 1995 and attracted 4 million subscribers in its first year of operation. The initial R&D for PHS was conducted by NTT, but it licenses many manufacturers to offer PHS equipment. Now many Japanese companies are cooperating in a study of wideband CDMA technology for third-generation systems. A joint experimental trial of one system is scheduled for the end of 1997. In addition to corporate R&D, a government organization, Research and Development Center for Radio Systems, is a significant source of wireless communications technology in Japan. Worldwide efforts to guide the evolution of wireless communications technology come together in the IMT-2000 project. National delegations to IMT-2000 reflect their country's policies: The U.S. delegation pushes for diversity, 12 the Europeans advocate a structure favorable to UMTS and its descendants, and the Japanese delegation favors convergence to a small number of worldwide standards. Other countries assert their own service needs, which in some cases can be met by mobile communications satellites and in other cases by wireless local loops. 1.9 Summary And Report Organization The history of wireless communications suggests a number of key points to be considered in evaluating potential future strategies for the DOD and DARPA. Wireless technology has now evolved to a point where the goal of "anytime, anywhere" communications is within reach. Since 1980 consumer demand for cordless and cellular telephones has driven rapid growth in wireless services, especially for voice communications. Wireless data services have not taken off as yet although expectations are high, given the growth of Internet applications. Extensive research is under way to develop third-generation commercial wireless systems, which are expected to be in place before 2010. These trends suggest that the DOD will continue to have an ample selection of advanced commercial wireless technologies from which to choose. The DOD, which currently uses a variety of wireless systems based on 1970s and 1980s technology, is relying increasingly on commercial wireless products to cope with reductions in defense budgets and the growing need for flexible systems that can be deployed rapidly. In the Gulf War, the DOD used commercial equipment such as GPS receivers and INMARSAT links and found that performance was comparable to that of technologies designed explicitly to meet military needs. However, the DOD will continue to have unique needs for security, interoperability, and other features that might not be met by commercial products. The gaps between commercial technologies and military needs are difficult to identify precisely because, although the DOD has defined its vision for future untethered systems in general terms, projected operational needs have apparently not been translated into technical specifications that conform to the capabilities of commercial products. The GloMo program and other military R&D efforts are attempting to meet DOD's future communications needs and have produced some useful results. However, none of these programs has adopted a systems approach to the problem, most notably with respect to the design of a network architecture. There may be other unmet needs as well; however, the committee based its work on first principles rather than an assessment of GloMo. A new strategy may be needed to identify the needs more specifically as a basis for determining where to focus DARPA's R&D efforts and where commercial products will suffice. The effort to evaluate commercial technologies in light of defense needs will be complicated by the characteristics of the U.S. marketplace. In Europe there is a single standard (GSM) for digital wireless communications, and precompetitive research on new wireless technologies is carried out in cooperative, government-funded programs. The U.S. wireless market features a mixture of competing standards, and most technology R&D is conducted by individual companies. This environment forces operators to choose from an assortment of competing technologies. The remainder of this report is an attempt to help the DOD devise strategies for making those choices. Chapter 2 provides technical background on the many issues that need to be addressed in designing wireless communications systems, which are extremely complex. The highly technical discussion may not interest all readers but is fundamental to any informed analysis of wireless systems. Chapter 3 explores the opportunities for and barriers to synergy between the military and commercial sectors in the development of wireless technologies. Chapter 4 integrates all the information presented in this report to provide a set of recommendations for the DOD and DARPA. 1. This report does not address unguided optical communications systems, which use the 10 3 –10 7 gigahertz frequency band (infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light), because the commercial products that operate in these bands are designed for indoor applications and therefore would not be of great use in military applications. 2. A protocol is a set of rules, encoded in software, for performing specific functions. 3. The developments since the mid-1970s, when the use of computer networks moved beyond the ARPA research community, paved the way for commercial services. The CSNet project, funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) for the computer science community, eventually led to the NSFNET and a dramatic increase in the number of interconnected nodes. The commercialization of Internet service was symbolized by the decommissioning of the ARPANET in 1990 and privatization of the NSFNET in 1995. 4. Two types of codes are used to spread the signal. A long code is reserved for use by the military to obtain location information within a few meters of accuracy and timing information within 100 nanoseconds. A shorter code is used by commercial systems to obtain location information accurate to within 100 meters. 5. A fourth digital modulation technique, based on Motorola's iDEN technology, is used by some specialized U.S. mobile radio services in the lower 800-MHz band to provide cellular-like voice, trunked radio, paging, and messaging services. 6. One integrated solution not addressed in detail in this report is the new generation of public safety radio networks. These systems are used in both the military and commercial sectors for applications such as law enforcement and fire fighting. Until recently these systems were characterized simply as 25-kilohertz FM voice radios and 9.6-kbps modems. In the past a municipal law enforcement radio system typically was deployed as a redundant overlay of towers and repeaters separate from the radio systems operated by fire, health, highway, and other municipal departments. Today's tight budgets often force municipalities to pool departmental funds to upgrade public safety radios and establish a single system with enough capacity to meet every user's needs. To assist in this process the Association of Public Safety Communication Officers (APCO), which includes law enforcement, highway, forestry, health, and many other municipal and federal users, recently initiated an ambitious program called Project-25 to reduce the cost of next-generation radios. APCO Project-25 seeks to reduce user dependence on proprietary radios from a single manufacturer (generally the system installer) and introduce cost competition in the upgrading and replacement market at the municipality level. The strategy is to standardize a digital-modulation radio, which would be described as APCO Project-25 compliant, thus opening up public radio purchasing to a variety of competing manufacturers. Some radios that are APCO Project-25 compliant are now available and are being adopted by the Federal Law Enforcement Radio Users Group (representing radio users in the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Drug Enforcement Agency, Secret Service, Department of the Treasury, and other civilian agencies). The APCO Project-25 process has encouraged an unprecedented level of cooperation among municipal radio users. 7. These activities are carried out by the ITU Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) Working Party 8/13, later renamed ITU-R Task Group 8/1. 8. The implementation of standards based on IMT-2000 in Japan clearly would give Japanese companies early experience with the technology and perhaps position them to dominate future world markets for IMT-2000 products. 9. Although optical communications systems are not addressed in detail in this report, in large part because the commercial research focuses on indoor applications, the advantages of laser systems need to be mentioned. A laser produces optical radiation by stimulating emissions from an electronic or chemical material. Unlike light produced by incandescent or fluorescent sources, the resultant beam is coherent and exhibits extremely low angular divergence, properties that enable transmissions spanning great distances (i.e., thousands of miles). The data, voice, images, or other signals are modulated on a beam of light, which is detected by an optical receiver and decoded. The transmitter and receiver need to be in direct visual contact, and so the laser beam is steered in the appropriate direction using mirrors or other optical elements. Laser communications systems offer several advantages over RF systems. The main advantage is high capacity: Systems now under development will support transmissions in the range of hundreds of megabits per second, with systems under consideration attaining the gigabits-per-second range. Another advantage is the low power requirement for point-to-point communications (orders of magnitude lower than RF systems). All the energy is focused into a very narrow beam because the physical dispersion of a laser beam in space is minimal. Furthermore, laser communications systems offer security benefits because almost no energy is diffused outside the laser beam, which is therefore not easily detected by an adversary. This combination of features makes laser communications systems attractive for secure transmissions between hub points in mobile, dynamically changing environments (e.g., between base stations on vehicle-mounted switching facilities). However, laser systems are sensitive to interference from other light sources, such as the sun, and any obstructions of the visual link by dust, rain, or fog. There is also a risk of damage to the eyes of unprotected observers. Finally, components for laser-based systems are much more expensive than those for RF systems and therefore are unlikely to penetrate the commercial market for some time. 10. These activities are carried out by the ITU Telecommunications Sector, Study Group 11. 11. The ISM bands (at 902–928 MHz, 2400–2483 MHz, and 5700–5850 MHz) are available for any wireless device that uses less than 1 watt of transmit power. 12. The United States participates in the IMT-2000 process in Task Group 8/1 through a delegation led by the FCC. In response to a request from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, the committee studied a range of issues to help identify what strategies the Department of Defense might follow to meet its need for flexible, rapidly deployable communications systems. Taking into account the military's particular requirements for security, interoperability, and other capabilities as well as the extent to which commercial technology development can be expected to support these and related needs, the book recommends systems and component research as well as organizational changes to help the DOD field state-of-the-art, cost-effective untethered communications systems. In addition to advising DARPA on where its investment in information technology for mobile wireless communications systems can have the greatest impact, the book explores the evolution of wireless technology, the often fruitful synergy between commercial and military research and development efforts, and the technical challenges still to be overcome in making the dream of "anytime, anywhere" communications a reality. READ FREE ONLINE Welcome to OpenBook! You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. 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Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available. Get Email Updates Do you enjoy reading reports from the Academies online for free ? Sign up for email notifications and we'll let you know about new publications in your areas of interest when they're released. Local Histories Tim's History of British Towns, Cities and So Much More A History of Communication By Tim Lambert Communication in Ancient Times The first means of communication was, of course, the human voice but about 3,200 BC writing was invented in Iraq and Egypt. It was invented about 1,500 BC in China. Other civilizations in Central America like the Mayans also invented systems of writing. The next big step was the invention of the alphabet in what is now Israel and Lebanon about 1,600 BC. In the Ancient World, many civilizations including Egypt, Assyria, Persia, Rome, and China had efficient postal systems to deliver messages to parts of their empires using relays of horses. In the Ancient World, people wrote on papyrus or parchment. However, the Chinese invented paper in about 200 BC. The knowledge of how to make paper passed to the Arabs and in the Middle Ages, it reached Europe. Communication 1500-1800 The next major improvement in communication was the invention of printing. The Chinese invented printing with blocks in the 6th century AD but the first known printed book was the Diamond Sutra of 686. In Europe, in the mid-15th century, Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press, which made books much cheaper and allowed newspapers to be invented. William Caxton introduced the printing press into England in 1476. The first newspapers were printed in the 17th century. The first newspaper in England was printed in 1641. (However, the word newspaper was not recorded until 1670). The first successful daily newspaper in Britain was printed in 1702. Meanwhile, European monarchs set up postal services to carry their messages. In France, Louis XI founded one in 1477 and in England, Henry VIII created the Royal Mail in 1512. In 1635 to raise money Charles I allowed private citizens to send messages by Royal Mail, for a fee. Meanwhile, the pencil was invented in 1564. Communication in the 19th Century Communication became far more efficient in the 19th century. In the early 19th century the recipient of a letter had to pay the postage, not the sender. Then in 1840, Rowland Hill invented the Penny Post. From then on the sender of the letter paid. Cheap mail made it much easier for people to keep in touch with loved ones who lived a long way off. In 1874 the Universal Postal Union was formed to coordinate postal services in different countries. The first post boxes were installed in Paris in 1653. By the 19th century, they were common across France and other countries introduced them. In the Channel Islands, the first post boxes were installed in 1852. In mainland Britain, the first post boxes were installed in 1853. In the USA Albert Potts patented a mailbox designed to fit on a lampost in 1858. Free-standing mailboxes were introduced in 1894. The telegraph was invented in 1837. A cable was laid across the Channel in 1850 and after 1866 it was possible to send messages across the Atlantic. Meanwhile, the first fax machine was invented in 1843. A Scot, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876. The first telephone exchange in Britain opened in 1879. The first telephone directory in London was published in 1880. The first telephone line from Paris to Brussels was established in 1887. The first line from London to Paris opened in 1891. The first transatlantic telephone line opened in 1927. In 1930 a telephone link from Britain to Australia was established. More useful inventions were made in the 19th century. Ralph Wedgwood invented carbon paper in 1806. Bernard Lassimonne invented a pencil sharpener in 1828. Therry des Estwaux invented a better version in 1847. The first successful typewriter went on sale in 1874. In 1829 Louis Braille invented an embossed typeface for the blind and in 1837 Isaac Pitman invented shorthand. The first successful rotary printing press was invented by Richard M Hoe in 1846. Communication in The 20th Century Communication continued to improve in the 20th century. In 1901 Marconi sent a radio message across the Atlantic. Radio broadcasting began in Britain in 1922 when the BBC was formed. By 1933 half the households in Britain had a radio. Following the 1972 Sound Broadcasting Act, independent radio stations were formed. In the 1990s new radio stations included Radio 5 Live (1990) and Classic FM (1991). Television was invented in 1925 by John Logie Baird and the BBC began regular, high-definition broadcasting in 1936. TV was suspended in Britain during World War II but it began again in 1946. TV first became common in the 1950s. A lot of people bought a TV set to watch the coronation of Elizabeth II and a survey at the end of that year showed that about one-quarter of households had one. By 1959 about two-thirds of homes had a TV. By 1964 the figure had reached 90% and TV had become the main form of entertainment – at the expense of cinema, which declined in popularity. At first, there was only one TV channel in Britain but between 1955 and 1957 the ITV companies began broadcasting. BBC2 began in 1964 and Channel 4 began in 1982. Channel 5 began in 1997. In Britain, BBC2 began broadcasting in color in 1967, BBC 1, and ITV followed in 1969. Satellite television began in Britain in 1982. Meanwhile, commercial TV began in the USA in 1941. TV began in Australia in 1956 and in New Zealand in 1960. Meanwhile, in 1960 the first communications satellite, Echo was launched. The laser printer was invented by Gary Starkweather in 1969. Meanwhile, in Britain, telephones became common in people’s homes in the 1970s. In 1969 only 40% of British households had a phone but by 1979 the figure had reached 69%. Martin Cooper invented the first handheld cell phone in 1973. The first mobile phone call in Britain was made in 1985. The first commercial text was sent in 1992. Mobile phones became common in the 1990s. In Britain, smartphones were introduced in 1996. Communication in The 21st Century In the early 21st century the internet became an important form of communication. Today email has become one of the most popular methods of communication. In the 2010s ebook readers became common. Last revised 2024 Share this: Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window) Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window) Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window) Click to share on WhatsApp (Opens in new window) 1st Edition Critical Communication Studies Essays on Communication, History and Theory in America Taylor & Francis eBooks (Institutional Purchase) Opens in new tab or window Description The development of communication studies has been a lively process of adoption and integration of theoretical constructs from Pragmatism, Critical Theory and Cultural Studies. Critical Communication Studies describes the intellectual and professional forces that have shaped research interests and formed alliances in the pursuit of particular goals. Hanno Hardt reflects on the need to come to terms with the role of history in academic work and locates the intellectual history within the context of competing social theories. The book provides a substantive foundation for understanding the field and will be a major text in all courses dealing with communication history and theory. Table of Contents Hanno Hardt About VitalSource eBooks VitalSource is a leading provider of eBooks. Access your materials anywhere, at anytime. Customer preferences like text size, font type, page color and more. Take annotations in line as you read. Multiple eBook Copies This eBook is already in your shopping cart. If you would like to replace it with a different purchasing option please remove the current eBook option from your cart. Book Preview The country you have selected will result in the following: Product pricing will be adjusted to match the corresponding currency. The title Perception will be removed from your cart because it is not available in this region. 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Copyright, 2023 Online Programs Ap® us history (intensive, ncaa approved). Advanced CTY-Level Session-Based History and Social Science Analyze historic material, synthesize your own ideas, and develop skills to make conclusions on the basis of an informed understanding of history in this course that successfully prepares you for the AP U.S. History exam. You’ll master the ability to interpret documents while learning how to persuasively present your reasoning and evidence in an essay format. Through synchronous virtual class meetings every other week and one-on-one review sessions you can schedule directly with your instructor, you’ll chart the course of U.S. history from the Constitution all the way down to challenges of the 21st century. Time Commitment: 8-11 hours per week (1 hour of class time every other week, 8-10 hours of independent work).   Course Overview What we'll do We’ll explore U.S. history through textbook readings, projects, directed online activities, and live sessions with an experienced instructor that emphasizes critical thinking and applications. We’ll learn to interpret historical documents, master a significant body of facts, and write critical essays and short-answer responses. Students will analyze historical facts material, synthesize their own ideas, and develop the skills to make conclusions based on a knowledgeable judgment. They will also learn how to present their reasoning and clear evidence persuasively in essay format. What we’ll learn How to construct a response to a prompt concerning the rise and fall of the Equal Rights Amendment within the context of a forum, a three-part response to a short answer question set concerning British and Spanish slave systems within the context of a forum How to construct a three-part response to a short answer question set involving primary sources on pre-Revolution British/Colonial relations in North America, the Louisiana Purchase, the impeachment of Andrew Johnson, post-Civil War American industrialists, and the political alignment of FDR’s New Deal, within the context of a forum How to construct an essay using a secondary source concerning Henry Kissinger’s early appraisal of American involvement in Vietnam How to construct an essay in response to a document-based question prompt on American views of imperialism from 1898 to 1908; and post-World War II social movements through describing historical context, analyzing a set of primary documents and synthesizing the information into a thesis, analyzing multiple sources of evidence, both given and memorized, to support a thesis statement, and identifying and explaining at least three sources’ point of view, purpose, historical situation, and/or audience How to construct an essay in response to a long essay question prompt about the American government's transition from the Articles of Confederation to the Constitution; and the Jacksonian Democracy by describing historical context, synthesizing relevant historical evidence into a thesis, and analyzing memorized, multiple sources of evidence to support a thesis statement How to plan a written practice response to a document-based question prompt on British North American and Native American relations via an informational organizer How to plan a written practice response to a long essay question prompt on the social impact of Europeans and the social structures of Western Hemispheric peoples via an informational organizer By the end of the course, you will be able to: Identify and explain historical developments and processes Analyze sourcing and context of primary and secondary sources Analyze arguments in primary and secondary sources Analyze the context of historical events, developments, or processes Use historical reasoning processes (comparison, causation, continuity and change) to analyze patterns and connections between and among historical developments and processes Develop an argument How we'll measure learning Instructors evaluate student work using rubrics and provide detailed constructive feedback on each assignment. This course is aligned to the College Board AP U.S. History course skills and contents. This course is Register for an Online course by selecting an open class below. If no open classes are listed, then course enrollment is currently closed. Note: You will need to have an active CTY Account to complete registration through MyCTY This course is not open for enrollment at this time. Please check back later. Testing and Prerequisites   Math Verbal Required Level Advanced CTY-Level or Advanced CTY-Level Students must achieve qualifying scores on an advanced assessment to be eligible for CTY programs. If you don’t have qualifying scores, you have several different testing options. We’ll help you find the right option for your situation. Course Prerequisites 1 prerequisite Successful completion of a high school history course Cost and Financial Aid Application fee. Nonrefundable Application Fee - $15 (Waived for financial aid applicants) Nonrefundable International Fee - $20 (outside US only) Financial Aid We have concluded our financial aid application review process for Academic Year 2023-2024 Online Programs (Courses with start dates July 1, 2023-June 30, 2024). Our application for Academic Year 2024-2025 Online Programs is expected to open in January. We encourage those who may need assistance in the future to apply for aid as early as possible. Technical Requirements This course requires a computer with high-speed Internet access and an up-to-date web browser such as Chrome or Firefox. You must be able to communicate with the instructor via email. Visit the Technical Requirements and Support page for more details. This course uses a virtual classroom for instructor-student communication. The classroom works on standard computers with the Zoom desktop client , and on tablets or handhelds that support the Zoom Mobile app . Recorded meetings can only be viewed on a computer with the Zoom desktop client installed. The Zoom desktop client and Zoom Mobile App are both free to download. Most course lectures may be viewed on mobile devices, but some assignments and quizzes must be completed on a desktop or laptop computer. This course uses Respondus LockDown Browser proctoring software for designated assessments. LockDown Browser is a client application that is installed to a local computer. Visit the Respondus website for system requirements . Terms & Conditions Students may interact in online classrooms and meetings that include peers, instructors, and occasional special guests. Courses may include videos from the web. Recommendations or links at the end of videos are provided by the video host and are not CTY recommendations.  Virtual class meetings may be recorded for students to review. After a you complete a course, your projects may be used to illustrate work for future students.  You will need to create an account on a third-party site to access course resources. About History and Social Science at CTY Our online History and Social Science courses include the study of economics, U.S. history and government, world history, and psychology. Reading and writing are at the heart of all our offerings. Courses for older students cover material typically found in introductory college-level classes, while younger scholars enjoy studying world history and geography. All courses are guided by expert instructors who connect with you through virtual class meetings and interactive review workshops. Whichever course you choose, you’ll gain important insights into the inner workings of government, world civilizations, global culture, and the human mind. Dig into World History and Geography In the newly created Preparation for AP World History and Geography Eastern Hemisphere and Preparation for AP World History and Geography Western Hemisphere courses, students explore fascinating historical concepts of the past through historical analysis, engaging discussions, and dynamic live sessions. Students meet with their instructor and peers each week to investigate transformative world events and discuss their thoughts with one another. Taking these courses will help students prepare for the challenge of AP History courses. Meet our History and Social Sciences Instructors I enjoy building relationships with students, facilitating their learning, and helping them achieve a refined understanding of the complex world around us. Using a high energy, enthusiastic approach to learning allows me to deeply connect with my students while having lots of fun! Alejandro Lozano History and Social Sciences Instructor As an educator I believe that my job is to make learning easy. To that end, I always try to present the material in a way that is as easy for my students to understand as humanly possible. In doing so, students are inspired to want to learn because they see that effort gets results. Teaching AP World History: Modern , I'm frequently astonished at how natural it is for students from both the United States and across the world to meet and learn about a global subject from not just their instructor but, just as importantly, so many different student perspectives! Tyler Meinhart Talk to our experts 1800-120-456-456 World Ozone Day Essay in English World Ozone Day: An Essay on Environmental Awareness On September 16th each year, Ozone Day is commemorated to raise awareness about the depletion of the ozone layer and the critical necessity to protect it. The delicate ozone layer acts as a vital shield of gas that is essential for safeguarding the Earth from the damaging ultraviolet (UV) radiation emitted by the sun. This Ozone Day essay provides an overview of World Ozone Day's significance, emphasising the history of World Ozone Day, its importance, and the worldwide actions taken to protect this crucial part of our atmosphere. Recognising the significance of this day helps us acknowledge the shared responsibility we have to protect the environment for future generations. Please read the essay on World Ozone Day in English for your perusal. Introduction September 16th is the date when World Ozone Day is commemorated each year, and it serves as a significant international occasion to increase awareness of the crucial role played by the ozone layer in safeguarding life on our planet. Situated in the Earth's stratosphere, the ozone layer is a slender layer of gas that shields us from the harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation emitted by the sun. Life on Earth would face considerable risks without this protective barrier, as higher exposure to UV rays could lead to elevated incidences of skin cancer , cataracts, and other health problems, while also causing harm to ecosystems. This piece of writing explains the significance, background, and worldwide importance of World Ozone Day, underlining the necessity for united endeavours to safeguard this essential element of our atmosphere. Importance of the Ozone Layer The ozone layer acts as a shield, blocking the sun’s harmful UV-B and UV-C rays, which can cause severe harm to living beings. By soaking up most of the UV radiation, the ozone layer stops it from reaching the Earth's surface in harmful quantities. This safeguard is essential for human well-being, as too much UV exposure can result in skin cancer, cataracts, and weakened immune systems. Moreover, the ozone layer plays a crucial role in safeguarding marine ecosystems, terrestrial plants , and animals, since excessive UV radiation can disturb the delicate balance of these environments. World Ozone Day History World Ozone Day marks the anniversary of the adoption of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer in 1987. This significant international treaty aimed to phase out the production and use of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). The Montreal Protocol is widely seen as a highly successful environmental accord, with 197 nations committing to reduce and ultimately eliminate the use of ODS like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). In 1994, the United Nations General Assembly officially declared September 16th as the International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer, acknowledging the global efforts to safeguard the ozone layer and secure a sustainable future. Global Significance and Collective Responsibility World Ozone Day holds global significance that goes beyond just protecting the ozone layer. It stands as a strong reminder of the importance of international collaboration in addressing environmental issues. The success of the Montreal Protocol showcases how working together can bring positive results for the Earth. The protocol's efforts to phase out ODS have not only helped heal the ozone layer but also reduced the impact of climate change, as many ODS are potent greenhouse gases. World Ozone Day also emphasises the ongoing need for vigilance and action. Despite significant progress, the ozone layer is still in the process of recovery and is expected to return to its pre-1980 levels by the mid-century if current measures are upheld. This day urges governments, industries, and individuals to stay dedicated to protecting the ozone layer and to continue seeking sustainable alternatives to harmful substances. Short Essay on World Ozone Day September 16th marks the annual celebration of World Ozone Day, an important event focused on creating awareness about the crucial role of the ozone layer and the necessity of preserving it. Positioned in the Earth's stratosphere, the ozone layer serves as a protective barrier by absorbing the majority of the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which is essential for safeguarding life on Earth. Overexposure to UV radiation can result in severe health problems such as skin cancer, cataracts, weakened immune systems, and ecological damage, highlighting the significance of this natural shield. The history of World Ozone Day can be traced back to 1987 with the signing of the Montreal Protocol, an international agreement intended to eliminate the production of substances responsible for ozone depletion, including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). In 1994, the United Nations designated September 16th as the International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer to honour the signing of this groundbreaking treaty. World Ozone Day serves as a powerful reminder of the accomplishments of the Montreal Protocol and the ongoing global collaboration required for environmental protection. Despite the considerable progress made, the ozone layer is still in the process of recovery, emphasising the continuous efforts needed to ensure its complete restoration. This annual observance motivates individuals, communities, and governments to maintain their commitment to preserving the ozone layer, thereby securing a healthier and safer planet for future generations. World Ozone Day Quotes "The ozone layer is a fragile shield of gas that protects the Earth from the harmful rays of the sun; it needs our protection too." "Preserving the ozone layer is not just about protecting the environment, it’s about securing our future." "The Earth does not belong to us; we belong to the Earth. Protect the ozone, protect life." "Every small step towards reducing ozone-depleting substances is a giant leap towards a safer planet." "The ozone layer is our Earth's sunscreen; let’s not let it fade away." "Healing the ozone layer is healing our planet’s future." "A world without ozone is like a home without a roof—protect it for the sake of all life." "Let’s work together to ensure that the sky above remains a haven for generations to come." "The time to protect the ozone is now; the future of our planet depends on it." "World Ozone Day reminds us that the fight to protect our atmosphere is a fight for our survival." The observance of World Ozone Day is an important time to look back on the strides made in safeguarding the ozone layer and reaffirming our dedication to conserving the environment. This piece offers a brief composition on World Ozone Day, highlighting the extensive history and accomplishments of the Montreal Protocol, which stands as a motivating illustration of what can be accomplished when countries come together for a shared cause. It is crucial, as we celebrate this day, to acknowledge the significance of the ozone layer in protecting life on Earth and to collectively shoulder the responsibility of preserving it. By persisting in our endeavours, we can guarantee a healthier planet for future generations, where the ozone layer remains undamaged and life can flourish. FAQs on World Ozone Day Essay in English 1. What is World Ozone Day? World Ozone Day, observed on September 16th, is dedicated to raising awareness about the importance of the ozone layer and the need to protect it. 2. Why is the ozone layer important as discussed in the Ozone Day essay in english? The ozone layer protects Earth by absorbing most of the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which can cause health problems like skin cancer and cataracts, and harm ecosystems. 3. When was World Ozone Day first established? The United Nations General Assembly established World Ozone Day in 1994, commemorating the signing of the Montreal Protocol in 1987. 4. What is the Montreal Protocol, mentioned in the short essay on world ozone day? The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty signed in 1987 aimed at phasing out the production and consumption of substances that deplete the ozone layer. 5. How do substances like CFCs affect the ozone layer? Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS) release chlorine and bromine into the atmosphere, which break down ozone molecules, thinning the ozone layer. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS) release chlorine and bromine into the atmosphere, which break down ozone molecules, thinning the ozone layer. 6. What are the health impacts of ozone layer depletion? Ozone depletion increases UV radiation reaching the Earth, leading to higher risks of skin cancer, cataracts, and weakened immune systems in humans, and can also affect wildlife. 7. Is the ozone layer recovering, as discussed in the World Ozone Day essay in english? Yes, thanks to global efforts like the Montreal Protocol, the ozone layer is gradually recovering and is expected to return to pre-1980 levels by the mid-21st century. 8. How does ozone depletion affect the environment? Increased UV radiation can damage crops, marine ecosystems, and biodiversity, leading to disruptions in food chains and ecological balance. 9. What actions can individuals take to protect the ozone layer? Individuals can avoid using products containing ozone-depleting substances, support policies for environmental protection, and raise awareness about the importance of the ozone layer. 10. What are some common ozone-depleting substances (ODS)? Common ODS include CFCs, halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform, which were once widely used in refrigeration, aerosol sprays, and fire extinguishers. 11. How does climate change relate to ozone depletion, according to the World Ozone Day history? While distinct issues, climate change and ozone depletion are linked; some ODS are also potent greenhouse gases, and the reduction of these substances helps mitigate both problems. 12. What role do international agreements play in ozone layer protection? International agreements like the Montreal Protocol have been crucial in reducing and eventually eliminating the use of ODS, leading to significant progress in ozone layer recovery. 13. What is the ozone hole? The ozone hole refers to a significant thinning of the ozone layer over Antarctica, first observed in the 1980s, largely caused by human-made chemicals like CFCs. 14. Why is World Ozone Day significant for environmental awareness? World Ozone Day highlights the importance of global cooperation in solving environmental problems and serves as a reminder of the need to protect the ozone layer for future generations. 15. What future challenges remain in protecting the ozone layer? Ongoing challenges include ensuring compliance with the Montreal Protocol, addressing the illegal use of ODS, and dealing with emerging threats like new industrial chemicals that could harm the ozone layer. 445 IMAGES Sample essay on communication aspects A Brief History of Communication Importance of Communication An Annotated History of Communication Mass Communication History Free Essay Example Essay: The history of communication and its impact on social COMMENTS 1.1 Communication: History and Forms Discuss the history of communication from ancient to modern times. List the five forms of communication. ... (McCroskey, 1984). Although this essay and book predate Aristotle, he is a logical person to start with when tracing the development of the communication scholarship. His writings on communication, although not the oldest, are the most ... A Brief History of Communication Around that time, long-distance communication had its humble beginnings as the Greeks—for the first time in recorded history—had a messenger pigeon deliver results of the first Olympiad in the year 776 B.C. Another important communication milestone from the Greeks was the establishment of the first library in 530 B.C. History of communication The history of communication itself can be traced back since the origin of speech circa 100,000 BCE. [ 1] The use of technology in communication may be considered since the first use of symbols about 30,000 years BCE. Among the symbols used, there are cave paintings, petroglyphs, pictograms and ideograms. Writing was a major innovation, as well ... Communication History Communication as culture: Essays on media and society. Boston: Unwin Hyman. Reprints essays by one of the most insightful and original communication historians. One section focuses on communication as culture; another, following in the tradition of Harold Innis, highlights enduring patterns of media technologies in transforming culture. The History of Communications Humans communicate in various ways. They have been writing to each other since the fourth millennium BCE, when one of the earliest writing systems, cuneiform, was developed in Mesopotamia. These days, the internet enables people to send and receive messages instantaneously and internationally; with the rise of social media, people share more ... (PDF) On the History of Communication History In this Introduction to the Handbook of Communication History, my co-authors (Janice Peck, Bob Craig, and John P. Jackson) and I offer an international view of the prehistory and historiography of ... Getting the Message: A History of Communications Getting the message explores the fascinating history of communications, starting with ancient civilisations, the Greeks and Romans, then leading through the development of the electric telegraph, and up to the present day with email and cellular phones. The technology is explained in a particularly simple and accessible way, and themes from ... What is the history of communication? Abstract. Communication History is an expression that proves to be problematic in the light of theoretical and conceptual analysis, as this article clarifies and discusses, when examining the proclamations made by its main spokespersons. Both methodological and empirical works are taken into account, with the purpose of evaluating how this object of knowledge is defined and approached ... Critical Communication Studies: Essays on Communication, History and The development of communication studies has been a lively process of adoption and integration of theoretical constructs from Pragmatism, Critical Theory and Cultural Studies. Critical Communication Studies describes the intellectual and professional forces that have shaped research interests and formed alliances in the pursuit of particular goals. Critical Communication Studies Critical Communication Studies describes the intellectual and professional forces that have shaped research interests and formed alliances in the pursuit of particular goals. Hanno Hardt reflects on the need to come to terms with the role of history in academic work and locates the intellectual history within the context of competing social ... (PDF) Communication History Abstract. Communication history is a domain of inquiry that attends to practices, ideas, and fields of communication in the past and brings historical sensibilities to bear on communication ... Origins and transformations: histories of communication study Abstract. This is a brief, interconnected review of some of the extensive work published in the last few years on the history of study into communication. It highlights in particular the expansion of this work to include international contexts and the examination of how teaching programmes as well as research activity have helped to ... Interpersonal Communication, Theory, and History Robi Koki Ochieng. This document examines the Socio-psychological, Sociocultural and Phenomenological traditions in which Communication Theory is entrenched. In each tradition, there is a chronological presentation of scholars or leading ideologies that guide the thinking of each tradition. Download Free PDF. View PDF. PDF a history of communications a history of communications A History of Communications advances a new theory of media that explains the origins and impact of different forms of communication - speech, writing, print, electronic devices, and the Internet - on human history in the long term. New types of media are "pulled" into widespread use by broad historical trends, 1 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE Throughout most of history, the evolution of communications technologies has been intimately intertwined with military needs and applications. ... Modern wireless communication systems are rooted in telephony and radio technologies dating back to the end of the nineteenth century and the older telegraphy systems dating back to the eighteenth ... (PDF) Communication History and Its Research Subject 1. Introduction. Scientific research on communication has been undertaken since the first. half of the 20th century. Natura lly, communicatio n itself, as well as. reflection on it, has a much ... A History of Communication The first means of communication was, of course, the human voice but about 3,200 BC writing was invented in Iraq and Egypt. It was invented about 1,500 BC in China. Other civilizations in Central America like the Mayans also invented systems of writing. The next big step was the invention of the alphabet in what is now Israel and Lebanon about ... Critical Communication Studies Essays on Communication, History and Critical Communication Studies describes the intellectual and professional forces that have shaped research interests and formed alliances in the pursuit of particular goals. Hanno Hardt reflects on the need to come to terms with the role of history in academic work and locates the intellectual history within the context of competing social ... History of communication studies The institutionalization of communication studies in U.S. higher education and research has often been traced to Columbia University, the University of Chicago, and the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, where early pioneers such as Paul F. Lazarsfeld, Harold Lasswell, and Wilbur Schramm worked. The work of Samuel Silas Curry, who founded the School of Expression in 1879 in Boston, is ... The History Of Communication History Essay The History Of Communication History Essay. Before the discovery of radio waves, telegraphy had been developed as a means of communication. Telegraph meant "long-distance writing" in Greek. Earlier means of communication included smoke signals, torch signaling, heliographs (flash mirrors), and signal flags were used to convey message over ... English Essay (Business Cheap Business Essay Writing Services. Before being accepted into our company, we underwent extensive background checks. Check their credentials to confirm that they have been writing professionally for some time. If they are members of professional associations, check, for instance. Some students may have difficulty completing their research ... AP® US History (Intensive, NCAA Approved) Analyze historic material, synthesize your own ideas, and develop skills to make conclusions on the basis of an informed understanding of history in this course that successfully prepares you for the AP U.S. History exam. You'll master the ability to interpret documents while learning how to persuasively present your reasoning and evidence in an essay format. Ozone Day Essay In English: Importance, History, and Global ... This Ozone Day essay provides an overview of World Ozone Day's significance, emphasising the history of World Ozone Day, its importance, and the worldwide actions taken to protect this crucial part of our atmosphere. Recognising the significance of this day helps us acknowledge the shared responsibility we have to protect the environment for future generations. assignment essay homework phd report resume review speech thesis