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• The Delhi Sultanate

Introduction

Delhi became a prominent city in India in the twelfth century. It was the capital city of the Tomara Rajputs who were defeated by the Chauhans of Ajmer in the middle of the 12th century. When Mohamed Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan and captured Delhi in 1192, he marked the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. However, it was Qutub-ud-din Aibak, one of his slaves and general who proclaimed himself as the ruler of Delhi. He led to the foundation of the Delhi sultanate with his lineage of rulers known as the Slave Dynasty. Later on, many other notable Delhi sultanate dynasties also ruled the land.

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The subject of history is a very important subject for the students because it helps the students in learning about our past, and the struggle as well as the glories of our forefathers. India is a country which has a wide and Profound history, and importantly we have a record of the same with us. And the same goes with the history of the Delhi Sultanate, who for a little more than three centuries, has ruled a rather greater part of India, and hence learning about their rules is vital for the students in the subject of History. That is to say the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, their Administration, and their Dynasties.

Therefore, to help the students in understanding the part of the history that deals with the reign of the Delhi Sultanate, Vedantu provides the complete explanation of the same. The explanation that Vedantu provides, is prepared by the teachers who have years of experience in teaching the subject of history to the students, and therefore there is a guarantee of quality, and also, the complete explanation is provided totally free of cost.

Brief Account of the Introduction on Delhi Sultanate

The introduction of the Delhi sultanate marks the period when various Muslim dynasties ruled in India ( 1210-1526). It all started with the campaigns of Muhamed bin-Sams and his lieutenant Qutub-ud-din Aibak between 1175-1206. It was the victory against the Rajput kings which marked the foundation of Delhi sultanate. 

It was Prithviraj Chauhan who ruled the land of Delhi till the 12th century. During his rule, he fought many prominent battles which also included the two battle of Tarain. In both of these battles, he fought against Mohamed of Ghur from the Ghuride dynasty of Afghanistan. In the first battle of Tarain fought in 1191 A.D between Mohamed of Ghur and Prithviraj Chauhan with other Indian rulers, the former faced a harsh defeat and had to retreat. However, in 1192 A.D he came with more reinforcement and a stronger army that eventually made him succeed. The defeat of the Rajputs ended their supremacy in northern India and gave way for the Turkish rulers to establish themselves under the Delhi sultanate. 

Write about the Delhi Sultanate Administration

The Delhi sultanate administration was governed as per the Muslim laws that were based on the Quran and Sharia. About the Delhi sultanate, there are primary duties of the Sultan and nobles to observe the Islamic laws in the matters of the state. The planned administration has various departments with different ministers appointed to carry specific responsibilities. 

Sultan- 

The sultan was regarded as the head of state and enjoyed unlimited power in every sphere.

Naib- 

He also held an equivalent position to that of the sultan. 

Wazir- 

It was the position of the prime minister who also looked after the financial department. 

Diwan –I- Ariz- 

It was the military establishment that was headed by the Sultan as commander in chief. 

Diwan –I- Risalat- 

The foreign minister was in charge of establishing charges with the neighbouring kingdoms and alliance with powerful rulers. 

Diwan-I-Insha- 

The minister was responsible for local correspondence and different offices. 

Sadr –Ur -Sadar - 

It is the religious department that safeguarded the Islamic laws.

Amir –I-Mazls -Shahi - 

Headed by the minister of the state for public conveniences and the arrangement of festivals. 

Delhi Sultanate Dynasties

The Delhi sultanate dynasty was a brief period of 1210- 1526 where many Muslim leaders ruled Delhi. It all begins with the second battle of Tarain fought between Mohhamed Ghori and Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192 A.D. After winning, Ghori left his kingdom to his trusted lieutenant and former slave Qutub-ud-din Aibak who started the Slave or Mamluk Dynasty. He laid the foundation of the famous Qutub Minar which was later completed by Illtutmish.

After this, the Khilji Dynasty came into existence with Jalaluddin Khilji as the founder and first ruler of the dynasty. He killed the last ruler Kaikubad of the Slave dynasty. 

Later, with the collapse of the Khilji dynasty, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq took charge of Delhi and established the Tughlaq dynasty. Feroz Tughlaq and Muhammad bin-Tughlaq were the prominent rulers from this dynasty. Eventually, the Tughlaq dynasty also came to an end in the 14th century with the invasion of the Turkish ruler Timur. Soon Timur left a local governor from Multan known as Khizir Khan. He then declared himself as the ruler of Delhi and established the Sayyid dynasty. 

An Overview of the Delhi Sultanate.

From 1206 to 1526, that is to say, about 320 years Delhi Sultanate, which was an Islamic empire, had ruled a substantial part of India. The capital of the Sultanate was Delhi and it was expanded to the great part of the Indian Subcontinent. In these 320 years, a total of 5 dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate had ruled over Delhi and the subsequent Indian sub-continent. These five dynasties were Mamluk, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, Lodi. If we have to understand the territorial region of the Delhi Sultanate in modern geographical terms, then we can say that the territory of the Delhi Sultanate covered modern-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and some regions of Nepal.

The Delhi Sultanate was originally ruled by Muhammad Ghori, who was a Turkic slave general, and who managed to win over a large part of northern India, and also in many terms, the Delhi Sultanate can also be termed as the successor of the Ghurid dynasty.

Before 1000 AD India was ruled by the Hindu and Buddhist kingdom. But starting from 962 AD, the invasion began from Central Asia, more specifically from Afghanistan. These raids and invasions continued for many years it did not establish the permanent boundaries of their kingdom, not until 1173. In 1173 Muhammad Ghori made a systematic attack in order to expand his rule to north India, and hence he created his kingdom. Ghori died in 1206, and one of the mamluks who were Turkic Qutb al-Din – Aibak became the first sultan of Delhi.

Qutb al – Din – Aibak reigned as the sultan for 4 years, that is to say, from 1206 to 1210. After him, the power was given to Aram Shah, who ruled for a brief period of one year. In such a manner the reign of the Delhi Sultanate expanded over the course of the next three centuries, until in 1526, when Ibrahim Lodi lost the battle of Panipat to Babur, and hence ended the Delhi Sultanate.

Also, if you are looking for the notes of Delhi Sultanate, then you may like to follow this CBSE Class 7 History Chapter 3 Notes - Delhi Sultans (vedantu.com)

Did You Know?

A religious tax ‘zakah’ was imposed on the wealthy and rich Muslims in India. It was during the rule of the Delhi sultan, jakath meant 2 ½ percent of the income. This religious tax was a vital source of revenue for the administration. The other taxes that fall under the religious and land categories comprise the khams, kharja, jizya, and usher. 

FAQs on The Delhi Sultanate

1. State the Economic Condition under the Delhi Sultanate Period?

The economic condition under the Delhi sultanate period was characterized by the rise of trade and commerce. Textile trading got prominence in exchange for ivory, horse, and spices with regions of China and West Asia. The Arabs dominated the trade but there was significant participation from other communities like Tamilians, Gujaratis, and Kalingas. The communication system also developed with posts carried by horse riders. Roads connecting to Lahore, Delhi, and Bengal were created. It was during this time the new industrial centers were established at Lahore, Multan, Delhi, and Lakhnauti. It primarily focused on paper making, textiles, and metal works. The Sultans and nobles lead a lavish lifestyle followed by the landowners who were also prosperous. The middle class included the artisans and shopkeepers while laborers lived at the sustenance level. Slavery was also present at this time. 

2. Explain the sources of Delhi Sultanate? 

Ans: The essential sources of the Delhi sultanate are found mentioned in various places and writings. These are given below:

Inscriptions: There are numerous inscriptions that give us information about the Delhi sultanate like historical monuments, tombstones, milestones, and old coins. 

Monuments: The Sultans of Delhi constructed several monuments that give insights into the cultural traditions and living conditions of that period. It also reflected on the faith, belief, and socio-cultural outlook of the rulers. All the significant monuments are found in the Qutub-ud-din complex ground of Delhi. 

Chronicles: The introduction of the Delhi sultanate period and different dynasties are also mentioned in history books of writers written in the Persian language known as tarikh or tawarikh.

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Administration During Delhi Sultanate Period

• General Studies- Paper I , Medieval History
• Shadab Kareem

During the Delhi Sultanate, the administration was well-organized and structured . At the helm was the Sultan, with a Finance Minister, known as the Wazir, by his side. To ensure effective governance, five additional ministers played crucial roles. These included the Sadr-us-Suddar, responsible for Islamic Law , the diwani-i-risalt overseeing Foreign Affairs, the Qazi-ul-Quzar as the Justice Minister, the Diwan-I-Ariz managing Defense or War affairs, and the Diwan-I-Insha handling Correspondence. This administrative setup aimed at the smooth functioning of the Delhi Sultanate’s government.

About Administration During Delhi Sultanate

During the Delhi Sultanate, the administration operated with remarkable organization, led by the Sultan as the head of the empire. The Wazir played a crucial role as the Finance Minister, overseeing financial matters. To ensure effective governance, five other ministers were appointed, each with specific responsibilities. This structured administrative system contributed to the efficiency of the Delhi Sultanate’s rule.

• The Diwani-I-Risalt was responsible for foreign affairs.
• The Sadr-us-Suddar oversaw Islamic law.
• The Diwan-I-Insha handled correspondence.
• The Diwan-I-Ariz was in charge of defence and war.
• The Qazi-ul-Quzar served as the Minister of Justice.

Below are the pointers for your reference.

• The Delhi Sultanate, comprising five short-lived Muslim kingdoms of Turkic and Pashtun origin, ruled Delhi from 1206 to 1526 CE.
• The Mughals rose to power in the 16th century, bringing an end to the Delhi Sultanate and establishing the Mughal Empire in India.
• The administrative structure during the Sultanate of Delhi was based on Shariat, following Islamic rules.
• The Sultan held political, judicial, and military authority, with military strength playing a crucial role in determining succession.
• Administrative units included Iqta, Shiq, Paraganaa, and Gram.
• Quranic injunctions guided the governance of the Delhi Sultanate, making the Quranic law the empire’s ultimate legal framework.
• The concept of sovereignty, as per Islamic principles, placed the Caliph as the highest authority.
• Subordinate rulers were considered subjects of the Caliph, reflecting a formal relationship with the Islamic world.
• The Sultanate rulers sought to maintain a formal connection with the Islamic world.
• Even if a governor declared independence, acknowledging the Caliph’s authority was a customary practice.
• The Caliph’s influence was particularly pronounced during the Sultanate period, emphasizing the symbolic and political significance of this relationship.

Central Administration of Delhi Sultanate

The Sultan was the head of the Empire. After the Sultan, all his children had equal rights to the throne, i.e. they didn’t follow the hierarchical succession of the throne. Check here the points elaborating on the central administration of Delhi sultanate. Several ministers handled different departments assigned to them. Some of the major titles in central administration during the Delhi Sultanate are:

• Wazir : Prime Minister of the State and in charge of Revenue and Finance (Diwan-i-Wizarat)
• Ariz-i-Mumalik : Head of Diwan-i-Ariz (Military Department)
• Qazi : Head of the Legal Office
• Sadr-us-Sudur : Head of Diwan-i-Risalat (Department of Religious Affairs)
• Qazi-ul-Quzar : Head of Diwan-i-Qaza-i-Mamalik (Justice Department)
• Amir-i-Majilis : Ministers of royal feasts and festivals.

In the hierarchical structure of authority, the Naib stood next to the Sultan, possessing virtually identical powers. The Wazir held a prominent position just below the Naib. Responsible for recruiting and training military personnel, the Ariz-i-Mumalik played a crucial role, although the Sultan himself served as the Commander-in-chief of the army. The Diwan-i-Risalat, another vital department, played a key role in allocating funds for madrasas, mosques, and tombs, while also supporting scholars. Heading the Diwan-i-Risalat, the Chief Sadr also served as the Chief Qazi, overseeing the justice system.

Provincial Administration of Delhi Sultanate

In the era of the Sultanate rule, the kingdom underwent a structural transformation with the introduction of a system known as Iqtas. These Iqtas were essentially smaller provinces, each overseen by an official known as an Iqtadar. This distinctive system of land distribution took shape during the reign of Iltutmish. Let’s delve into the key aspects of the provincial administration of the Delhi Sultanate during this period.

• Every Iqta was strategically allocated with nobles, officers, and soldiers to ensure a streamlined administration.
• Smaller Iqtas were often held by individual troopers, relieving them of significant administrative responsibilities.
• Iqtas, or provinces, experienced a rotation system where Iqtadars were reassigned different Iqtas every 3-4 years, promoting administrative versatility.
• Iqtas were subdivided into Shiqs (districts), further segmented into Pargana (sub-districts), with the village serving as the smallest unit of land.
• Key Provincial Officers and their Roles: Amir : The chief executive responsible for overseeing the overall governance of the Iqta. Mukti/Wali : Tasked with tax collection and maintaining law and order within the province. Nazir/Wakuf : In charge of efficiently collecting revenue to sustain the economic stability of the Iqta. Shiqdar : Responsible for the effective administration and management of the Shiq (district).

Local Administration Under Delhi Sultanate

Village administration or local Administration During Delhi Sultanate was handled by assigned officers and the village panchayat.

• Local officers play a pivotal role in driving the holistic development of villages.
• The Central Government respects the autonomy of village administration, allowing local officers to lead without interference.
• Key Village Officials: Amil – Managing Land Revenue and Taxes Hazamdars – Overseeing Financial Matters Qazi – Maintaining Developmental Records Shiqdar – Enforcing Law and Order

Social System of the Sultanate of Delhi

• The ruling class, including the Sultan and associates, courtiers, Iqta holders, and both Hindu and Muslim chieftains, held immense wealth and power.
• Living lavishly, this elite class controlled the majority of resources and played a crucial role in shaping policies.
• Brahmins and Ulemas formed the priestly class, benefiting from tax-free land grants that contributed to their wealth and influence.
• During the Sultanate era, the Ulema’s influence on the Sultan’s decisions was particularly strong, except under Alauddin Khilji.
• Towns housed affluent merchants, skilled craftsmen, and artisans, evolving into administrative and military hubs.
• Artisan communities, such as weavers and goldsmiths, formed colonies within metropolitan areas, contributing to the city’s diverse character.
• The shrines of Sufi saints became popular pilgrimage sites, showcasing the intersection of Hindu and Muslim traditions.
• International trade thrived, with the state supporting production in royal Karkhanas, contributing to a flourishing composite culture in India.
• Peasants, the lowest social class, lived in communities, contributing land revenue to the state.
• Despite changes in dynasties, the caste system remained strict, with inter-caste marriages and eating practices prohibited.
• The interactions between Hindus and Muslims influenced each other’s habits and traditions.
• Those who converted to Islam retained their previous customs, contributing to the rich tapestry of India’s composite culture.

Art and Architecture

During the reign of the Delhi Sultanate, a rich blend of Islamic and Indian art flourished. This artistic fusion gave rise to iconic structures such as domes, towers, minarets, and various other architectural marvels, particularly during the Lodi, Khilji, and Mamluk periods. Noteworthy architectural styles that gained prominence under the Sultans include the Delhi or Imperial style, the Provincial style, and the Hindu architectural style. Some remarkable examples of the magnificent structures commissioned by the Sultans during this era include:

• Qutub Minar- It was established by Qutub-ud-din-Aibak. Iltutmish is renowned for completing the construction of the Qutub Minar to commemorate the memory of Qutub-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki. Alauddin Khilji is renowned to have built the entrance of the Qutub Minar [Alai Darwaza].
• Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
• Lodi Gardens
• Qutub-Ul-Islam
• Mosque Dargah of Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia

Literature of Delhi Sultanate

• The Delhi Sultans placed significant emphasis on literature, particularly Persian literature, during their rule.
• In addition to poetry and theology, the promotion of history writing was also prioritized.
• Renowned historians included Minhaj-us-Siraj, Zia-ud-din Barani, Hasan Nizami, and Shams Siraj. Minhaj-us-Siraj authored Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, which provides a general account of Muslim dynasties’ history until around 1260 CE.
• Barani wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz, documenting the history of the Tughlaq dynasty. Prince Muhammad, the eldest son of Sultan Balban, served as a generous patron of scholars and offered protection to two prominent intellectuals of the era, Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan.
• Mir Khusrau, the greatest Persian poet of his time, composed over 400,000 couplets. He introduced the Indian style of Persian poetry known as Sabaq-i-Hind. His notable works include Khazain-ul-Futuh, Tughlaqnama, and Tarikh-i-Alai.
• He was a renowned singer and earned the title “Parrot of India.”
• During this period, Sanskrit texts were translated into Persian. Zia Nakshabi was the first to accomplish this.
• The Book of the Parrot (Tutu Nama) was translated into Turkish and subsequently into various European languages.
• The famous Rajatarangini by Kalhana belonged to the era of Kashmiri ruler Zain-ul-Abideen.
• Al-Beruni, an Arabic and Persian scholar patronized by Mahmud of Ghazni, translated Sanskrit works into Arabic.
• He was fascinated by the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita.
• His work Kitab-ul-Hind (also known as Tarikh-ul-Hind) provided insights into India’s socio-economic conditions.
• Many scholars thrived at the courts of regional rulers. Chand Bardai, a Hindi poet, authored Prithviraj Rasau.
• Nusrat Shah supported the translation of the Mahabharata into Bengali, while Krittivasa translated the Ramayana from Sanskrit into Bengali.

Read Also: Literature And Languages During Delhi Sultanate

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The Central Administration of the Delhi Sultanate

The Sultanate Period:

The Sultans of Delhi ruled over India from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D. — a period of about 320 years.

Qutub-ud-Din Aibak was the first Sultan and Ibrahim Lodi, the last Sultan.

With the defeat of Ibrahim Lodi at the hands of Babur in 1526, came the end of the Delhi Sultanate.

image source: indianminiaturepaintings.co.uk/Anglo-Delhi_Sultan_Abu_Bakr_Shah_000240e_1250w.jpg

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Chief Characteristics of administration of the Delhi Sultanate:

The first salient feature was that it was expected to work in accordance with the Islamic jurisprudence or law. The second was that it should follow the Islamic principle of sovereignty which declares that the Muslims all over the world have only one ruler i.e. the Caliph or Khalifa of Baghdad.

None else could be deemed as a sovereign ruler. The Sultan was considered as a representative of the Caliph. Most of the Sultans of Delhi regarded themselves as the Viceroys of the Khalifa in whose name they ruled. Again most of them used Khalifa’s name on their coins.

The first ruler to abandon this practice was Ala-ud-Din. The third feature was that the state under the Sultan rulers was an Islamic or Theocratic state. The fourth feature was that the state was a military state and the Sultan himself was the supreme commander of his forces. The fifth feature was that it was a feudal state. The sixth feature was that the Sultan was the fountain head of all authority. The seventh feature was that the Ulemas tried to influence administration and policy.

Central administration:

1. Sovereignty of the king and his power:

The Sultan enjoyed vast powers. He was the fountain head of all power. Some of the Sultans like Balban and Ala-ud-Din enjoyed vast powers. Ala-ud-Din used to say that his ‘word was law’. Secondly the Sultan usually behaved like a despot. Thirdly he was the head of the executive, judiciary and military.

Some rulers like Ala-ud-Din assumed the role of a religious head also. Fourthly, the Sultan maintained a great grandeur in his court. The court was considered as a symbol of power and glory of the Sultanate. Fifthly, the king depended mostly on the power of his army. Sixthly, in general the Sultan tried to seek the advice of the Ulemas in various types of administrative matters.

2. The Ministers:

It is said, “The bravest of men require arms and the wisest of Kings need ministers.” The Sultans tried to appoint only competent ministers who were responsible to them only. Their positions and powers were defined by law as well as by tradition. Usually there were six ministers. The Wazir, Diwan-i-Risalt, Sadr-us-Sudur, Diwan-i-Insha, Diwan-i-Arz, Qazi-ul-Quzat.

Sometimes, there existed a post of a Naib which was next only to the Sultan and he was above the wazir. This post became important when there were weak Sultans. The powerful Sultan either abolished the post altogether or gave it to a noble simply to honour him as was done by Ala-ud-Din Khalji. In that case the post was just ‘ornamental’ and the ‘Naib’ enjoyed no special powers in administration.

3. Chart showing Administrative structure at the centre:

4. Revenue sources:

Following were the sources of revenue:

It was a tax on land which was collected from Muslim peasants. It was 10 per cent of the produce on the land watered by natural resources and 5 per cent on the land which enjoyed facilities provided by irrigation works.

(ii) Kharaj:

It was a land tax charged from non-Muslims and ranged from one third to half of the produce.

(iii) Khams:

It was one-fifth of the booty captured in the war. Four- fifth of it went to the army which fought war.

(iv) Jizya:

It was a religious tax on Non-Muslims. According to Islam, a Zimmi (Non-Muslim) had no right to live in the kingdom of a Muslim Sultan. But this concession was permitted after payment of the tax called Jizya. Women, children, beggars, priests, Brahmans etc. and all those who had no source of income were exempted from this tax. Firoz Tughlaq levied this tax on Brahmans also.

This was a religious tax which was imposed only on rich Muslims and it was 2 1/2 per cent of their income.

(vi) Trade tax:

Trade tax was charged at the rate of 2 1/2 per cent from the Muslims and 5 per cent from the Hindus.

(vii) Horse tax:

There was 5 per cent tax on the sale and purchase of horses.

(viii) House tax:

It was levied by Ala-ud-Din Khalji.

(ix) Grazing tax:

It was also levied by Ala-ud-Din Khalji.

(x) Property revenue:

All property which had no heirs passed to the state.

(xi) Mines tax:

It was 1/5 of the produce of the mines.

(xii) Buried treasure tax:

It was 1/5 of the buried treasure that was found.

5. Assessment of Land and land revenue:

The land was of 4 kinds:

(a) The Khalsa land:

This land was directly administered by the central government. The central government appointed revenue officers for the collection of revenue.

(b) The Walis or Muqtis:

This land was in the hands of provincial governors. The provincial governors collected land revenue from this land and after meeting the collection charges they deposited the surplus in the central treasury,

(c) Land of the Feudary Hindu chiefs:

The chiefs paid fixed annual tributes to the Sultan.

(d) Inam or Waqf land:

This type of land was given to the people in gift or charity and particularly to Muslim scholars and saints. It was free of tax. Mostly the land revenue was collected in cash but sometimes in kind also.

6. Justice:

The Sultan was the highest judicial authority He used to hold his court twice a week and decided all types of cases. Qazi-ul-Qazat (Chief/judicial officer or the Minister for justice) heard appeals from the lower courts. There was a ‘Qazi’ in every town. The Qazis’ were appointed by the Sultan in consultation with the chief judicial officer. Usually severe punishments were awarded.

A strong army was needed by the Sultan as his very existence depended upon it.

It was needed for four purposes:

(i) For extending kingdom

(ii) For checking rebellions

(iii) For maintaining law and order and

(iv) For meeting the challenge of Mongol invasions.

7.Royal army:

It was a heterogeneous body comprising the Turks of various tribes, the Tajiks, the Persians, the Arabs, the Afghans, the Abyssinians, Indian Muslims and Hindus.

Provincial governor’s army:

The governors maintained their own armies. They brought their armies to the service of the Sultan when ordered.

Feudal lords or chiefs army:

Feudal chiefs whether directly under the Sultan or under his suzerainty maintained armies and supplied the same when asked by the Sultan.

Wartime army:

Soldiers were recruited on temporary basis.

Holy war army:

There were Muslim soldiers who joined the army voluntarily to fight wars against the Hindus. They received no pay but were given the share of booty captured during war.

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• Administration of India under the Delhi Sultanate
• Administration of India under the Delhi Sultanate | History
• Defence and Administration under Delhi Sultanate

• The Delhi Sultanate

The transformation of Delhi as capital had started way before 1931. This transformation came into action after the Delhi Sultanate. But what was the Delhi Sultanate? Who all were the part of this Sultanate? Let us travel back in time and find out more about the Delhi Sultanate.

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The beginning of the delhi sultanate.

The Delhi Sultanate was a major Muslim sultanate from the 13th to the 16th century in India. It began with the campaigns of Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Sām (Muḥammad of Ghūr; brother of Sultan Ghiyās̄ al-Dīn of Ghūr) and his lieutenant Quṭb al-Dīn Aibak primarily between 1175 and 1206.

It was the victory against the Rajputs that began the established the reign of the Delhi Sultanate.

Until the end of the 12th century, it was Prithviraj Chauhan who ruled on the Indian land. During his reign, Prithviraj Chauhan fought many battles out of which both the battles of Tarain fought in the late 12th century were crucial. In both battles, he fought Muhammad of Ghur of the Ghuride dynasty of Afghanistan.

In the first battle of Tarain between Muhammad of Ghur and Prithviraj Chauhan and other Indian rulers that was fought in 1191 A.D, Muhammad of Ghur faced a harsh defeat and had to retreat. And in the second battle that was fought in 1192 A.D., he returned and fought with more reinforcements and a stronger army with an intention to defeat the Rajputs and succeeded in doing so. This defeat ended the Rajputs’ supremacy in north India and gave way for Turkish emperors to establish themselves in the sub-continent.

The Administration of the Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate was administrated and governed as per the laws stated in the holy Quran. This Quranic law was the supreme law of the empire.  The Caliph  was the supreme leader according to the Islamic theory. And all the Muslim rulers in the world were to be his subordinates.

Sultan – The head of the Sultanate

The head of the administration of the Sultanate was the king or the Sultan himself.  The Sultan was embodied with all the powers in his will and his will would be the law of the country. Since there was no principle of hereditary succession the Sultan had the power to nominate the heirs of his choice and they would be recognized by all other nobles.

All the Muslims were allowed in the Sultan’s office but that was only theoretically, in reality, the Sultanate was open only for the immigrant Turkes. In the later period, the Sultanate became even more restricted allowing only the members of the royal family.

Following the Islamic theory, the Sultans of Delhi were considered to be the messengers of Allah, i.e. God and it was their duty to enforce the laws stated in the Holy Quran.

Wazir or The Prime Minister

The Wazir exercised the Sultan’s power and rules and regulations laid down by him. The Wazir appointed all the important officers of the state under the name of the Sultan. In the absence of the Sultan, it’s the Wazir who took care of everything.

He advised the Sultan in the matters of administration and always kept him updated about the sentiments and needs of his people. The Wazir handled all the financial matters; he was also the superintendent of the civil servants and commanded the military establishment. All the requirements of the army were to go through him.

The Army Master or Diwan-i-Ariz

Diwan-i-Ariz controlled the military establishment. Diwan-i-Ariz recruited the troops for the army. The Sultan was the commander-in-chief of the army. He mostly looked after the discipline of the army and their equipment and their requirements on the battlefield that were then informed to the Wazir.

The minister for foreign affairs or Diwan-i-risalt

He was the minister responsible for the foreign affairs and handled the diplomatic correspondences, the ambassadors, and the envoys received from the other rulers.

Minister of the department of religions or Sadr-us-Sudur

The Sadr-us-Sudur was the minister who handled the religious department, endowment, and charity. He was to enforce the Islamic rules and regulations and it was his duty to ensure that all Muslims strictly followed these rules and regulations.

Sources of the Delhi Sultanate

The important sources of information available about the Delhi Sultanate are:

• Inscriptions: They are found on old coins, historical monuments , milestones, and tombstones.
• Monuments: The Sultans of Delhi built many monuments that reveal not only the cultural traditions of that period but also the living conditions, faiths and beliefs and the socio-cultural outlook of the rulers. One such monument is the Qutub Minar.

Invasion of Muhammad Ghori

Muhammad of Ghur after winning the second battle of Tarain with Prithviraj Chauhan started his exploitation in India. However, soon after that, he returned to his kingdom and left his trusted lieutenant and former slave Qutbuddin Aybak behind to rule on his behalf. These marked the beginnings of the Slave or the Mamluk dynasty in north India.

Slave Dynasty

Qutubuddin Aibak, born as a slave in then Turkistan and as he grew up he became the trusted lieutenant of Muhammad Ghur; is regarded as the founder and the first ruler of the slave dynasty or then called as the ‘Mamluk Dynasty’. It was Qutub-ud-din Aibak who laid the foundation for Qutub Minar in Delhi which was finished by Iltutmish.  However, under his reign, there were no major territorial expansions of the dynasty under his rule.

Khiliji Dynasty

Jalaluddin Khilji was the founder and the first ruler of the Khilji dynasty, after the Slave dynasty. He got the throne of the Khilji dynasty after killing Kaikubad, the last ruler of the slave dynasty.  Jalaluddin Khalji was a nobleman of the Turkish origins who had settled in Afghanistan. The Delhi Sultanate rapidly expanded under the Khalji dynasty.

Tughluq Dynasty

The Tughluq dynasty was established by Ghiyasuddin Tughluq who expanded his kingdom after the Khalji dynasty collapsed. Muhammad bin Tughluq and Feroze Tughluq were the well- known rulers among the Tughluqs. However, Muhammad bin Tughluq was considered a prominent ruler who was scholarly and well-read in many subjects.

He had also mastered in mathematics, astronomy, logic and physical sciences. He enjoyed Persian literature, music, fine arts, and calligraphy. After his death, the Sultanate grew very weak and eventually collapsed.

Sayyed Dynasty

The Tughluq dynasty had come to an end by the 14th century due to the invasion by the Turkish ruler Timur. However, Timur soon left and when he left, a local governor of Multan named Khizr Khan replaced him and announced himself as the ruler of Delhi and established the Sayyid dynasty.

Question For You

Q. Mohammad Ghori invaded the provinces of Sindh and ___________.

b. Jammu and Kashmir

c. Rajasthan

d. Uttar Pradesh

Sol: a. Punjab. During the last quarter of the 12th century Mohammed Ghori, who was ruling a kingdom in Afghanistan, invaded India and secured the provinces of Sindh and Punjab. When he made further advances into Indian territories, Prithviraj Chauhan, the king of Delhi and Ajmer, routed him in a battle. However, Mohammad was spared from the death penalty.

The very next year Mohammad came to India and fought with Prithviraj and defeated him. Mohammad gave orders to kill him. Delhi came under the control of Mohammad Ghori. Before returning to Afghanistan he transferred the conquered territories to his general by name Qutubuddin Aibak. Aibak started ruling as the sultan of Delhi.

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Government and Administration under the Delhi Sultanate

• Delhi Sultanate was shaped by its historical experience of being a part of the wider Islamic world and it changed and evolved as a result of its needs and circumstances. selfstudyhistory.com
• Turks were far fewer in number than the indigenous population over whom they sought to govern and
• They lacked resources.
• The machinery of administration as it evolved under the Delhi sultanat was derived from the Abbasid and following it, the Ghaznavid and the Seljukid systems of administration.
• It was also influenced by the  Iranian system of administration , and the situation in India and Indian traditions. Both West Asia, including Iran, and India had a long tradition of rule by a monarch assisted by a council of ministers.
• Hence, we find that some of the departments of government, or even officers, were old institutions under a new name.
• However, the Turks were also able to evolve a number of new institutions and concepts which provided a basis for centralization of power and authority of a type which had not existed in India earlier.

THE NATURE OF THE DELHI SULTANATE STATE

Historians have given different interpretations for explaining the nature of the Delhi Sultanate.

Theocratic state

• Shariyat based rule
• Islam as a state religion
• Influence of Ulemas
• Sultans’ allegiance to Caliph
• Jaziya on non-Muslims
• destruction of temples
• Muslims as privileged class known as Millets and non-Muslims had subordinated status known as Zimmis.
• The shariyat was not the core basis of rule and Ulemas were not a dominant element in overall political system.
• The basis of rule was more political consideration than religious consideration.
• Wars were not religious wars rather politico-military in nature.
• Sultans were Muslims but they did not act as a missionaries.
• Ulemas were not important entity in the political system and many a times views of Ulemas were negated like by Alauddin Khalji, Muhammad Bin Tughluq.
• Several practices and customs adopted which were unislamic like Shijda and Pabos introduced by Balban.
• There was no policy of conversion and Hindus in general enjoyed freedom.
• Destruction of temples was more in the situation of political hostility i.e. more a political issue than religious.
• Sultans were sovereign in their own right and relation with Caliph was just a formal link.
• As per Barani’s observation, Delhi Sultanate was placed under the category of Duniyadari.
• In a theoretical and formal sense , the Delhi Sultans recognized the supremacy of the Islamic law (shariah) and tried to prevent its open violation. But they had to supplement it by framing secular regulations (zawabit) , too.
• For example : a sectarian group ( shafai ) of Muslim divines approached Illtutmish and asked him to enforce the Islamic law strictly, that is, giving the Hindus the option of Islam or Death. On behalf of the Sultan, the wazir; ‘Junaidi, replied that this could not be done for the moment as the Muslims were like salt in a’dish of food.
• Barani tells: the Qazi (Mughisuddin) pointed out the legalistic position which prevented the Sultan from taking the major share of the booty, the Sultan emphasized that he acted according to the needs of the State which were paramount.
• Hence, in practice, the Turkish State was not theocratic but evolved according to its special needs and circumstances despite the fact that the main ruling class professed Islam.
• War was a regular feature in order to sustain, expand.
• So military preparation was always important.
• In medieval time, states in general were military and war state as medieval situation was characterised by conflicts. So military might and wars were important to sustain and survive.

Military state

• There was no popular base and state rested exclusively on the forces of arms.
• There were separate military departments.
• There was military orientation of the policies e.g. market control of Alauddin Khalji for military purpose.
• Absence of the rule of primogeniture so military might played important role in succession.

Conquest state

• Sultanate was a institutionalised form of foreign conquest.
• Foreign conquest represent conquest by TUrks, under the leadership of Md. Ghuri.
• 13th century may be of foreign conquest but in 14th century, rulers became indigenous in political, economic, social and cultural aspects.

Despotic state

• Rule of Sultanate was marked by despotism and the will of Sultan was supreme.
• However there were checks on the despotism of Sultans by religion, nobility and slaves.
• According to barani, despotism was un-islamic and religion was check on despotism.
• The reign of few Sultans had elements of benevolent despotism like Jalaluddin Khalji, Ghiasuddin Tughluq, Firuz Shah Tughluq.

Centralised state

• It was given by historians like Md. habib, Ishwari Prasad etc.
• State system was marked by centralised systems, like central departments, political-administrative units under Muqtis, who were controlled by Sultan.
• Iqta was a main instrument of centralisation.
• But in certain regimes, trends of decentralisation is also visible. For e.g. during the rule of weak Sultan especially Firuz Shah Tughluq.

Monarchical state

• The head of state and government was a monarch.
• The office of king was all powerful and all other were subservient to it.
• The king was the head of justice, commander-in-chief and supreme legislator.

Patrimonial state

• View by Max Webber (German sociologist).
• As per this view, Sultanate state was household dominated, patrimonial, bureaucratic state system.
• Rulers were dependent upon small number of trained and loyal officials who were involved in specialised function.
• It was rule by a household.

Confederate kind of union/ confederacy

• This character developed under the rule of Bahlol Lodi.
• This was based on Afghan concept of political system, characterised by partnership in the power i.e. power shared by Afghan chiefs. (shared sovereignty)

Hence, there were many interpretations of the nature of Sultanate state, each with some shortcomings and it is difficult to bind its nature in any particular interpretation. As per Harman Kulke:

• Initially Delhi Sultanate was a conquest state.
• After Alauddin Khalji, serious attempt at centralisation of administration was made.
• But Delhi Sultanate was structurally weak thus it remained in essence a largely patrimonial system.

CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION 

The central administrative machinery of the Sultanate consisted of the nobles controlling various offices with the Sultan at the helm of affairs.

The Sultan:

• khutba was the formal sermon following the congregational prayer on Fridays wherein the name of the Sultan was mentioned as the head of the community.
• Coinage was the ruler’s prerogative : his name was inscribed on the coins (sikka)
• Barani says that Balban stressed the special position of the Sultan as ‘shadow of God’ (zill al Allah) on earth. Balban emphasized courtly splendour decorum and etiquette. He also believed in severe exemplary punishments even to the nobles.
• many of Nobles, felt that they had an equal right to rule.

The Wizarat (Finance) :  the head of the diwan-i wizarat ,

• Was the most important figure in the central administration .
• Though he was one of the four important departmental heads, he exercised a general supervisory authority over others.
• The wizarat organised the collection of revenue , exercised control over expenditure , kept accounts , disbursed salaries and allotted revenue assignments (iqta) at Sultan’s order.
• mushif-i mumalik (accountant-general) and
• mustaufi-i mumalik (auditor-general).
• During the reign of Alauddin Khalji, the diwan-i mustakhraj was made responsible for the collection of arrears of revenue.

The Diwan-i Arz : i.e military department was headed by the ariz-i mumalik.

• responsible for the administration of military affairs .
• He inspected the troops maintained by the iqta-holders .
• He also supervised the commissariat duties (supply and transport) of the Sultan’s army .
• It seems that the branding of horses was strictly maintained till the reign of Muhammad Tughluq .
• The army consisted of troops maintained by nobles as well as the standing army ( hashm-i-qalb ) of the Sultan.
• Under Iltutmish, the number of such cavalry was about three thousand. Balban tried to do away with these assignments which led to much dissatisfaction .
• Alauddin Khalji was successful in doing so , and he started paying his soldiers in cash-a trooper was paid 238 tanka while one who brought an additional horse used to get 78 tanka’ more.
• Feroz Tughluq   gave up the practice of paying his royal soldiers in cash: instead, he gave them a paper called itlaq – a sort of draft on whose strength they could claim their salary from the Sultan’s revenue officers of the khalisa (“Crown” or “reserve” land).

Other Departments :

• It was headed by dahir-i mumalik .
• This department dealt with all correspondence between the Sultan and other rulers , and between the Sultan and provincial governments .
• It issued farmans and received letters from subordinate officials .
• He had to keep information of all that was happening in the Sultanate .
• The administrative sub- divisions had local barids who sent regular news —letters to the central office.
• The barids reported matters of state – wars, rebellions, local affairs, finances, the state of agriculture etc.
• Spies or barids were appointed to different parts of the empire. It was their business to keep the sultan informed of all the developments.
• This was the main weapon used by Balban  and Alauddin Khalji to control and demoralise the nobles.
• Apart from the barids, another set of reporters existed who were known as munhiyan .
• headed by the sadr-us sudur .
• He took care of the ecclesiastical affairs and appointed qazi .
• He approved various grants like waqf for religious and educational institutions. wazifa and idrar to the learned and the poor.
• Next to him was the qazi-ul mumalik (or qazi-ul quzzat), the chief judge of the Sultanate.
• Often, the offices of the sadr-us sudur and qazi-ul mumalik were held by the same person.
• The chief qazi headed the legal system and heard appeals from the lower courts.
• The muhatsibs (public censors) assisted the judicial department. Their task was to see that there was no public infringement of the tenets of Islam .

Court and the Royal Household:

• However, unlike the Mughals, there was no single officer in charge of the court and the royal household during the Sultanat.
• The most important officer concerned with the royal household was the wakil-i-dar.
• He controlled the entire royal household and supervised the payment of allowances and salaries to the sovereign’s personal staff which included the royal kitchen, the wine department  and the royal stables .
• He was even responsible for the education of the princes .
• The courtiers, the princes, the sultan’s private servants, even the queens had to approach him for various favours.
• As such, the post was of great importance and sensitivity, and was bestowed only to a noble of high rank and prestige .
• Another officer of high importance connected with the court and the royal household was the Amir Hajib.
• He was also called barbek.
• He was master of ceremonies at the court.
• He marshalled the nobles in accordance with their ranks and precedence.
• All petitions to the Sultan were presented through him , or his subordinates, called hajibs.
• The post was so sensitive that sometimes princes of blood were appointed to it.
• Karkhana  or royal stores and
• Public Works department .
• From the time of Alauddin Khalji, great importance was given to the department of public works or  diwan-i-amirat. But the prince of builders was Firuz Tughlaq who not only repaired many old buildings, including sarais, mausoleums etc. but dug canals, and built many new towns. A separate department , therefore, was set up under Malik Ghazi who was called Mir-i-Imarat.

Karkhanas:  The needs of the royal household were met through karkhanas.

• (i) Manufacturies
• (ii) Store house.
• Even the royal library (kitabikhana) was considered as karkhana.
• This included food and fodder, lamps and oil, clothes, furniture, tents etc.
• Under Firuz Tughluq there were 36 karkhanas.
• Robes of silk and wool which were distributed to the nobles twice a year by Muhammad bin Tughlaq were  manufactured in the royal karkhanas .
• Each karkhana was supervised by a noble who had the rank of a malik or khan , and a mutasarrif who was responsible for the accounts and acted as the immediate supervisor .
• A separate diwan or accounts office existed for the karkhanas.
• The karkhanas manufactured articles for Imperial household as well as for military purposes.
• It must be remembered, however, that articles produced in the royal karkhanas were not commodities , i.e. not for sale in the market. Nobles , too, maintained their own karkhanas.

Slaves  : Slaves were an important feature of the royal household .

• Alauddin Khalji owned 50,000 slaves, while Feroz Tughluq is reputed to have had 1.80.000 slaves. During Feroz reign, a separate department of slaves (diwan-i bandagan) was set up.
• The slaves were used for personal service and acted as body-guards (the latter numbering’ 40,000).
• Afif also records that a large number of Feroz’s slaves (12,000) worked as artisans (kasibs).
• Barani describes a large slave market at Delhi ,
• but by the first quarter of the 16th century there is no mention of slave markets.

REVENUE ADMINISTRATION

• Revenue system and exact magnitude of the revenue-demand during llbarite (slave dynasty) rule is uncertain . Perhaps the old agrarian system continued to function with the difference that the composition of the supreme appropriators of the surplus produce at the centre had changed .
• For this service , the were allowed perquisites ( haqq-i khoti ) as remuneration by the state which consisted of being exempted from the revenue of a portion of land (i.e not all the land they held was exempted) held by them.
• Also. they took something from the peasants as their share of the produce which Barani calls qismat-i khoti .
• Choudhari, might not have directly involved in collection of the revenue because (acording to Ibn Battuta) he was head of “100 villages” (pargana) : this inference is reinforced. by the fact that Barani always employs terms ‘like haqq-i khoti or muqaddami , but never haqq-i chaudhrai .
• W.H. Moreland, however, uses the term intermediaries for all the three groups .
• Besides land revenue ( kharaj ), every cultivator had to pay house tax ( ghari ) and cattle or grazing tax (charaj). 
• They did not pay the revenue themselves on that portion of their land which was not exempted from assessment ; rather they shifted their ‘burden’ onto the peasantry, that is, they realised additional levy from the peasants besides the fixed demand of the state in order to pay their own dues.
• They did not pay the grazing tax.
• The ill-gotten ‘ excess of wealth’ had made them so arrogant that they flouted the orders of the revenue officials by not going to the revenue office even when summoned to render accounts.
• The magnitude of the state demand was set at half the produce of the land. The land was’to be measured ( masahat ), and the land revenue fixed on the yield of each unit of the area . The term used wafa-i biswa (wafa = yield; biswa = 1/20th of a bigha). Most probably, it was levied separately on the holding of each individual cultivator .
• The intermediaries and the peasants alike were to pay the same standard of the demand (50%) without any distinction, be they intermediaries or ‘ordinary peasant’ (balahar).
• The perquisites of intermediaries were disallowed .
• The grazing and the house tax were to be taken from the intermediaries’also .
• One objective was : To free the peasants from the illegal exactions of the intermediaries. as Barani says : the sultan’s policy was’that the ‘burden’ (bar) of the ‘strong’ (aqwiya) should not fall on the ‘weak’ (zuaja ).
• Though the peasants were protected now from the economic oppression of the intermediaries, the former had to pay a higher rate of taxation than they did earlier .
• Since the rate was uniform in a sense it was a regressive taxation .
• Thus the state gained at the cost of the intermediaries, leaving the peasants in the lurch.
• It is ‘true that the intermediaries were eliminated from-direct revenue collection. but they ‘were still expected to maintain law and order in the countryside and help the revenue officials without any remuneration or perquisites .
• The process for discovering the deceit was simple: the bahi or the ledger of the village patwari was meticulously scrutinised by the auditors. The ‘bahi contained every payment, legal or illegal, made to the revenue collectors, and these payinents were then compared with the receipts. Corruption occurred in spite of the fact that Alauddin Khalji had raised the salary of the revenue collectors .
• Such peasants as were weak and without resources were completely made prostrate, and the rich peasants who had resources and means, turned rebels. Whole regions were devastated.
• Cultivation was totally abandoned. The peasants of distant regions, hearing of the ruin and destruction of the peasantry of the Doab, fearful that the same orders might be issued for them as for the latter, turned away from obedience and fled to the jungles.
• The two years that the Sultan was in Delhi (c. 1332-4), the country of the Doab,owing to the rigours of revenue-demand and the multiplicity of abwab (additional cesses), was devastated.
• The Hindus set fire to the grain heaps and burnt . and drove away cattle from their homes. The Sultan ordered the shiqqdars and faujdars (revenue collectors and commanders) to lay waste and plunder the country. They killed many khots and muqaddams, and many they blinded.
• Those who  escaped gathered bands and fled into jungles; and the country became ruined. The Sultan in those times went to the district of Baran (modern Bulandshahr), on a hunting expedition; he ordered that the entire district of Baran be plundered and laid waste.
• The Sultan himself plundered and laid waste from kanauj to Dalmau. Whoever was captured was killed.
• Most (peasants) ran away and fled into the jungles. They (the Sultan’s troops) surrounded the jungles and killed every one whom they found within the jungles.
• covering the heart of his empire. But Bihar, Awadh, Gujarat and parts of Malwa and Rajputana are not mentioned. These measures were largely meant for the khalisa (“crown” or “reserve” land).
• Moreland thinks that ordinarily payment in cash was the general practice during the 13th century. And become quite widely prevalent by the 14th century.
• However, Alauddin himself preferred collection in grain . He decreed that the whole revenue due from the khalisa in the Doab should be realized in kind, and only half the revenue due from Delhi (and its suburbs) in cash.
• To have a large reserve of grain stored at Delhi and other areas for contingencies (such as scarcity owing to drought or other factors).
• To utilize the storage as a lever for his price-fixation measures in the grain market.
• The intermediaries got back their haqq-i khoti (but not qismat-i khoti). They were also exempted from the house and cattle tax.
• The procedure of measurement ( masahat ) was to continue along with observation or “actual yield” (bar hukm hasil).
• (i) He enhanced the rate of land tax beyond 50%.
• (ii) After the death of Alauddin Khalji, the rate was reduced by the Khalji rulers which was later raised to the previous level by Muhammad Tughluq.
• But the rate fixed by Alauddin was never sought to be tampered. what he actually did to :
• To impose new cesses ( abwab ) as well as revive the older ones (for example, charai and ghari on the intermediaries).
• Measurement alone was retained for assessment purpose. The matter aggravated when assessment in kind (grain) was carried out not on the principle of the “actual yield” but on the officially decreed yields (wafa-i farmani) for each unit of the measured area.
• For payment in cash, commutation was not done according to the market prices but on the basis of the rates as “ordered by the Sultan” (nirkh-i jarmani).
• An unprecedented rebellion of the peasants, led by the intermediaries, occurred which led to bloody confrontations.
• In case of bad harvest , the state tried to adjust the land tax, and also gave agricultural loans to the peasants called sondhar in Muhammad Tughluq’s reign.
• abolished twenty three cesses including charai and ghari.
• ‘ water tax ‘ (haqq- i sharb) was taken from those cultivators who irrigated their land from the water supplied from the canals constructed by the state.
• Another development that took place, especially under the Tughluqs, was the practice of revenue-farming , that is, the task of collecting the revenue of some areas was sometimes given to contractors who perhaps gave a lump sum in advance for the right of revenue collection for a certain period.
• No such attempt seems to have been made before the reign of Sultan Feroz Shah Tughluq.
• Afif (Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi by Shams-i-Siraj Afif, Tarikh-i-Firuz shai was written by Ziauddin Barani) tells us that at the order of Feroz shah, Khwaja Hisamuddin Junaid determined the jama (estimated revenue) of the kingdom according to the “rule of inspection” (bar hukm mushahada).
• It took six years to do this job, and the figure arrived at was six krar and seventy-five lakhs tanka.  which continued to bf valid for the entire reign of the Sultan.

IQTA SYSTEM AND PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

Iqta System

• The iqta was a territorial assignment given to administrative officers and nobles in lieu of the services they performed for the state. The system began as division of conquest & resources, a reward and a medium of payment.
• Gradually the system was defined and responsibilities of the holders clearly marked and it became a principal system of state.
• In order to consolidate, the Turkish rulers made revenue assignments (iqta), in lieu of cash,to their nobles (umma). The assignees (known as muqti/ wali) collected revenue from these areas, defrayed their own expenses , paid the troops maintained by them and sent the surplus (fawazil) to the centre.
• The assignments could be large (a whole province or a part ). Assignments even to nobles carried administrative , military and revenue collecting

Features of iqta

• There were big & small iqtas. The holder of a big lqta was known as Muqti or Wali and of a small lqta as iqtadar
• The muqti was responsible for the collection of revenue from these territories and also worked as administrative head.
• They were supposed to retain the revenue equivalent to their personal pay as well as the salaries of troops employed by them.
• The grant of iqta did not imply a right to the land nor was it hereditary though the holders of jqta tended to acquire hereditary rights during Feroz Tughluq.
• Therefore, iqta should not be equated with the fief of medieval feudal Europe, which were hereditary and non-transferable
• The tithe land could not be given to anyone as iqta except on the grounds at poverty.
• Muqti had other specific responsibilities -(a) Maintenance of law & order, (b) Maintenance of troops. But the iqtadar had no such responsibility except the service he was supposed to provide to state.
• Muqti separated a part of total revenue collected for the purpose of his personal expenditure and expenditure of troops, and the balance known as Fawazil was to be deposited with state.
• Muqti appointed Naib Ariz to represent him at centre.
• It was not a feudal but a bureaucratic system – it was subject to pleasure of sultan, transfer, removal, punishment. audit and control & regulation from top.
• Thus, provincial administration was headed by the muqti or wali. He had to maintain an army composed of horsemen and foot soldiers.
• “ They (the muqtis) should know that their right over the subjects is only to take the rightful amount of money or perquisite (mal-i haqq) in a peaceful manner… the life, property and the family of the subject should be immune from any harm, the muqtis have no right over them, if the subject desires to make a direct appeal to the Sultan, the muqti should not prevent him. Every muqti who violates there laws should be dismissed and punished … the muqtis and walis are so many superintendents over them as the king is superintendent over other muqtis… After three or four years, the amil and the muqtis should be transferred so that they may not be too strong”

Significance

• A major pillar of state system of the sultanate.
• An instrument of centralisation.
• An instrument of organisation of nobility & military chiefs – they were associated with state, their responsibilities were defined.
• Served as the system of provincial governance as Muqti / Wali served somewhat as provincial governors.
• A mode of payment.
• A system for revenue collection.
• Provided a revenue base – Fawazil was the right of state.
• A system of maintaining troops.
• It provided the basis for system of granting land for various purposes during subsequent rule. The system provided a background for Jagir system during the Mughal period.

Changes in Iqta system during the Sultanate period

• Enquiry into old lqta.
• Appointment of Khwaja attached to Muqti in order to maintain accounts.
• Emphasis on recovery of Fawazil .

Alauddin Khilji

• Greater control of wizarat over lqta.
• Abolition of iqta and other rent free grants in Doab.

Ghiasuddin Tughlaq

• Moderate Policy.
• Demand on the basis of hasil that .is actual produce not on the basis of past records.
• Income of the Muqti not to be increased more than by 1/16th or 1/11th annually.

Md. Bin Tughlaq

• Separation of expenditure of troops and personal expenditure of Muqti.
• Troops to be paid by state.
• lqta for personal salary only.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq

• New Jama (first time used) fixed at 6 crore and 75 lakhs tankas.
• lqta was given in perpetuity.
• Increased personal pay of Muqti.
• In the event of the death of the Muqti, lqta was to be passed on to sons, in their absence to Sons-in-law to slaves to widows.
• Payment to soldiers through Barat or ltalaq (a kind of draft).
• A new arrangement, Wajh which means revenue of village was introduced. It was given in lieu of cash salary.
• Changes introduced by Firoz Tughtaq and afterwards gave birth to unhealthy trends. These changes weakened the system as tool for centratisation, organisation of nobility etc.

Sikandar Lodi

• New term Sarkar and Paragana for lqta.
• Stopped claims over Fawazil .
• Beginning of sub-assignment of portions of sarkar by principal assignees.

In this way, nature of Iqta changed with different Sultan.

Provincial Administration :

• The naib diwan  (also called khwaja) in charge of revenue administration began to be appointed from the centre .
• A barid or intelligence officer was also posted to keep the sultan informed. But it seems that the muqti appointed his own troops, keeping a naib ariz at the centre to represent him.
• Appeals from the qazis, and against the conduct of the governors could be made to the sultan. The governor could, however, give revenue-free lands to scholars out of his iqta.
• This attempt to maximise the income was a step back for it implied elimination of central control over revenue affairs.
• But such persons were not required to maintain troops for the service of the centre, these being placed under a separate officer.
• This duality of functions did not work and was apparently given up by Firuz.
• As compared to the provinces (subahs) of Akbar’s time, these were smaller.
• Thus, out of the modern U.P., the middle doab was divided between Meerut, Baran (now Bulandshahr) and Koil (now Aligarh), and another three were in the north-west.
• Under him, the number of provinces covering the entire country upto Malabar according to an Arab writer, Shihabuddin al Umar , was twenty-four.

As the State became more settled and efforts were made for greater centralization, provincial administration also underwent a change . A separation between fiscal and military responsibilities started evolving. :

• According to Ibn Battuta , the iqta of Amroha was placed. under two central officers , one called amir (possibly in charge of the army and administration ) and the other as wali-ul kharaj (in charge of revenue collection ).
• Muhammad Tughluq also ordered that the salary of the soldiers maintained by iqta-holders be paid by the diwan-i wizarat to prevent fraud by the officers.
• Received and examined detailed statements regarding income and expenditure in the provinces.
• It supervised the work of the revenue officials in the provinces .
• It was assisted by officials like mutasarrifs . The entire lower revenue staff was called karkun .

Local administration:

• We hear of shiqs and sarkars in the Afghan histories dealing with the Lodis and the Surs .
• adequate information about the exact nature is not known .
• by the time of Sher Shah (1540-1 545 A.D.) shiqq had emerged as a well-defined administrative unit, known as sarkar.
• Administrative officials, mentioned with respect to shiqq, were shiqqdar and faujdar.
• The demarcation of their duties is not very clear .
• The sadis and chaurasis were collections of villages .
• The number of villages could vary.
• Perhaps, a chaudhari who was a hereditary land-holder, and an amil or revenue collector were posted there, especially if the area was under khalisa.
• According to Ibn Battuta, chaudhuri was the head of hundred villages. This was the nucleus of the administrative unit later called pargana .
• The main village functionaries were khut , muqaddam (headman) and patwari.
• Khut was the zamindar of one or more villages, while muqaddam was the village headman.
• The patwari was also a village official because Alauddin Khalji had the account books of the patwaris examined in order to detect frauds by the amils and mutsarrifs who were dealt with very harshly.
• The korwal maintained law and order .
• At the village level, the panchayat heard civil cases.
• Thus, a rudimentary system of government, some of it inherited from the earlier Hindu rulers, continued down to the village level.
• The first step was the consolidation of the central government.
• As the central government became stronger and more confident, it tried to extend its direct control over the regions and the countryside, which, in turn, implied reducing the powers and privileges of the chiefs who dominated the countryside.
• This led to a prolonged struggle, and no clear forms had emerged by the time the Delhi sultanat disintegrated. This was a task which was taken up by the Mughals later on.

Theory of Kingship under Delhi Sultanate

• Hereditary principle was accepted ‘but not adhered to invariably.
• There was no rule that only the eldest son would succeed (primogeniture). In one case, even a daughter was nominated (for exemple, Raziya Sultan).
• At any rate, a slave, unless he was manumitted, that is, freed, could not claim sovereignty. In fact, as it operated in the Sultanate, ‘t he longest the sword, the greater the claim ‘.
• After Aibak’s death , it was not his son Aram Shah but his slave and son-in-law Iltutmish who captured the throne.
• Iltutmish’s death (1236 AID.) was followed by a long period of struggle and strife when finally Balban, Iltutmish’s slave of the “Forty” fame, assumed power in 1266 A.D.
• Kaiqubad was installed at the throne against the claims of Balban’s nominee. Kaikhusrau. Later, even he was slain by the Khalji Maliks (1290 A.D.) who laid the foundation of the Khalji rule.
• The assumption of the throne by Balban at Delhi (1266) marks the beginning of an era of strong, centralized government. Balban sought to increase the prestige and power of the monarchy, and to centralise all authority in the hands of the sultan because he was convinced that this was the only way to face the internal and external dangers facing him.
• He underlined the theory that the sultan was the “shadow of God’ ( zil-i-allah ), and emphasised it by insisting that in his court anyone presented to him had to perform the sijda and pabos , or prostration before the sovereign, a practice which, according to the theologians, was reserved for God alone.
• According to the Iranian theory, the king was divine or semi -divine in character, and answerable only to God, not to any set of intermediaries, i.e. religious figures.
• As such, there was a fundamental difference between the ruler and the nobles, the latter being dependent on the sultan’s favour, and in no way equal to him.
• Balban himself maintained the utmost dignity in the Court. He would neither laugh out aloud himself nor allow anyone else to do so.
• At the same time, he tried to stand forth as the defender of the entire Turkish nobility.
• For the purpose he declared that he would not give any post in the government or an iqta, or a post of authority in the local administration to any person belonging to a low or ignoble family.
• He was critical towards low-borns. He said “When I look at a low born, every artery in my body begins to irritate with fury and my hand goes to the sword.”

He focused lineage and race and he claim his lineage from Khaqan Afrasiyap, who was a mythical hero described in the book-Shahnama by Firdausi.

Highly autocratic characterized by cold, calculated despotism.

Focused on Justice and follow the dictum – ‘Kingship knows no kinship’.

The influence of the turkan-i chihilgani was minimised.

Overall approach was to make crown a magnificent institution and to establish its prestige and power.

Maintained a formal link with caliph and caliph name was still in use on coin and in khutba.

• Followed liberal and humanitarian principle.
• Kingship based on goodwill and support of people of all community
• Benevolent and beneficial approach.
• Negated the demand of some Ulemas.
• Pursued the policy of granting freedom to Hindus. Hindus moved in possessions beating drums nearby his palace for immersion of images in Yamuna.
• He presented view that the policy of terror can establish fear of government for a short time but it would mean discarding  true Islam from the heart of the people.
• Barani gives reference of his benevolent approach that he did not harm even an ant.
• In 1296 A.D. Alauddin Khalji, killed his uncle, Jalaluddin Khalji and occupied the throne. Alauddin Khalji’s death signalled civil war and scramble for power.
• Khalji’s idea of kingship is that Kingship is not a monopoly of any priviledge class but within the reach of those who have the power and ability to hold it.
• He did not admit of monopolisation of the state by any one single group of nobles. State office were open to talent and loyalty, to the exclusion of race and creed. Besides, he controlled them through various measures.
• He didn’t claim sovereignty on the strength of racial superiority.
• He tried to separate state from religion . He was the first sultan to make such declaration.
• He negated role of Ulemmas, He said “I don’t know what is right and what is wrong, I give orders which are in the interest of state.”
• To him the law was dependent upon the will of the monarch and not that of prophet. When the Chief Qazi remonstrated with him for inflicting severe punishments on rebels and officials as being contrary to canon law, he bluntly stated: I issue such orders as I conceive to be good for the State and the benefit of the people. Men are heedless, disrespectful and disobey my commands. I am then compelled to be severe to bring them to obedience. I do not know whether this is lawful of unlawful; whatever I think for the good of the state or suitable for the emergency that I decree and as for what may happen to me on the approaching day of judgement that I do not know. (Barani)
• Hence, Alauddin ruled according to the political exigencies of the time, in no way, bound by the Ulemas who ultimately had to acquiesce to his authority.
• He adhered more to Balban’s theory of fear being the basis of good government, a theory which he applied to the nobles as well as to the ordinary people.
• Thus, after the outbreak of a couple of rebellions early in his reign, he decided to take harsh measures to keep the nobles under control.
• He revived Balban’s system of spies who kept him informed of all developments, even those in the privacy of the houses of the nobles.
• The nobles were forbidden to associate with each other, or hold convivial parties. In fact, even for forming marriage alliances they had to seek the permission of the Sultan.
• As a part of this policy he ordered that all charitable lands, i.e. lands assigned in waqf or inam, should be confiscated.
• Almost all the nobles of Jalaluddin’s time, whom Alauddin had won over to his side by the lure of gold and positions, were uprooted, and their accumulated wealth confiscated.
• He was the Sultan who began sultanate imperialism . He adopted title- Sikandar-i-sani – on his coin.
• He followed policy of reducing the kingdoms of the Deccan and the South as tributary states which would accept his suzerainty and pay annual tribute.
• He was  conscious that administration of these places from distant Delhi was a very difficult task, because if the rulers of these kingdoms were removed, it might lead to local resistance and would create trouble.
• That Alauddin had established his authority and suzerainty in the Deccan and the South is also borne out by one of the Jain works, Nabinandra-Jinodhara-Prabandha.
• One of the aim of Alauddin’s Deccan policy was territorial expansion; as far as wealth is concerned, it always accompanies territorial expansion in the shape of added revenue. In case of Alauddin, it was more because it meant annual tribute without incurring any administrative expenditure.
• He maintained formal relation with the caliph and adopted a title- lieutenant of caliph.
• Amir khusro and Zaiuddin Barani describe him as – Shadow of God on earth which is indicative of divine kingship.
• Highly autocratic and despotic.
• Separation of state and religion. Focused on political consideration and state interest.
• While at no time did he go out of his way to defy the Shariat, he also did not strain himself to win over their support on important issues.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq went so far as to substitute the name of the Abbasid caliph in his coins. Later, he also received a formal rescript (manshur) from the Caliph. But all this could hardly change the attitude of the orthodox elements towards him.
• Negation of Ulemmas.
• He personally supervised the enforcement of justice, and hence he overruled the advice of the Ulemad and Qazis whenever he found it divorced from the law.
• Whenever the Ulemas were found guilty of embezzlement and rebellion, the Sultan inflicted severe punishment upon them.
• He was first Sultan who participated in the festival of Holi, first who employed Hindus in even high offices.
• Higher imperial ambition than Alauddin . It was under him that territory of sultanate reached it’s peak.
• He was full of imperialistic ambitions and cherished extravagant vision of universal conquest. Since he had inherited the largest, ever bequeathed to a Delhi Sultan, it was, therefore logical for him to explore fresh avenues, both within and without.
• Approach towards nobility was, not based on racial or on narrow considerations.
• Created composite nobility and included person of very low status on the basis of talent like – The cook, The gardener etc.
• He welcomed not only those families which had settled in India for long and had served previous rulers but also admitted to the service persons from the artitions or other classes/ castes despised by the Turks such as gardeners, barbers, cooks, weavers, wine-distillers, musicians etc. Some of these were converts and some were Hindus.
• Thus his nobility was very heterogeneous in character but could not be an instrument on which the Sultan could lean in times of difficulty.
• Even though the low cates appointees and many Turks and Hindustani nobles remained loyal, the Mongol and Afghan Sadah Amira behaved differently.
• H e was also the first who include Sufi into nobility and who entered into matrimonial alliance the Sufi.
• He had highly innovative approach and taken such steps like: Second capital to Daulatabad, Token currency, agricultural experiment and foreign campaign.
• Linked state and religion. He proclaimed to rule on the basis of Islam. He appeased Ulemmas, he abolished many taxes which were unislamic. He imposed Jaziya on Brahmans.
• Benevolent and welfare approach: Irrigation, marriage bureau, employment bureau, promoted public work, Education- establishment of Madrasa and Hospital etc.
• He followed appeasement approach toward Nobles, Muqtis and made Iqta hereditary.
• He maintained link with caliph by using caliph name of coins and in khutba.
• The Afghans had a certain peculiar concept of sovereignty .
• They were prepared to accept the position of a Sultan over them , but they sought to partition the empire among their clans (Farmulis, Sarwanis, Niyazh, etc.).
• For example, keeping of elephants was the royal privilege but Azam Humayun Sarwani is reported to have possessed seven hundred elephants.
• The Afghans entertained the concept of maintaining tribal militia which in the long run greatly hampered the military efficiency of the Central Government.
• It is true that Sikandar Lodi tried to keep the ambitious Afghan nobles in check , but it seems that the concept of Afghan polity was more tilted towards decentralization that created fissures in the end.

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Home » Medieval Indian History » Delhi Sultanate » Adminstration During Delhi Sultanate Period

• With the establishment of the Delhi sultanate a new ruling class emerged in India. This new class introduced a new administrative system.
• During the Sultanate period the administrative apparatus was headed by the Sultan who was helped by various nobles. There were various other offices along with the office of the Sultan. Theoretically, there was a council of Ministers Majlis-i-Khalwat to assist the Sultan.
• Sultanate administration is called as Turko-Afghan setup in Indian environment.
• The Sultans considered themselves as representatives of the Caliph.
• Iltutmish was the first sultan to receive recognition letter from Caliph.
• Delhi sultanate was neither a theocratic state nor a secular state. It was depended on ruler.
• Mullahs were interpreters of shariyath.
• Qajis were executors of Shariyath.

Territorial Administration:

• Shiqs were controlled by shiqdar
• Paragana were controlled by amil
• Villages were controlled by village headmen. He is called by name muqaddam, chaudhri, khut. Patwaries were village accountant.
• The lands were classified into three categories: iqta land – lands assigned to officials as iqtas instead of payment for their services. 2. khalisa land – land under the direct control of the Sultan and the revenues collected were spent for the maintenance of royal court and royal household. 3. inam land – land assigned or granted to religious leaders or religious institutions

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Delhi sultanate

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• IndiaNetzone - Delhi Sultanate
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Delhi sultanate , principal Muslim sultanate in north India from the 13th to the 16th century. Its creation owed much to the campaigns of Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Sām (Muḥammad of Ghūr; brother of Sultan Ghiyāth al-Dīn of Ghūr) and his lieutenant Quṭb al-Dīn Aibak between 1175 and 1206 and particularly to victories at the battles of Taraōrī in 1192 and Chandawar in 1194.

The Ghūrid soldiers of fortune in India did not sever their political connection with Ghūr (now Ghowr, in present Afghanistan) until Sultan Iltutmish (reigned 1211–36) had made his permanent capital at Delhi , had repulsed rival attempts to take over the Ghūrid conquests in India, and had withdrawn his forces from contact with the Mongol armies, which by the 1220s had conquered Afghanistan . Iltutmish also gained firm control of the main urban strategic centres of the North Indian Plain , from which he could keep in check the refractory Rajput chiefs. After Iltutmish’s death, a decade of factional struggle was followed by nearly 40 years of stability under Ghiyāth al-Dīn Balban, sultan in 1266–87. During this period Delhi remained on the defensive against the Mongols and undertook only precautionary measures against the Rajputs.

Under the sultans of the Khaljī dynasty (1290–1320), the Delhi sultanate became an imperial power. ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn (reigned 1296–1316) conquered Gujarat (c. 1297) and the principal fortified places in Rajasthan (1301–12) and reduced to vassalage the principal Hindu kingdoms of southern India (1307–12). His forces also defeated serious Mongol onslaughts by the Chagatais of Transoxania (1297–1306).

Muḥammad ibn Tughluq (reigned 1325–51) attempted to set up a Muslim military, administrative, and cultural elite in the Deccan , with a second capital at Daulatabad, but the Deccan Muslim aristocracy threw off the overlordship of Delhi and set up (1347) the Bahmanī sultanate . Muḥammad’s successor, Fīrūz Shah Tughluq (reigned 1351–88), made no attempt to reconquer the Deccan.

The power of the Delhi sultanate in north India was shattered by the invasion (1398–99) of Turkic conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), who sacked Delhi itself. Under the Sayyid dynasty (c. 1414–51) the sultanate was reduced to a country power continually contending on an equal footing with other petty Muslim and Hindu principalities. Under the Lodī (Afghan) dynasty (1451–1526), however, with large-scale immigration from Afghanistan, the Delhi sultanate partly recovered its hegemony , until the Mughal leader Bābur destroyed it at the First Battle of Panipat on April 21, 1526. After 15 years of Mughal rule, the Afghan Shēr Shah of Sūr reestablished the sultanate in Delhi, which fell again in 1555 to Bābur’s son and successor, Humāyūn , who died in January 1556. At the Second Battle of Panipat (November 5, 1556), Humāyūn’s son Akbar definitively defeated the Hindu general Hemu, and the sultanate became submerged in the Mughal Empire .

The Delhi sultanate made no break with the political traditions of the later Hindu period—namely, that rulers sought paramountcy rather than sovereignty . It never reduced Hindu chiefs to unarmed impotence or established an exclusive claim to allegiance . The sultan was served by a heterogeneous elite of Turks, Afghans, Khaljīs, and Hindu converts; he readily accepted Hindu officials and Hindu vassals. Threatened for long periods with Mongol invasion from the northwest and hampered by indifferent communications, the Delhi sultans perforce left a large discretion to their local governors and officials.

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NCERT Notes: Delhi Sultanate [Medieval History of India For UPSC]

The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526). Five dynasties ruled over the Delhi Sultanate sequentially: the Mamluk dynasty (1206–1290), the Khalji dynasty (1290–1320), the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414), the Sayyid dynasty (1414–1451), and the Lodi dynasty (1451–1526). It covered large swathes of territory in modern-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh as well as some parts of southern Nepal

In this article, find detailed NCERT notes on the Delhi Sultanate. The Delhi Sultanate comprises multiple dynasties that ruled over northern India in the medieval period. It is an important topic for the Civil Services Exam 2024 preparation.

To know more about UPSC 2024 , refer to the linked article.

Delhi Sultanate (UPSC Notes):- Download PDF Here

Delhi Sultanate

The period from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D. came to be known as the Delhi Sultanate period. This period witnessed many dynasties and various rulers.

Some of the major dynasties and rulers of the Delhi Sultanate are listed below.

Slave (Ghulam) or Mamluk Dynasty: Delhi Sultanate

The Slave dynasty ruled from c. 1206 – 1290 CE. It was also named  the ‘Mamluk’ dynasty; the word Mamluk is an Arabic word that means “slave/owned” . In fact, three dynasties were established during this period. They were –

• Qutbi dynasty (c. 1206 – 1211 CE) – Its founder was Qutub-ud-din Aibak.
• First Ilbari dynasty (c. 1211- 1266 CE) – Its founder was Iltumish.
• Second Ilbari dynasty (c. 1266 – 1290 CE) – Its founder was Balban.

Qutub-ud-din Aibak (c. 1206 – 1210 CE)

• Qutub-ud-din Aibak founded the Slave dynasty. He was a Turkish slave of Muhammad Ghori who played an important part in the expansion of the Turkish Sultanate in India after the Battle of Tarain . Muhammad Ghori made him the governor of his Indian possessions. He raised a standing army and established his hold over north India even during the lifetime of Ghori. 
• After the death of Muhammad Ghori (c. 1206 CE), Tajuddin Yaldauz, the ruler of Ghazni claimed his rule over Delhi and the governor of Multan and Uchch, Nasiruddin Qabacha wanted independence. He also had to face many revolts from Rajputs and other Indian rulers. However, Aibak, by displaying his mighty power as well as other conciliatory measures, was able to win over his enemies. He defeated Yaldauz and severed all connections with Ghazni and thus founded the Slave dynasty as well as the Delhi Sultanate .
• Muslim writers called Aibak “Lakh Baksh” or giver of lakhs because he donated liberally.
• He was titled “Sultan” and he made Lahore his capital.
• He also started the construction of the Qutub Minar (first storey only) after the name of the famous Sufi saint Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar. It was later completed by Iltumish.
• Aibak died suddenly while playing Chaugan (horse polo) in c. 1210 CE.

Aram Shah (c. 1210 CE)

• Qutub-ud-din was succeeded by his son Aram Shah who was incapable as a ruler. He was opposed by the Turkish armies and his rule lasted for only eight months.

Iltutmish (c. 1210 – 1236 CE)

• Iltutmish belonged to the Ilbari tribe and therefore, his dynasty was named the Ilbari dynasty. His half brothers sold him as a slave to Aibak who made him his son-in-law by giving his daughter to him. Later Aibak appointed him as Iqtadar of Gwalior . In c.1211 CE, Iltutmish dethroned Aram Shah and became the Sultan with the name of Shamsuddin. He is regarded as the real consolidator of Turkish rule in India . 
• During the first ten years of his reign, he mostly concentrated on securing his throne from his rivals. The commanders of Muhammad Ghori like Yaldauz, Qabacha of Multan and Ali Mardan of Bengal and Bihar rose against him. Iltutmish defeated Yaldauz in the battle of Tarain (c. 1215 CE) and also drove away Qabacha from Punjab.
• In c. 1220 CE, the leader of the Mongols, Temujin, popularly known as Chengiz Khan,  started his march towards Central Asia. He defeated Jalal-ud-din Mangabarni, the ruler of Khwarizm. Mangabarni escaped from the Mongols and sought asylum from Iltutmish. Iltutmish refused to provide him shelter in order to save his empire from the onslaught of the Mongols. This diplomatic policy of Iltutmish helped him to save his empire from the wrath of Chengiz Khan.
• Iltutmish brought Bengal and Bihar back into the Delhi Sultanate. He also suppressed the Rajput revolts and recovered Ranthambore in c. 1226 CE and by c. 1231 CE, Iltutmish established his control over Bayana, Mandor, Jalore and Gwalior. He led an expedition against the Chalukyas of Gujarat but that remained unsuccessful.
• Iltutmish was a great statesman. In c. 1229 CE, he received ‘mansur’, the letter of recognition from the Abbasid Caliph by which he became the legal sovereign ruler of India.
• He completed the construction of Qutub Minar at Delhi, the tallest stone tower in India (238 ft) .
• He also introduced the Arabic coinage in India and the silver tanka weighing 175 grams became a standard coin in medieval India. The silver tanka remained the basis of the modern rupee.
• Iltutmish organised Turkan-i-Chahalgani, a new class of the ruling elite of forty powerful military leaders, the Forty .
• He patronised many scholars and a number of Sufi saints came to India during his reign. Minhaj-us-Siraj (author of Tahaqqat-i-Nasuri) , Taj-ud-din, Muhammad Junaidi, Fakhrul-Mulk-Isami, Malik Qutub-ud-din Hasan were his contemporary scholars who added grandeur to his court.
• He nominated his daughter as his successor.

Ruknuddin Feruz Shah (c. 1236 CE)

• He was the eldest son of Iltutmish who ascended the throne with the help of nobles. When the governor of Multan revolted, Ruknuddin Feroz Shah marched to suppress the revolt. Using this opportunity, Iltutmish’s daughter Raziya with the help of the Amirs of Delhi seized the throne of the Delhi Sultanate.

Raziya Sultan (c. 1236 – 1239 CE)

• Raziya Sultan was the first and only female ruler of medieval India’s Sultanate period. 
• Raziya appointed an Abyssinian slave, Malik Jamal-ud-din Yaqut as master of the Royal horses (Amir-i-akhur). The recruitment of a few other non-Turks to important positions aroused resentment among the Turkish nobles. Raziya Sultan discarded the female apparel and held the court with her face uncovered which further created resentment. She even went hunting and led the army.
• In c. 1240 CE, Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda (Sirhaind)  revolted against her. Raziya alongside Yaqut marched against Altunia, but on the way, Turkish followers of Altunia murdered Yaqut and took Raziya prisoner. In the meantime, the Turkish nobles put Bahram, another son of Iltutmish on the throne. However, Raziya won over her captor, Altunia and after marrying him, proceeded to Delhi. But she was defeated and killed on the way by Bahram Shah.

Bahram Shah (c. 1240 – 1242 CE)

• The fall of Raziya Sultan paved the way for the ascendancy of ‘the Forty’. During the reign of Bahram Shah, there continued the struggle for supremacy between Sultan and the nobles. The Turkish nobles supported Bahram Shah in the beginning but later became disordered and during this unrest, Bahram Shah was killed by his own army.

Alauddin Masud Shah (c. 1242 – 1246 CE)

• He was the son of Ruknuddin Feroz Shah and nephew of Raziya Sultan. After the death of Bahram Shah, he was chosen as the next ruler. However, he was incompetent and incapable of handling the affairs in the government and was replaced by Nasiruddin Mahmud.

Nasiruddin Mahmud (c. 1246 – 1265 CE)

• He was the grandson of Iltutmish who was young and inexperienced. He had ascended the throne with the help of Balban/Ulugh Khan, a member of Chahalgani (the Forty) who himself assumed the position of regent. He married his daughter to Nasirruddin and therefore, the real power lay in the hands of Balban. Balban was powerful in the administration but he had to face the intrigues of his rivals in the royal court. He overcame all the difficulties. In c. 1265 CE, Nasirruddin Mahmud died and according to some historians like Ibn Batuta and Isami, Balban poisoned him and ascended the throne.

Balban (c. 1266 – 1286 CE)

• Balban’s experience as a regent made him understand the problems of the Delhi Sultanate. He knew that the real threat to the monarchy was from the nobles called “The Forty”. He, therefore, was sure that by enhancing the power and authority of the monarchy, he could solve the problem. 
• According to Balban, the Sultan was God’s shadow on earth, Zil-e-Ilahi and the recipient of divine grace, Nibyabat-e- Khudai .
• Balban enhanced the power of the monarchy. He introduced rigorous court discipline and new customs like prostration (sajida) and kissing the Sultan’s feet (paibos) to prove his superiority over the nobles. He introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz to impress the nobles and people with his wealth and power.
• He stood forth as the champion of Turkish nobility. He excluded non-Turks from administration and Indian Muslims were not given important positions in the government. To monitor the activities of the nobles he appointed spies and developed an efficient spy system .
• Balban was determined to break the power of ‘The Forty’ . He spared only the loyal nobles and eliminated all others by fair or foul means. Malik Baqbaq, the governor of Bedaun, was publicly flogged for his cruelty towards his servants. Haybat Khan, the governor of Oudh was punished for killing a man who was drunk. The governor of Bhatinda, Sher Khan was poisoned.
• Balban had to deal with internal as well as external problems . The Mongols were looking for an opportunity to attack the Sultanate, the Indian rulers were ready to revolt at the smallest opportunity, distant provincial governors wanted to gain independence and the outskirts of Delhi were often plundered by the Mewatis. To handle all these problems, he adopted a stern policy and organised a strong central army to deal with internal issues and also to repel the Mongols. 
• He established a separate military department, Diwan-e-arz and reorganised the army. He deployed the army in different parts of his country to suppress the rebellious elements. Balban paid more attention to restore law and order instead of expanding his kingdom. Balban took stern action against the Mewatis and prevented such robberies. Robbers were mercilessly pursued and sentenced to death, as a result of which the roads became safe for travel.
• In c. 1279 CE, Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal revolted against Balban . Balban sent his forces to Bengal and Tughril Khan was beheaded. Balban appointed his son Bughra Khan as the governor of Bengal.
• In the northwest, the Mongols reappeared and Balban sent his son Prince Mahmud against them. But the prince was killed in the battle and it was a moral blow to Balban. Balban died in c. 1287 CE. He was one of the main architects of the Delhi Sultanate. However, he could not fully safeguard India from the Mongol invasion .

Kaiqubad (c. 1287 – 1290 CE)

• Kaiqubad was the grandson of Balban and was made the Sultan of Delhi by the nobles. He was soon replaced by his son, Kaimur. In c. 1290 CE, Feroz, the Ariz-e-Mumalik (the minister of war) murdered Kaimur and captured the throne. He took the title of Jalal-ud-din Khalji and established the Khalji dynasty.

Khilji Dynasty  (c. 1290 – 1320 CE): Delhi Sultanate

Jalal-ud-din Khalji (c. 1290 – 1296 CE)

• Jalal-ud-din Khalji was the founder of the Khalji dynasty. He was 70 years old when he assumed power. He had been the warden of the marches in the northwest and had fought many successful battles against the Mongols during Balban’s reign. The Khaljis were of mixed Turkish-Afghan descent , they did not exclude the Turks from high offices but the rise of the Khaljis to power ended the Turkish monopoly of high offices.
• He tried to mitigate some of the harsh aspects of Balban’s rule. He was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate who clearly put forth his view that the state should be based on the willing support of the governed and that since the large majority of the population in India were Hindus, the state in India could not be an Islamic state.
• He adopted the policy of tolerance and avoided harsh punishments . For instance, Malik Chhajju, nephew of Balban was allowed to remain the governor of Kara. When Chhajju revolted, it was suppressed but he was pardoned. When the thugs (robbers) looted the country, they were allowed to go after a severe warning. In c. 1292 CE, when Malik Chhaju revolted again, he was replaced by his nephew and son-in-law, Alauddin Khalji.
• During the reign of Jalal-ud-din Khalji, Alauddin invaded Devagiri and accumulated enormous wealth. During the reception in c. 1296 CE, he treacherously murdered his father-in-law near Kara and usurped the throne of Delhi. He made generous gifts to the nobles and soldiers to win over them.

Alauddin Khalji (c. 1296 – 1316 CE)

• Alauddin Khalji was the nephew and son-in-law of Jalal-ud-din Khalji . He was appointed as the  Amir-i-Tuzuk (Master of ceremonies) and also Arizi-i-Mumalik (minister of war) during the reign of Jalaluddin Khalji.
• The public sale of liquor and drugs was totally banned.
• The intelligence system was reorganised and all the secret activities of the nobles were immediately reported to the Sultan.
• He confiscated the property of the nobles.
• Social gatherings and festivities without the permission of the Sultan were not allowed. By such stringent rules, his reign was free from rebellions.

Military Campaigns of Alauddin Khalji

• Alauddin maintained a huge permanent standing army. He sent his army six times against the Mongols . The first two were successful but the third Mongol invader, Khwaja came up to Delhi but was stopped from entering the capital city. The next three Mongol invasions were also dealt with severely and thousands of Mongols were killed. The northwestern frontier was fortified and Ghazi Malik (Ghayasuddin Tughlaq) was appointed as the Warden of Marches to protect the frontier. 
• Conquest of Gujarat  – Alauddin Khalji sent an army under two of his generals, Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan to capture Gujarat in c. 1299 CE. The ruler Rai Karan and his daughter escaped while the queen was caught and sent to Delhi. Malik Kafur, a eunuch was also taken to Delhi and later he was made the military commander .
• Ranthambore – It was considered to be the strongest fort of Rajasthan. Initially, the Khalji army suffered losses and Nusrat Khan even lost his life. In c.1301 CE, the fort fell to Alauddin. The Rajput women committed Jauhar or self-immolation.
• Chittor – Alauddin next turned against Chittor. It was another powerful state of Rajputana. In c. 1303 CE, Alauddin stormed the Chittor fort. According to some scholars, Alauddin attacked Chittor because he coveted Padmini, the beautiful queen of Raja Ratan Singh. Raja Ratan Singh and his army fought bravely but were defeated. The Rajput women including Rani Padmini performed Jauhar. This Padmini episode was graphically mentioned in the book Padmavat written by Jayasi.
• Malwa and others – In c. 1305 CE, under the able leadership of Ain-ul-Mulk, the Khalji army captured Malwa. Ujjain, Mandu, Chanderi and Dhar were also annexed. After this, Alauddin Khalji sent Malik Kafur to the south and himself attacked Siwana. Raja Shital Deva, the ruler of Siwana fought valiantly but was defeated. In c. 1311 CE, Jalore – another Rajput kingdom was annexed. Thus, by c.1311 CE, Alauddin Khalji became the master of north India and captured large parts of Rajputana.
• Conquest of Deccan and the far South – Alauddin’s greatest achievement was the conquest of Deccan and the far south. This region was ruled by four important dynasties – Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra and the Pandyas of Madurai. Alauddin sent Malik Kafur to lead the Khalji dynasty invasions to south India. In c. 1306 – 1307 CE, Malik Kafur attacked Devagiri. The ruler of Devagiri, Rai Ramachandra surrendered and was treated honourably. He was given a district of Gujarat and one of his daughters was married to Alauddin. In c. 1309 CE, Malik Kafur launched his campaign against Warangal. Its ruler Prataparudra Deva was defeated and an enormous booty was collected from him. Malik Kafur’s next target was the Hoysala ruler Vira Ballala Ⅲ. He was defeated and a huge booty was seized and sent to Delhi. Kafur then marched against the Pandyas. Vira Pandya fled the capital Madurai and Kafur seized enormous wealth from the Pandya kingdom. According to Amir Khusrau, Malik Kafur reached as far as Rameshwaram, built a mosque there and returned to Delhi with huge wealth. Alauddin honoured Malik Kafur by appointing him Naib Malik of the empire.
• Alauddin Khalji died in c. 1316 CE. Although the Sultan was illiterate, he patronized poets like Amir Hasan and Amir Khusrau. He built a famous gateway known as Alai Darwaza and constructed a new capital at Siri. Alauddin assumed the title of Sikander-i-Azam and gave the title of Tuti-i-Hind to Amir Khusrau.

Administration of Alauddin Khalji

• Military Reforms – Alauddin Khalji maintained a large permanent standing army and paid them in cash from the royal treasury. According to historian Ferishta, he recruited 4,75,000 cavalrymen. He introduced the system of dagh (branding of horses) and prepared huliya (descriptive list  of soldiers). In order to have maximum efficiency, a strict review of the army from time to time was carried out.
• Market Reforms  – Alauddin established four separate markets in Delhi, one for grain (mandi); another for cloth, sugar, dried fruits, oil and butter; third for horses, cattle and slaves and the fourth market for miscellaneous commodities. Each market was under the control of a high officer called Shahna-i-Mandi . The supply of grain was ensured by holding stocks in government storehouses. There were regulations in place to fix the price of all commodities. A separate department called Diwan-i-Riyasat was created under an officer called Naib-i-Riyasat . Every merchant was registered under the market department. There were secret agents called munhiyans who sent reports to the Sultan regarding the functioning of these markets. The Sultan also sent slave boys to buy various commodities to check prices. Any violation of the Sultan’s orders resulted in severe punishment. No hoarding was permissible and even during famines, the same price was maintained.
• Land Revenue Administration – Alauddin took important steps in the land revenue administration. He was the first sultan of Delhi who ordered measurement of land. Land revenue was collected in cash which enabled the Sultan to pay the soldiers in cash. His land revenue reforms provided a basis for the future reforms of Sher Shah and Akbar. The state officer measured the land and fixed land revenue accordingly.

Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (c. 1316 – 1320 CE)

• After the death of Alauddin Khalji, Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (one of the sons of Alauddin) ascended the throne. He abolished all the harsh regulations of his father. He was not able to run the administration efficiently and was murdered.

Nasiruddin Khusrau Shah (c. 1320 CE)

• He killed Mubarak Shah. His reign did not last long. The governor of Dipalpur, Ghazi Malik killed Khusrau Shah and ascended the throne of Delhi under the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in c. 1320 CE.
• He was the only Hindu convert to sit on the throne of Delhi . 

Tughluq Dynasty  (c. 1320 – 1414 CE): Delhi Sultanate

This dynasty is also called Qaraunah Turks, as the father of Ghazi Malik was a Qaraunah Turk in origin.

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq/Ghazi Malik (c. 1320 – 1325 CE)

• Founder of the Tughlaq dynasty.
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq laid the foundation for Tughlaqabad (a strong fort) near Delhi .
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent his son Jauna Khan/Muhammad bin Tughlaq against Warangal (Kakatiyas) and Madurai (Pandyas).
• His relationship with the Sufi saint Sheikh Nizam ud din Aulia was not cordial.
• It is believed that Jauna Khan treacherously killed his father and ascended the throne with the title Muhammad bin Tughlaq in c. 1325 CE.

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq/Jauna Khan (c. 1325 – 1351 CE)

• He was a very interesting character in the history of medieval times because of his ambitious schemes and novel experiments. However, his novel experiments and enterprises failed miserably as they were far ahead of their time.
• Transfer of Capital – Muhammad bin Tughlaq wanted to shift his capital from Delhi to Devagiri so that he might be able to control south India better. He forcibly moved the entire population to the new capital, Devagiri which was renamed as Daulatabad . After two years, the Sultan abandoned Daulatabad and shifted back to Delhi due to the scarcity of water supply in Daulatabad. The distance between the two places was more than 1500 kilometres and many people died during the rigorous journey in summer.
• Token Currency – In c. 1329 CE, Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced a token currency, made of copper to replace gold and silver coins . It was modelled based on the Chinese example (Kublai Khan issued paper money in China). Very few people exchanged gold/silver for copper and the tokens were easy to forge which led to heavy losses. Later on, Muhammad bin Tughlaq repealed his verdict and all coins were redeemed in gold/silver, making the treasury empty.
• Taxation in Doab – The failure of the above two experiments resulted in a huge loss of money. In order to improve the financial condition , Muhammad bin Tughlaq increased the land revenue on the farmers of the doab land between the Ganga and Yamuna rivers . It was an excessive and arbitrary step on the farmers. A severe famine struck the region at that time which made the farmers revolt. However, the harsh steps taken by Muhammad bin Tughlaq crushed the revolt.
• Agricultural Reforms – He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans (loans for cultivation) were given to the farmers to buy seeds and to extend cultivation. He set up a separate department for agriculture, Diwan-i-amir-Kohi . A model farm under the state was created in an area of 64 square miles for which the government spent around seventy lakh tankas. This experiment was further continued by Firoz Tughlaq.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the only Delhi Sultan who had received a comprehensive literary, religious and philosophical education .
• He was very tolerant in religious matters. He maintained diplomatic relations with far off countries like Iran, Egypt and China. The famous traveller Ibn Batuta (author of Safarnama Rehla) visited India during this period (c. 1334 CE) and was appointed Qazi at Delhi for a period of eight years.
• During the latter part of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign, the kingdom witnessed a spate of rebellions by the nobles and provincial governors. The Sultanate of Madurai was established due to the rebellion of Hassan Shah . In c. 1336 CE, the  Vijaynagara kingdom was founded. In c. 1347 CE, the Bahmani kingdom was established. The governors of Sindh, Multan and Oudh rose in revolt against the authority of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. In Gujarat, Taghi revolted against the Sultan who spent nearly three years chasing him.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in c.1351 CE due to the worsening of his health condition. According to Baduani, the Sultan was freed from his people and the people from the Sultan . According to Barani, Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a mixture of opposites. His reign marked the beginning of the process of its decline.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (c. 1351 – 1388 CE)

• After the death of Muhammad bin Tughlaq in c.1351 CE, Firoz Shah Tughlaq was chosen as the  Sultan by the nobles .
• He appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin convert as wazir (Prime Minister) . He helped the Sultan in his administration and maintained the prestige of the Sultanate during this period.

Military Campaigns  

• After ascending the throne, he focussed on strengthening his position over north India instead of claiming his authority over south India and Deccan. He led two expeditions to Bengal which were unsuccessful and as a result, Bengal became free from the control of the Delhi Sultanate .
• Firoz Shah Tughlaq also attacked Jajnagar (modern Orissa) and collected large booty from the temples (such as the Puri Jagannath temple). He also marched against Nagarkot and made its ruler pay tributes. During this campaign, Firoz Shah collected 1300 Sanskrit manuscripts from the Jwalamukhi temple library and Arizuddin Khan translated these into the Persian language. Firoz Shah then marched against Thatta (Sindh region) and crushed a rebellion there. 

Administrative Reforms  

• He ran his administration in accordance with the advice of the ulemas . He pleased the nobles and assured hereditary succession to their properties. Thus, the iqta system was revived and was also made hereditary. 
• He levied taxes as per the teachings of Islam. Jiziya was imposed on non-Muslims . The special tax on 28 items was discarded by him since they were against the laws of Islam. He showed intolerance towards Shia Muslims and Sufis. He regarded Hindus as second-grade citizens and in this respect, he was the precursor of Sikander Lodi and Aurangzeb.
• He was the first sultan to impose an irrigation tax . But at the same time, he also built a number of irrigation canals and wells. The longest canal was about 200 km in length from Sutlej to Hansi. Another canal was between Yamuna and Hissar .
• During his reign, there were around 1200 fruit gardens in and around Delhi generating more revenue.
• He developed royal factories called karkhanas in which thousands of slaves were employed. He also increased the number of slaves by capturing the defeated soldiers and young persons. There were around one lakh eighty thousand slaves during his reign .
• New towns (around 300) were built during his reign. The famous one being Firozabad near Red Fort (now called Firoz Shah Kotla ). Monuments like Qutb Minar and Jama Masjid were repaired and Ashokan pillars from Meerut and Topara were brought to Delhi during his reign.
• Diwan-i-Khairat, a new department was established to support orphans and widows . Free hospitals like Dar-ul-Shifa and marriage bureaus for poor Muslims were also established.
• Firoz patronised scholars like Barani who wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shah, and Fatawa-i-Jahandari and Khwaja Abdul Malik Islami who wrote Futah-us- Sulatin. He himself authored the book, Futuhat-e-Firozshahi .
• Firoz Shah Tughlaq died in c. 1388 CE and after that, the struggle for power between the Sultan and nobles started again. His successors (like Muhammad Khan, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah Ⅱ, Abu Bakr Shah, Nasiruddin Muhammad) had to face the rebellions of the slaves created by Firoz.

In the following years, the Delhi Sultanate disintegrated and many provinces like Gujarat and Malwa declared independence. The invasion of Timur in c. 1398 CE , further aggravated the situation. Timur was a Mongol leader of Central Asia, and head of the Chagatai Turks . His kingdom stretched from lower Volga to river Indus, and included modern Turkey, Afghanistan, Transoxiana, Iran, and portions of Punjab. When Timur entered Delhi there was barely any opposition. He sacked Delhi for three days killing thousands of people and gathering huge wealth. He withdrew from India in c. 1399 CE and his invasion gave a death blow to the Tughlaq dynasty.

Sayyid Dynasty (c. 1414 – 1451 CE): Delhi Sultanate

Khizr Khan (c. 1414 – 1421 CE)

• Before Timur left India, he appointed Khizr Khan as governor of Multan. He captured Delhi and founded the Sayyid dynasty in c. 1414 CE. He did not adopt the title of Sultan and was content with Rayat-i-Ala.
• He is considered to be an important ruler of the Sayyid dynasty. He tried to consolidate the Delhi Sultanate but in vain. He died in c. 1421 CE. 

Mubarak Shah (c. 1421 – 1433 CE)

• Khizr Khan was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah.

Muhammad Shah (c. 1434 – 1443 CE)

• Muhammad Shah who succeeded Mubarak Shah was always busy acting against conspirators and gradually lost control over his nobles.
• Muhammad Shah died in c. 1445 CE and was succeeded by his son Alam Shah.

Alam Shah (c. 1445 – 1451 CE)

• He was the weakest among all Sayyid princes and proved to be incompetent.
• His wazir, Hamid Khan invited Bahlul Lodhi to take charge of the army. Alam Shah realised that it would be difficult to continue as a ruler, so he retired to Badaun.

Lodi Dynasty  (c. 1451 – 1526 CE)

The Lodhis/Lodis were the last ruling dynasty of the Sultanate period and the first to be headed by the Afghans , who ruled over Sirhind when the Sayyids ruled in India.

Bahlol Lodhi (c. 1451 – 1489 CE)

• He founded the Lodhi dynasty.
• In c. 1476 CE, he defeated the sultan of Jaunpur and annexed it to Delhi Sultanate. He also brought the ruler of Kalpi and Dholpur under the suzerainty of Delhi. He annexed the Sharqui dynasty and introduced Bahlol copper coins.
• He died in c. 1489 CE and was succeeded by his son, Sikander Lodhi.

Sikander Lodhi (c. 1489 – 1517 CE)

• He was the greatest of the three Lodhi sovereigns . He brought the whole of Bihar under his control and many Rajput chiefs were defeated. He attacked Bengal and forced its ruler to conclude a treaty with him and extended his kingdom from Punjab to Bihar .
• He was a good administrator, he built roads and many irrigation facilities were provided for the benefit of the peasantry.
• He introduced the Gazz-i-Sikandari , a new measurement yardstick and a system of auditing of accounts.
• Despite having applaudable qualities, he was a bigot and was intolerant towards non-Muslims. Many temples were destroyed and he re-imposed Jiziya on non-Muslims.
• In c. 1504 CE, he founded Agra and wrote Persian verses under the name Gulrakhi .

Ibrahim Lodhi ( c. 1517 – 1526 CE)

• Sikander Lodhi was succeeded by his eldest son, Ibrahim Lodhi who was an arrogant and repressive ruler. He insulted his nobles in the court and the ones who revolted were put to death. Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of Punjab was humiliated and disaffection between king and courtier became very common during his reign. Greatly displeased by the attitude of Ibrahim Lodhi, Daulat Khan Lodhi invited Babur to invade India . Babur marched against Delhi, defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat in c. 1526 CE. The Afghan kingdom thus lasted for only seventy-five years . 

Thus, the Sultanate of Delhi which had its birth on the battlefield of Tarain (c. 1192 CE), ended just a few miles away on the battlefield of Panipat (c. 1526 CE) .

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