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Pubrica offers specialized disease-based literature review services that provide comprehensive insights into various medical fields. Our reviews are meticulously crafted to support healthcare professionals, researchers, and academicians by presenting an in-depth analysis of the latest advancements, clinical trials, and therapeutic strategies related to specific diseases. Here’s an overview of the focused literature review services we provide in key medical areas:
We offer thorough literature reviews on the latest research in cardiovascular disease, including studies on heart disease mechanisms, novel diagnostic techniques, and advancements in treatment options. Our reviews help in understanding the evolving landscape of cardiovascular health and the efficacy of new interventions.
Our reviews provide detailed insights into cancer research, including emerging trends in oncology, the development of new chemotherapy agents, and innovative treatment methodologies like immunotherapy and targeted therapy. These reviews are essential for anyone involved in cancer treatment research or care.
We conduct comprehensive reviews of the current state of research on neurological disorders such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and multiple sclerosis. Our reviews cover diagnostic advancements, management strategies, and therapeutic approaches, offering valuable information for clinical decision-making and research planning.
Category | Details |
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What do we know: Current Knowledge | Multiple genes with varying penetrance are linked to breast cancer predisposition. - Genome-wide screens and somatic genetic studies are uncovering additional breast cancer-related genes. |
What are the Gaps? Knowledge Gaps | In-depth understanding of BRCA1 and BRCA2 functions. - Insight into large-scale genetic rearrangements in tumor cells. - Identification of impactful variations and interactions in low-penetrance genes. - Further discovery of point mutations and epigenetic alterations. |
Challenges | Quality, quantity, and accessibility of research materials. - Funding constraints for large-scale experiments, including sequencing and use of expensive equipment. - Skills in bioinformatic analysis. |
Translational Implications | Classification of breast tumors based on disrupted signalling pathways to forecast prognosis and therapy responses. - Assessing the impact of somatic events on prognosis and treatment outcomes. - Development of new, targeted treatments from discovered targets. - Enhanced genetic risk estimation methods. |
Recommendations | Promote research techniques for integrated analysis of sequencing, epigenetic, and large-scale somatic changes. - Participation in national initiatives for high-throughput re-sequencing and control studies. - Support research focused on intermediate phenotypes. |
Category | Details |
---|---|
What do we know: Current Knowledge | Multiple genes with varying penetrance are linked to breast cancer predisposition. - Genome-wide screens and somatic genetic studies are uncovering additional breast cancer-related genes. |
What are the Gaps? Knowledge Gaps | In-depth understanding of BRCA1 and BRCA2 functions. - Insight into large-scale genetic rearrangements in tumor cells. - Identification of impactful variations and interactions in low-penetrance genes. - Further discovery of point mutations and epigenetic alterations. |
Challenges | Quality, quantity, and accessibility of research materials. - Funding constraints for large-scale experiments, including sequencing and use of expensive equipment. - Skills in bioinformatic analysis. |
Translational Implications | Classification of breast tumors based on disrupted signalling pathways to forecast prognosis and therapy responses. - Assessing the impact of somatic events on prognosis and treatment outcomes. - Development of new, targeted treatments from discovered targets. - Enhanced genetic risk estimation methods. |
Recommendations | Promote research techniques for integrated analysis of sequencing, epigenetic, and large-scale somatic changes. - Participation in national initiatives for high-throughput re-sequencing and control studies. - Support research focused on intermediate phenotypes. |
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1 Centre for Functional and Evolutionary Ecology (CEFE), CNRS, Montpellier, France
2 Centre for Biodiversity Synthesis and Analysis (CESAB), FRB, Aix-en-Provence, France
Literature reviews are in great demand in most scientific fields. Their need stems from the ever-increasing output of scientific publications [1] . For example, compared to 1991, in 2008 three, eight, and forty times more papers were indexed in Web of Science on malaria, obesity, and biodiversity, respectively [2] . Given such mountains of papers, scientists cannot be expected to examine in detail every single new paper relevant to their interests [3] . Thus, it is both advantageous and necessary to rely on regular summaries of the recent literature. Although recognition for scientists mainly comes from primary research, timely literature reviews can lead to new synthetic insights and are often widely read [4] . For such summaries to be useful, however, they need to be compiled in a professional way [5] .
When starting from scratch, reviewing the literature can require a titanic amount of work. That is why researchers who have spent their career working on a certain research issue are in a perfect position to review that literature. Some graduate schools are now offering courses in reviewing the literature, given that most research students start their project by producing an overview of what has already been done on their research issue [6] . However, it is likely that most scientists have not thought in detail about how to approach and carry out a literature review.
Reviewing the literature requires the ability to juggle multiple tasks, from finding and evaluating relevant material to synthesising information from various sources, from critical thinking to paraphrasing, evaluating, and citation skills [7] . In this contribution, I share ten simple rules I learned working on about 25 literature reviews as a PhD and postdoctoral student. Ideas and insights also come from discussions with coauthors and colleagues, as well as feedback from reviewers and editors.
How to choose which topic to review? There are so many issues in contemporary science that you could spend a lifetime of attending conferences and reading the literature just pondering what to review. On the one hand, if you take several years to choose, several other people may have had the same idea in the meantime. On the other hand, only a well-considered topic is likely to lead to a brilliant literature review [8] . The topic must at least be:
Ideas for potential reviews may come from papers providing lists of key research questions to be answered [9] , but also from serendipitous moments during desultory reading and discussions. In addition to choosing your topic, you should also select a target audience. In many cases, the topic (e.g., web services in computational biology) will automatically define an audience (e.g., computational biologists), but that same topic may also be of interest to neighbouring fields (e.g., computer science, biology, etc.).
After having chosen your topic and audience, start by checking the literature and downloading relevant papers. Five pieces of advice here:
The chances are high that someone will already have published a literature review ( Figure 1 ), if not exactly on the issue you are planning to tackle, at least on a related topic. If there are already a few or several reviews of the literature on your issue, my advice is not to give up, but to carry on with your own literature review,
The bottom-right situation (many literature reviews but few research papers) is not just a theoretical situation; it applies, for example, to the study of the impacts of climate change on plant diseases, where there appear to be more literature reviews than research studies [33] .
When searching the literature for pertinent papers and reviews, the usual rules apply:
If you read the papers first, and only afterwards start writing the review, you will need a very good memory to remember who wrote what, and what your impressions and associations were while reading each single paper. My advice is, while reading, to start writing down interesting pieces of information, insights about how to organize the review, and thoughts on what to write. This way, by the time you have read the literature you selected, you will already have a rough draft of the review.
Of course, this draft will still need much rewriting, restructuring, and rethinking to obtain a text with a coherent argument [11] , but you will have avoided the danger posed by staring at a blank document. Be careful when taking notes to use quotation marks if you are provisionally copying verbatim from the literature. It is advisable then to reformulate such quotes with your own words in the final draft. It is important to be careful in noting the references already at this stage, so as to avoid misattributions. Using referencing software from the very beginning of your endeavour will save you time.
After having taken notes while reading the literature, you will have a rough idea of the amount of material available for the review. This is probably a good time to decide whether to go for a mini- or a full review. Some journals are now favouring the publication of rather short reviews focusing on the last few years, with a limit on the number of words and citations. A mini-review is not necessarily a minor review: it may well attract more attention from busy readers, although it will inevitably simplify some issues and leave out some relevant material due to space limitations. A full review will have the advantage of more freedom to cover in detail the complexities of a particular scientific development, but may then be left in the pile of the very important papers “to be read” by readers with little time to spare for major monographs.
There is probably a continuum between mini- and full reviews. The same point applies to the dichotomy of descriptive vs. integrative reviews. While descriptive reviews focus on the methodology, findings, and interpretation of each reviewed study, integrative reviews attempt to find common ideas and concepts from the reviewed material [12] . A similar distinction exists between narrative and systematic reviews: while narrative reviews are qualitative, systematic reviews attempt to test a hypothesis based on the published evidence, which is gathered using a predefined protocol to reduce bias [13] , [14] . When systematic reviews analyse quantitative results in a quantitative way, they become meta-analyses. The choice between different review types will have to be made on a case-by-case basis, depending not just on the nature of the material found and the preferences of the target journal(s), but also on the time available to write the review and the number of coauthors [15] .
Whether your plan is to write a mini- or a full review, it is good advice to keep it focused 16 , 17 . Including material just for the sake of it can easily lead to reviews that are trying to do too many things at once. The need to keep a review focused can be problematic for interdisciplinary reviews, where the aim is to bridge the gap between fields [18] . If you are writing a review on, for example, how epidemiological approaches are used in modelling the spread of ideas, you may be inclined to include material from both parent fields, epidemiology and the study of cultural diffusion. This may be necessary to some extent, but in this case a focused review would only deal in detail with those studies at the interface between epidemiology and the spread of ideas.
While focus is an important feature of a successful review, this requirement has to be balanced with the need to make the review relevant to a broad audience. This square may be circled by discussing the wider implications of the reviewed topic for other disciplines.
Reviewing the literature is not stamp collecting. A good review does not just summarize the literature, but discusses it critically, identifies methodological problems, and points out research gaps [19] . After having read a review of the literature, a reader should have a rough idea of:
It is challenging to achieve a successful review on all these fronts. A solution can be to involve a set of complementary coauthors: some people are excellent at mapping what has been achieved, some others are very good at identifying dark clouds on the horizon, and some have instead a knack at predicting where solutions are going to come from. If your journal club has exactly this sort of team, then you should definitely write a review of the literature! In addition to critical thinking, a literature review needs consistency, for example in the choice of passive vs. active voice and present vs. past tense.
Like a well-baked cake, a good review has a number of telling features: it is worth the reader's time, timely, systematic, well written, focused, and critical. It also needs a good structure. With reviews, the usual subdivision of research papers into introduction, methods, results, and discussion does not work or is rarely used. However, a general introduction of the context and, toward the end, a recapitulation of the main points covered and take-home messages make sense also in the case of reviews. For systematic reviews, there is a trend towards including information about how the literature was searched (database, keywords, time limits) [20] .
How can you organize the flow of the main body of the review so that the reader will be drawn into and guided through it? It is generally helpful to draw a conceptual scheme of the review, e.g., with mind-mapping techniques. Such diagrams can help recognize a logical way to order and link the various sections of a review [21] . This is the case not just at the writing stage, but also for readers if the diagram is included in the review as a figure. A careful selection of diagrams and figures relevant to the reviewed topic can be very helpful to structure the text too [22] .
Reviews of the literature are normally peer-reviewed in the same way as research papers, and rightly so [23] . As a rule, incorporating feedback from reviewers greatly helps improve a review draft. Having read the review with a fresh mind, reviewers may spot inaccuracies, inconsistencies, and ambiguities that had not been noticed by the writers due to rereading the typescript too many times. It is however advisable to reread the draft one more time before submission, as a last-minute correction of typos, leaps, and muddled sentences may enable the reviewers to focus on providing advice on the content rather than the form.
Feedback is vital to writing a good review, and should be sought from a variety of colleagues, so as to obtain a diversity of views on the draft. This may lead in some cases to conflicting views on the merits of the paper, and on how to improve it, but such a situation is better than the absence of feedback. A diversity of feedback perspectives on a literature review can help identify where the consensus view stands in the landscape of the current scientific understanding of an issue [24] .
In many cases, reviewers of the literature will have published studies relevant to the review they are writing. This could create a conflict of interest: how can reviewers report objectively on their own work [25] ? Some scientists may be overly enthusiastic about what they have published, and thus risk giving too much importance to their own findings in the review. However, bias could also occur in the other direction: some scientists may be unduly dismissive of their own achievements, so that they will tend to downplay their contribution (if any) to a field when reviewing it.
In general, a review of the literature should neither be a public relations brochure nor an exercise in competitive self-denial. If a reviewer is up to the job of producing a well-organized and methodical review, which flows well and provides a service to the readership, then it should be possible to be objective in reviewing one's own relevant findings. In reviews written by multiple authors, this may be achieved by assigning the review of the results of a coauthor to different coauthors.
Given the progressive acceleration in the publication of scientific papers, today's reviews of the literature need awareness not just of the overall direction and achievements of a field of inquiry, but also of the latest studies, so as not to become out-of-date before they have been published. Ideally, a literature review should not identify as a major research gap an issue that has just been addressed in a series of papers in press (the same applies, of course, to older, overlooked studies (“sleeping beauties” [26] )). This implies that literature reviewers would do well to keep an eye on electronic lists of papers in press, given that it can take months before these appear in scientific databases. Some reviews declare that they have scanned the literature up to a certain point in time, but given that peer review can be a rather lengthy process, a full search for newly appeared literature at the revision stage may be worthwhile. Assessing the contribution of papers that have just appeared is particularly challenging, because there is little perspective with which to gauge their significance and impact on further research and society.
Inevitably, new papers on the reviewed topic (including independently written literature reviews) will appear from all quarters after the review has been published, so that there may soon be the need for an updated review. But this is the nature of science [27] – [32] . I wish everybody good luck with writing a review of the literature.
Many thanks to M. Barbosa, K. Dehnen-Schmutz, T. Döring, D. Fontaneto, M. Garbelotto, O. Holdenrieder, M. Jeger, D. Lonsdale, A. MacLeod, P. Mills, M. Moslonka-Lefebvre, G. Stancanelli, P. Weisberg, and X. Xu for insights and discussions, and to P. Bourne, T. Matoni, and D. Smith for helpful comments on a previous draft.
This work was funded by the French Foundation for Research on Biodiversity (FRB) through its Centre for Synthesis and Analysis of Biodiversity data (CESAB), as part of the NETSEED research project. The funders had no role in the preparation of the manuscript.
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Definition: A literature review is a systematic examination and synthesis of existing scholarly research on a specific topic or subject.
Purpose: It serves to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge within a particular field.
Analysis: Involves critically evaluating and summarizing key findings, methodologies, and debates found in academic literature.
Identifying Gaps: Aims to pinpoint areas where there is a lack of research or unresolved questions, highlighting opportunities for further investigation.
Contextualization: Enables researchers to understand how their work fits into the broader academic conversation and contributes to the existing body of knowledge.
tl;dr A literature review critically examines and synthesizes existing scholarly research and publications on a specific topic to provide a comprehensive understanding of the current state of knowledge in the field.
❌ An annotated bibliography
❌ Original research
❌ A summary
❌ Something to be conducted at the end of your research
❌ An opinion piece
❌ A chronological compilation of studies
The reason for conducting a literature review is to:
What has been written about your topic? What is the evidence for your topic? What methods, key concepts, and theories relate to your topic? Are there current gaps in knowledge or new questions to be asked? | |
Bring your reader up to date Further your reader's understanding of the topic | |
Provide evidence of... - your knowledge on the topic's theory - your understanding of the research process - your ability to critically evaluate and analyze information - that you're up to date on the literature |
While this 9-minute video from NCSU is geared toward graduate students, it is useful for anyone conducting a literature review.
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Speaker 1: One of the most frequently asked questions that I am asked all the time across my social media platforms, across my YouTube, across my comments, is about the research process. So how do you start? Where do you even begin? You need to submit a dissertation, you need to submit a research proposal, you need to think of a hypothesis, you need to think of a problem statement, you need to find a gap in literature where do you even begin with the whole research process now it isn't as hard as it seems it's just one of those things that you're never told or you're never taught how to do it's one of those things that you just kind of figure out so hopefully in today's video i will be talking to you about the overview and kind of a quick beginner's guide to the research process, giving you the steps of how you get from zero to having something, having a question, having a hypothesis, having somewhere to start. I'm going to be making this into a bit of a series so in today's video I'm going to be giving you an overview as to the different chapters, the different sections of the process, how you get from nothing to something and then in the following videos I will be going through each of those sections in a bit more detail and hopefully if you are someone who is within one of those kind of parts you can just jump to that video and have a have a quick quick watch if you are someone who is just starting off then this is the best place for you to begin have a little think about how you're going to navigate your research process and how you're going to get from the start to the end it is not difficult but it does require a few steps, a few technicalities, which I'll talk you through today. I'll leave the timestamps down below so you feel free to go and jump to the different sections that you are interested in watching. And if you do enjoy this kind of video and you want to see the rest of the videos from me, then don't forget to subscribe to see more on my channel. So step number one is to choose a topic. Now this is the beginning of something beautiful. This is where you choose what you're actually going to be studying and when you're actually going to be reading about now it's really important that you have chosen a topic that you are interested in that there is an interest in within the research space that has something missing so you don't want to choose a topic that we know everything about you want to choose a topic that we don't know everything about and there are things that we want to try to find more about you want to choose a topic that is within your university guidelines so as much as i would love to do a research on the solar system about space well if my course is to do with cell biology well then i can't so you have to think about your limits think about what you are allowed to do within your university guidelines as well but you do need to think about taking that broad topic and making it into something a bit more narrow so it's not good enough to just say i want to do research on alzheimer's okay alzheimer's fine you've got a topic, but you now need to narrow it down. So what about it are you looking at? Are you looking at the risk factors? Are you looking at what happens once you have Alzheimer's? Are you looking at a specific group of people? Are you looking at a specific cell type? What is it that you are looking at? You need to narrow that down. In order to narrow it down, you need to do a bit of a literature search. So whilst choosing a topic, whilst in this first stage, you need to look at literature. So to find literature you want to go to different websites where you have literature and this could be for example Google Scholar is a good place to start, PubMed is a good place to start. These are places where you can find literature about that topic and kind of read around the subject and identify whether firstly is it something that you are actually interested in and secondly is there enough information for you to gather to be able to write your literature review in the future so that first step your first step of your research process is thinking about the topic because without a topic you there's nothing you can't do anything else so the first step has to always be to find a topic and think about it now once you've thought about a topic and you've narrowed it down to the thing that you're interested in at this stage you will then go to your supervisor to your lecturer to your professor to your mentor to your tutor and you will ask them do you think this is a good topic and that is where you will get some feedback and most likely you'll have to go back have another think or try to refine a bit more or try to think about it in a different way but that is always the first step. In the video that I make about finding a good topic we'll talk about it in a lot more depth but to start off with to introduce this is always the first step. So the second step is to identify a problem and this is what we like to call in as you know in research the gap in literature. So a problem slash gap in literature is the part of research that we that is missing. So when you do research in fact in order to graduate from a PhD you have to and this is one of the criteria you have to produce research it has to be in a thesis or in a in a published paper it has to be research it has to be a finding that is new something that we do not know before we did not know before your research right and that is the number one criteria for for actually getting a phd it is the fact that it has to be something new has to be something novel that you have discovered okay so you need to think about the gap in literature where is there a missing piece i understand this i understand that we know this we know that but what is there that we don't quite know and that is the bit that you are then going to try to identify during your research process right chosen a topic now we need to find the problem where is the missing information now in order to do this you need to have read a lot of papers around your topic. So that's why I said initially, you need to have had approval from your committee, from your tutor, your supervisor to say, right, that's okay. It's good for me to go there. Now you've got that topic that you're looking at. You then want to try to find the gap. Where are you going to slot in? What is it that you are going to provide in terms of knowledge? Now, the identifying a problem is actually quite an important and quite critical part of the research process it's almost impossible you to continue on with your research without having identified the problem because if you don't have a problem you don't know what it is you're looking at you don't know what methods you're using you don't know what your research question is going to be or your hypothesis so at this stage you have to have a very well-defined research problem and your question in order to continue on to the next steps so when i say research problem and we'll talk about this more in in the following video that i'm going to produce about it but when i talk about research problem it could be a number of different things so it could be that we understand or we have the knowledge of a certain situation but now you're comparing it to a different situation so it could be more theoretical where you're comparing two things to each other that haven't been compared before so that would be fine as long as what you have is something original or you may be trying to explore a specific relationship let's say for example in my case with my PhD I was looking at two different proteins and the relationship between them so that is one type of research that you can do as well and so just think about your topic and think about where the gap is in the literature you have to read a lot to be able to find this and a question I get a lot emailed to me and directed to me is about this problem so how do I find a problem like how do i find a gap in literature and it's almost impossible for me to to give you any answers because i have to have read all the papers within your topic in order to answer that question which is almost impossible so it's something that you have to do independently and you can always discuss with me you can discuss kind of trying to refine that question but for the most part you need to read around your subject yourself to get that question then step number three is to actually write down your research question now this is usually in the form maybe of a hypothesis or maybe it could be just a you know a standalone question so this is just you saying this is what i'm looking at so i'm looking at whether actin and myosin bind together to have an impact on the motility of the cortex like that is my question and then i'll have a hypothesis saying actin and myosin bind together and they do this so this is just my question and you're just following on from your problem so you've identified your topic you found the problem the gap in literature and then you write down what your question is so what it is exactly that you are looking for and this will be like your guiding star this will be the thing the question the statement that you have at the top you know at the top of your mind whenever you are looking at literature whenever you're writing a literature review whenever you speak to someone you have that question in mind and so that needs to be something that's really well defined it should also be really specific so it can't just be saying is obesity caused by i don't know fatty food i'm just giving a random example that is too vague is obesity in children in male in female different ages what fatty foods what like you need to be very very specific so specific that someone else should be able to pick up your research question and know what it is you're looking at they need to be able to know sort of what methods you're using is it qualitative or is it quantitative what type of research are you actually doing that should really be in the research question so a good research question is one where that is really well defined then step number four is to write a research design so this is where you're kind of creating a bit of a method a bit of a process within a process so you are now writing down and you're now thinking about how you're going to conduct this research so to follow this will be the research proposal but at this stage here you're just thinking about your research design so how are you going to get this research done what are the factors that you need to think about who are the people the participants that you may need are you doing a lab-based thing do you need cells are you you know what do you need humans do you need animals is it just a review paper so do you just need to think about researchers out there what kind of study are you going to conduct in order to find out the results and the answer to your question essentially the research design is a practical framework so it's giving laying out that frame for you in order to answer your research question. And here, it's more of a thinking process. It's more of a discussion. You might want to ask your supervisor, you might want to ask your tutor to talk about it. How are we going to get the answer to this question? And then to finish off the research process, you now want to write a research proposal. And I have a really good video about this, and I'll leave the link for it down below, where you are detailing all the steps for your research so you're detailing your the background of your research the literature review and you're justifying that there is a need for this research you then want to detail your methods your materials the aim your you know your timeline how long it's going to take you to do these things and then that document is what you take with you to your supervisor and say look this is my research proposal you might take it to a potential phd supervisor and say look this is what i've found and this is what i'm really interested in and here is the proposal and you have it all outlined there for you or it's a document that you're able to use in order to build upon your dissertation and so if you're writing an essay dissertation you are able to use that as well so with your research proposal you are detailing the context you are detailing the purpose the plan and your aims the whole process going from finding a topic finding a problem finding the research question defining the actual research and then now you're compiling all of that and you're putting it into a document called the research proposal and all of this information is in there someone should be able to pick that up see what you found find the review of the literature and say right this is a good study this is a good bit of research we are going to approve this and then you can go on and plan the rest of your research so i hope this video helped you summarizing the steps of the research process to begin with and as i mentioned i'm going to be doing each of these five steps as single videos so i can expand on them and i'll make it into a playlist so you're able to sort of follow up and click on the next couple videos but for now i hope this did help with thinking about the research process and thinking about maybe what stage you are at if you are at any of them if you do want further support you can contact me on thepagedoctor.com where i give support and we have a team of consultants top consultants and top editors that can support you through the process of writing your research proposal or even through the post process of thinking about how you're going to find a gap in literature how you're going to find you know your hypothesis and define that for you so don't forget to leave me a comment and let me know if this was helpful and don't forget to leave me a thumbs up and subscribe to see more from me and I'll see you in my next one. Bye.
Verbs are direct, vigorous communicators. Use a chosen verb tense consistently throughout the same and adjacent paragraphs of a paper to ensure smooth expression.
Use the following verb tenses to report information in APA Style papers.
|
|
|
---|---|---|
Literature review (or whenever discussing other researchers’ work) | Past | Martin (2020) addressed |
Present perfect | Researchers have studied | |
Method Description of procedure | Past | Participants took a survey |
Present perfect | Others have used similar approaches | |
Reporting of your own or other researchers’ results | Past | Results showed Scores decreased Hypotheses were not supported |
Personal reactions | Past | I felt surprised |
Present perfect | I have experienced | |
Present | I believe | |
Discussion of implications of results or of previous statements | Present | The results indicate The findings mean that |
Presentation of conclusions, limitations, future directions, and so forth | Present | We conclude Limitations of the study are Future research should explore |
Verb tense is covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 4.12 and the Concise Guide Section 2.12
Check your tone: Keeping it professional
When writing an APA Style paper, present ideas in a clear and straightforward manner. In this kind of scholarly writing, keep a professional tone.
The “no second-person” myth
Many writers believe the “no second-person” myth, which is that there is an APA Style guideline against using second-person pronouns such as “you” or “your.” On the contrary, you can use second-person pronouns in APA Style writing.
The “no first-person” myth
Whether expressing your own views or actions or the views or actions of yourself and fellow authors, use the pronouns “I” and “we.”
Navigating the not-so-hidden treasures of the APA Style website
This post links directly to APA Style topics of interest that users may not even know exist on the website.
Welcome, singular “they”
This blog post provides insight into how this change came about and provides a forum for questions and feedback.
Clayton Kincade
A photograph of Hillbilly Elegy by JD Vance. Bill Tompkins/Getty Images/Michael Ochs Archives hide caption
Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis , the 2016 memoir from Republican vice presidential nominee JD Vance, once again began flying off the shelves after former President Donald Trump named Vance as his running mate. Many have turned to the memoir to find out the story of Vance’s upbringing, a core part of why he’s on the Republican ticket to begin with. But the book also brings along a host of assumptions that many authors still find not to be true.
Pulitzer-winning author Barbara Kingsolver said she felt that it was her duty to tell a different story of Appalachian life than the one that Vance presented in the book.
“It used the same old victim-blaming trope. It was like a hero story: ‘I got out of here, I went to Yale,’” Kingsolver said of Vance. “‘But those lazy people, you know, just don't have ambitions. They don’t have brains. That’s why they’re stuck where they are.’ I disagree. And that’s my job, to tell a different story.”
Vance’s has been mired in controversy since its 2016 publication, especially by authors who cover the region. Vance, who writes that Appalachian culture “encourages social decay instead of counteracting it,” says this upbringing is central to his political ideology and thinking.
Many Appalachian authors, like Kingsolver, have worked tirelessly to combat what they feel is a misleading and even harmful depiction of the region. Her novel Demon Copperhead , a fictional window into the same communities, was named one of the New York Times ’ best books of the century just days ahead of the Republican National Convention. Last year, it won a Pulitzer Prize.
As hundreds of thousands more read about the plights of the Appalachian region, these authors are fighting back against what they describe as Vance’s assumed norms.
Vance writes in Hillbilly Elegy that he grew up most of his life in Middletown, Ohio, but spent summers and his free time until the age of 12 in Jackson, Ky. Vance adds that Jackson “was the one place that belonged to me.”
Vance’s first stop after the RNC was to a rally in Middletown, where he declared, “I love every one of you, and I love this town, and I'm so grateful to have been formed by it, because I wouldn't be who I was without it.”
Trump team responds after 'republicans for harris' call trump 'unfit' to be president.
But Vance’s claim to the area has created a cultural rift between him and those from Appalachia.
Kingsolver said that when she saw Vance’s recently resurfaced interview calling several Democrats “childless cat ladies who are miserable at their own lives and the choices that they’ve made,” it reaffirmed her disappointments with Hillbilly Elegy .
“When I read JD Vance’s memoir, I resented it all the way through. There was just something about it that kept telling me, he’s not from here, he doesn’t get us,” Kingsolver told NPR. “I thought, OK, you are not from here because when I think about my childhood, many of the most important women in my life who saved me, who took care of me, were childless women. It’s not just blood that defines community here.”
Republican Vice Presidential candidate Sen. JD Vance (R-OH) speaks at a campaign rally at VFW Post 92 on August 15, 2024 in New Kensington, Pennsylvania. Jeff Swensen/Getty Images hide caption
It’s not just Kingsolver who has an alternate narrative.
Meredith McCarroll and Anthony Harkins co-edited Appalachian Reckoning: A Region Responds to Hillbilly Elegy, a blend of scholarly, poetic and narrative rebuttals to Vance’s tale published in 2019.
Harkins, a professor of history at Western Kentucky University, said that Hillbilly Elegy loses its footing by generalizing one person’s narrative into a definitive account of the entire region.
“It’s totally legitimate for anybody to tell their own story and how they see it,” Harkins told NPR. “But to then present it as the story of Appalachia, to speak of a memoir of a culture, is problematic particularly because that region has so often been stereotyped and misrepresented through recent history.”
McCarroll, author of Unwhite: Appalachia, Race, and Film and an Appalachian native of Waynesville, N.C., said that the duo’s goal with the book was to spotlight a chorus of Appalachian voices in response to Elegy’s immense popularity, both existing on their own and in opposition to the text.
Npr staffers pick their favorite fiction reads of 2024.
“My inclination was to gather a lot of different voices, both that are challenging him but not speaking to him at all,” McCarroll told NPR. “It’s this weaving together of a lot of different authentic perspectives that can give a sense of how layered and complex this 13 state region is.”
McCarroll added that beyond Hillbilly Elegy, she wanted Appalachian Reckoning to counter the idea of Appalachia as a monolithic place.
“The back half of the book moved beyond Hillbilly Elegy, and really is just a collection of narratives from the region that you can’t read and come away thinking you understand Appalachia,” McCarroll said. “No one should say, ‘I read one book, and so I understand this region.’”
For these writers, telling the honest story of Appalachia is tantamount–even if they start difficult conversations.
Elizabeth Catte, historian and author of What You Are Getting Wrong About Appalachia, published in 2018, said that books about Appalachia fall short for her when authors lean on inauthentic stereotypes in pursuit of authenticity.
“Sometimes people try to make up for personal knowledge or experience or study of a region by laying a bunch of tropes on a book and calling it authentic,” Catte told NPR. “Sometimes you don’t get a sense that Appalachia has a history, that it’s just a place full of problems, but none of those problems have an origin, or the origin is uninteresting to the author.”
Vance’s story has resonated with conservatives and non-Appalachians alike. In the wake of the 2016 election, the book became an explanation of sorts for some liberals as to who Trump’s supporters were and how he managed to win the presidency. One op-ed described Bostonians as “ lapping up ” the tale.
JD Vance autographs a book after a rally on July 1, 2021, in Middletown, Ohio. Jeffrey Dean/AP hide caption
The book became a best-seller and later was adapted into a movie. But for those from the region, crucial pieces of the puzzle that Vance painted are missing.
Harkins said that when discussing Appalachian history, texts must keep economic context in mind, like Appalachia’s political and cultural history with coal , when thinking about how the past has turned into the present.
“You can’t speak about the experience of Appalachia in the last hundred years without thinking about the massive effects that economic change have brought to it, in a place that is often the product of extractive industry, whether it’s lumbering or coal or fracking,” Harkins said. “One of the concerns I have with seeing it through the prism of Hillbilly Elegy is often that most of that stuff is not part of the story.”
Vance’s politics might not land with all readers, but he focused much of his Republican National Convention speech, which he gave just two days after being named to the ticket, on his relationship with his mom and grandma. These relationships are where these authors have found a common ground. For Kingsolver’s fictional quest, it was similarly important to keep Demon’s humanity front and center, both for the reader and for herself.
“I was kind of scared to write this novel for several years because you can’t bludgeon people with sadness or with truths that are hard to bear,” Kingsolver said. “Unless you give it a really delicious package. You have to give people a reason to turn the page. You have to give people characters that they love and believe in, that they honestly start to care about as their friend.”
Kingsolver said that when Demon Copperhead won the Pulitzer Prize last year, Appalachia rejoiced like Appalachia does.
“It was like fireworks all up and down the mountain,” Kingsolver said. “So many people from here, even my mail carrier and the cashier at the grocery store, said, ‘This is amazing. We won.’”
The novel has appealed to more than Appalachians: It unanimously won the 2023’s Women Prize, and more recently, it ranked No. 1 on the New York Times ’ readers’ “Best Books of the Century” list–and No. 61 on the critics’ list.
McCarroll said that with novels coming out today like Demon Copperhead, it is hard to stay upset at the negative aspects of Hillbilly Elegy.
“What’s so exciting is that there are so many really diverse, beautiful stories that are really offering complicated perspectives, and so it’s like I don’t feel like I have to stay mad at Hillbilly Elegy ,” McCarroll said. “There’s a long history of Appalachian literature, too.”
McCarroll added that a variety of stories is important because they add texture to a region too often boxed into one corner.
“What a Black Appalachian coal miner in Pennsylvania is experiencing might be very different from a Mexican migrant worker in Western North Carolina is experiencing, which might be really different than what a third- or fourth-generation farmer who is white in Kentucky is experiencing,” McCarroll said.
Kingsolver said that when writing Demon Copperhead, it was important to combat assumptions made by mainstream media outlets about Appalachia.
“I think they miss our diversity. They think we’re all white, and we’re not. It was important for me to reflect that in this novel,” Kingsolver said. “I wanted it to be the great Appalachian novel that kind of puts our whole region in a context. We didn’t choose to have poverty and [high] unemployment. We didn’t ask for that. This came to us.”
Kingsolver added that it has been especially gratifying hearing from people whose perspective on Appalachia changed after reading her novel.
“I have heard from lots and lots and lots of people in other parts of the country who said, ‘This book asked me to evaluate my prejudices, and I thank you for that,’ ” Kingsolver said. “It’s amazing.”
When Kingsolver received news that she was at the top of the Times’ readers’ list last month, she said she had to “lie down on the floor” and think about its weight. Kingsolver said that a less obvious reward, though, was readers celebrating a story of an imperfect, wholly Appalachian character.
“I can’t even tell you how many people have written to tell me I’m still worried about Demon, I wake up at night worrying about him,” Kingsolver said. “As if he’s become their kid. He’s the world’s kid. That’s how you navigate it, that’s how you have to.”
Though Hillbilly Elegy might loom large once again, Appalachian authors, whether through fictional tales like Demon Copperhead or nonfiction deep dives like What You Are Getting Wrong About Appalachia, are finding strength in their resistance and dissent.
Reacting to news of being on the New York Times' list, Kingsolver wrote in an Instagram post:
“With a certain other ‘hillbilly’ book suddenly ascendant, my duty. No elegies here. Thank you.”
A previous version of this story mistakenly identified Anthony Harkins as an assistant professor in history at Western Kentucky University. Harkins is a professor of history. Additionally, an earlier version of this story incorrectly said Meredith McCarroll is a director at Bowdoin College. She no longer works there.
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Communication challenges for people with chronic aphasia: a systematic qualitative review of barriers and facilitators in local services.
2.1. search process, 2.2. data extraction and analysis, 3.1. study selection, 3.2. study characteristics, 3.3. methodological quality ratings, 3.4. reported barriers and facilitators, 4. discussion, 4.1. barriers and facilitators, 4.2. what can be done to catalyze the communicational participation of people with aphasia, 5. conclusions, limitations, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.
No. | Item | Guide and Description | Location (Lines) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Aim | State the research question the synthesis addresses. | 100 |
2 | Synthesis methodology | Identify the synthesis methodology or theoretical framework that underpins the synthesis, and describe the rationale for the choice of methodology. | 140–151 |
3 | Approach to searching | Indicate whether the search was pre-planned or iterative. | 109 |
4 | Inclusion criteria | Specify the inclusion/exclusion criteria. | 109–115 |
5 | Data sources | Describe the informational sources used, grey literature databases, relevant organisational websites, experts, information specialists, generic web searches, hand searching, reference lists) and when the searches were conducted; provide the rationale for using the data sources. | 105–108 |
6 | Electronic search strategy | Describe the literature search. | 116–118 |
7 | Study screening methods | Describe the process of study screening and sifting. | 118–123 |
8 | Study characteristics | Present the characteristics of the included studies. | 166–174 |
9 | Study selection results | Identify the number of studies screened and provide reasons for study exclusion. | 158–161 |
10 | Rationale for appraisal | Describe the rationale and approach used to appraise the included studies or selected findings. | 123–126 |
11 | Appraisal items | State the tools, frameworks, and criteria used to appraise the studies or selected findings. | 124–129 |
12 | Appraisal process | Indicate whether the appraisal was conducted independently by more than one reviewer and if consensus was required. | 127–129 |
13 | Appraisal results | Present the results of the quality assessment and indicate which articles, if any, were weighted/excluded based on the assessment and give the rationale. | 176–180, |
14 | Data extraction | Indicate which sections of the primary studies were analyzed and how the data were extracted from the primary studies. | 131–139 |
15 | Software | State the computer software used, if any. | No software used for analysis |
16 | Number of reviewers | Identify who was involved in coding and analysis. | 132–133 |
17 | Coding | Describe the process of the coding of data. | 140–151 |
18 | Study comparison | Describe how comparisons were made within and across studies. | 140–151 |
19 | Derivation of themes | Explain whether the process of deriving the themes or constructs was inductive or deductive. | 140–151 |
20 | Quotations | Provide quotations from the primary studies to illustrate themes/constructs and identify whether the quotations were participant quotations or the author’s interpretation. | and |
21 | Synthesis output | Present rich, compelling, and useful results that go beyond a summary of the primary studies. | and , |
Database | Keywords | Results | |
---|---|---|---|
Google Scholar | aphasi *|”aphasic person”|”language disorder”|”communication disorder”|”communication impairment” accessib *|”accessible communication”|”communication access”|”access program”|”access measure”|”universal access”|”universal design *”|”assistive technolog *”|”architectur * access *”|adapt *|signage|”social participation”|accommodat *|independen *|”inclusive society”|inclusi *|barriers|facilitators “public facilit *”|”public space *”|”financial institution *”|store *|shop *|museum *|transportation|restaurant * | 200 first results | |
CINAHL | In title and in abstract: (aphasi * OR (“language disorders” or “language impairment” or “specific language disorder”) OR “communicati * impairment” OR “acquired language disorder”) AND (accessib * OR communicati * N3 access * OR access * N3 program OR access * N3 measure OR universal access OR universal design OR assistive technolog * OR accomodations OR (barriers or obstacles or challenges) OR facilitators) AND (public facilit * OR public space OR communit * N3 participation OR social N3 participation) Criteria: All adults | 21 | |
MEDLINE | Searched via Ovid | In title and abstract: (aphasi * or language disorders or language impairment or specific language disorder or communicati * impairment or acquired language disorder) AND (accessib * or (communicati * adj3 access *) or (access * adj3 program) or (access * adj3 measure) or accomodations or barriers or obstacles or facilitators) AND (public facilit * or public space or (communit * adj3 participation) or (social adj3 participation)) | 10 |
PsycINFO | 22 | ||
ERIC | 1 | ||
Web of Science | (aphasi * OR “language disorders” OR “language impairment” OR “specific language disorder” OR “acquired language disorder” OR “communicati * impairment”) AND (accessib * OR “communicati * access *” OR “access * program” OR “access * measure” OR “universal access” OR “universal design” OR “assistive technolog *” OR accomodations OR barriers or obstacles or challenges OR facilitators) AND (“public facilit *” OR “public space” OR “communit * participation” OR “social participation”) Document types: Articles | 57 | |
Manually added references | 3 | ||
Total number of references | 314 | ||
Number of screened references (duplicates removed) | 269 |
Criterion | Ref. No. | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[ ] | [ ] | [ ] | [ ] | [ ] | [ ] | [ ] | [ ] | [ ] | |
Question/objective sufficiently described? | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
Study design evident and appropriate? | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 |
Context for the study clear? | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 |
Connection to a theoretical framework/wider body of knowledge? | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 |
Described sampling strategy relevant and justified? | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
Data collection methods clearly described and systematic? | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
Data analysis clearly described and systematic? | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
Use of verification procedure(s) to establish credibility? | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
Conclusion supported by the results? | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 |
Reflexivity of the account? | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
Click here to enlarge figure
Contextual Factors | Contextual Factor Category | Factor Subtype |
---|---|---|
Environmental factors | Societal factors | Societal knowledge |
Services | ||
Policies (e.g., municipal, governmental) | ||
Procedures | ||
Task characteristics (e.g., requiring writing) | ||
Financial matters | ||
Transportation | ||
Service characteristics | ||
Attitudinal factors | Other people’s actions | |
Other people’s attitudes | ||
Other people’s knowledge | ||
Other people’s characteristics | ||
Other people’s roles (e.g., caregiver) | ||
Animals (i.e., presence of animals in the immediate environment) | ||
Physical factors | Objects’ characteristics | |
Objects (e.g., phones) | ||
Acoustic characteristics | ||
Visual characteristics | ||
Spatial characteristics | ||
Physical environment characteristics (e.g., familiarity of the environment) | ||
Personal factors | Undefined | Undefined |
Ref. No. | Authors (Year) | Country | Accessibility Context | People with Aphasia | Data Collection Strategy | Methodological Quality [ ] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[ ] | Kim et al. (2023) | Canada | Local businesses | 9 | Interviews | 18/20 |
[ ] | Taylor et al. (2021) | Australia | Local businesses | 1 | Interview | 20/20 |
[ ] | Dalemans et al. (2010) | Netherlands | Local businesses | 13 | Interviews | 20/20 |
[ ] | Howe et al. (2008a) | Australia | Local businesses, public transportation | 25 | Interviews | 20/20 |
[ ] | Blonski et al. (2014) | Canada | Community centre with exercise programs | 10 | Interviews | 18/20 |
[ ] | Ashton et al. (2008) | Australia | Public transportation | 7 | Interviews and, observation | 17/20 |
[ ] | Anglade et al. (2019) | Canada | Local businesses | 6 | Observation | 15/20 |
[ ] | Howe et al. (2008b) | Australia | Local businesses | 10 | Observation | 19/20 |
[ ] | Le Dorze et al. (2014) | Canada | Local businesses | 17 | Discussion groups | 20/20 |
Category of Contextual Factors | Factor Subtype | Barriers | Facilitators |
---|---|---|---|
Societal factors | Societal knowledge | , , ]: ] , ] ]“The physical things… seem to get so many stories [in the media], but you hardly ever hear anything about… the brain people.” [ ] | ] ]“Understanding… Education about aphasia is the most important one.” [ ] |
Services | ]“Finished my speech therapy… devastated at home ‘cause… I didn’t know what to do from here.” [ ] | , ] ] ] ] , ] | |
Policies | ] | ] | |
Procedures | , , ] , , , ] ] | ] , ] ] | |
Task characteristics | ] ] | ] | |
Financial matters | ] | ] ] | |
Transportation | ] ] | ||
Attitudinal factors | Other people’s actions | , , ]; ]; , ]; , ]; ] , , , , ]“Just take time right. Just let me think right.” [ ] | , , , , , , ]; , ]; , , ] ] ] |
Other people’s attitudes | , , ]: , , ]“Treat you as if I’m stupid,” “Impatience… Number one [barrier],” “Doesn’t give you any respect” [ , , , , , ] | ] , , , , , , ]“Light-hearted attitude… makes you relax more.” [ ] | |
Other people’s knowledge | , , , , ]: ] | , , ]“Got to the situation where he knew that what I said wasn’t really what I meant.” [ ] | |
Other people’s characteristics | ] | , , ] | |
Other people’s roles | ]: ] | , , , , ] ] | |
Animals | ] | ||
Physical factors | Objects’ characteristics | , , ] ] ] | , ] |
Objects | ] | , ] , , ] | |
Acoustic characteristics | , , ] | , ] | |
Visual characteristics | ] | ||
Spatial characteristics | ] ] | , , ] ] | |
Physical environment characteristics | , ] ] ] |
Type of Personal Factors | Barriers | Facilitators |
---|---|---|
Motivation | , , ] , ] ] ]“if you don’t reach out, you get nothing; you get to stay alone, sitting in your corner.” [ ] | , , ] , , ] , ]: , , ] |
Physical and psychological conditions | ]: , ] ] , ]“I am embarrassed. People think that I am crazy, and I am not. I don’t dare to talk to strangers. I feel ashamed.” [ ] |
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Poirier, S.-È.; Voyer, L.-A.; Poulin, V.; Lamontagne, M.-E.; Monetta, L. Communication Challenges for People with Chronic Aphasia: A Systematic Qualitative Review of Barriers and Facilitators in Local Services. Disabilities 2024 , 4 , 616-631. https://doi.org/10.3390/disabilities4030038
Poirier S-È, Voyer L-A, Poulin V, Lamontagne M-E, Monetta L. Communication Challenges for People with Chronic Aphasia: A Systematic Qualitative Review of Barriers and Facilitators in Local Services. Disabilities . 2024; 4(3):616-631. https://doi.org/10.3390/disabilities4030038
Poirier, Sarah-Ève, Laurie-Anne Voyer, Valérie Poulin, Marie-Eve Lamontagne, and Laura Monetta. 2024. "Communication Challenges for People with Chronic Aphasia: A Systematic Qualitative Review of Barriers and Facilitators in Local Services" Disabilities 4, no. 3: 616-631. https://doi.org/10.3390/disabilities4030038
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Writing a Literature Review. A literature review is a document or section of a document that collects key sources on a topic and discusses those sources in conversation with each other (also called synthesis ). The lit review is an important genre in many disciplines, not just literature (i.e., the study of works of literature such as novels ...
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Examples of literature reviews. Step 1 - Search for relevant literature. Step 2 - Evaluate and select sources. Step 3 - Identify themes, debates, and gaps. Step 4 - Outline your literature review's structure. Step 5 - Write your literature review.
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As mentioned above, writing your literature review is a process, which I'll break down into three steps: Finding the most suitable literature. Understanding, distilling and organising the literature. Planning and writing up your literature review chapter. Importantly, you must complete steps one and two before you start writing up your chapter.
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The best proposals are timely and clearly explain why readers should pay attention to the proposed topic. It is not enough for a review to be a summary of the latest growth in the literature: the ...
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In a review of the literature, the writer provides an overview of the most important research and scholarship on a specific topic, problem, or question. (In this context, "literature" refers to the important scholarly sources on a topic, not fiction, poetry, or drama.) The lit review is often said to provide "a map of the field" or "a sense of ...
A literature review is a critical analysis and synthesis of existing research on a particular topic. It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge, identifies gaps, and highlights key findings in the literature. 1 The purpose of a literature review is to situate your own research within the context of existing scholarship ...
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Step 2: Identify the literature. Start by searching broadly. Literature for your review will typically be acquired through scholarly books, journal articles, and/or dissertations. Develop an understanding of what is out there, what terms are accurate and helpful, etc., and keep track of all of it with citation management tools.
A formal literature review is an evidence-based, in-depth analysis of a subject. There are many reasons for writing one and these will influence the length and style of your review, but in essence a literature review is a critical appraisal of the current collective knowledge on a subject. Rather than just being an exhaustive list of all that ...
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Literature reviews are in great demand in most scientific fields. Their need stems from the ever-increasing output of scientific publications .For example, compared to 1991, in 2008 three, eight, and forty times more papers were indexed in Web of Science on malaria, obesity, and biodiversity, respectively .Given such mountains of papers, scientists cannot be expected to examine in detail every ...
What is a literature review? Definition: A literature review is a systematic examination and synthesis of existing scholarly research on a specific topic or subject. Purpose: It serves to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge within a particular field. Analysis: Involves critically evaluating and summarizing key findings, methodologies, and debates found in ...
There are many different types of literature reviews from traditional literature reviews to rigorous systematic reviews. Each has its own methodology. Please review resources on this page and familiarize yourself with the task, commitment, and purpose of each before trying to decide on the type of review best fitting your research question.
Step 6: Write the literature review. When writing your review: Focus on your research question and the most pertinent studies. Pick an organizational structure, for example, themes, approaches, researchers, concepts, or methodologies. Ensure your citations and reference list are complete and follow an appropriate citation style.
Discover the essential steps of the research process in this beginner's guide. Learn how to choose a research topic, identify gaps in literature, formulate research questions, design your study, and write a compelling research proposal. Perfect for students and researchers at any stage.
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Hence, this systematic review was conducted to synthetize the barriers and facilitators for people with aphasia when using local services. Following the Enhancing Transparency in Reporting the Synthesis of Qualitative Research guidelines, five databases and Google Scholar were searched for the literature published through April 2024.