how to conduct library research

15 Steps to Good Research

• Define and articulate a research question (formulate a research hypothesis). How to Write a Thesis Statement (Indiana University)
• Identify possible sources of information in many types and formats. Georgetown University Library's Research & Course Guides
• Judge the scope of the project.
• Reevaluate the research question based on the nature and extent of information available and the parameters of the research project.
• Select the most appropriate investigative methods (surveys, interviews, experiments) and research tools (periodical indexes, databases, websites).
• Plan the research project. Writing Anxiety (UNC-Chapel Hill) Strategies for Academic Writing (SUNY Empire State College)
• Retrieve information using a variety of methods (draw on a repertoire of skills).
• Refine the search strategy as necessary.
• Write and organize useful notes and keep track of sources. Taking Notes from Research Reading (University of Toronto) Use a citation manager: Zotero or Refworks
• Evaluate sources using appropriate criteria. Evaluating Internet Sources
• Synthesize, analyze and integrate information sources and prior knowledge. Georgetown University Writing Center
• Revise hypothesis as necessary.
• Use information effectively for a specific purpose.
• Understand such issues as plagiarism, ownership of information (implications of copyright to some extent), and costs of information. Georgetown University Honor Council Copyright Basics (Purdue University) How to Recognize Plagiarism: Tutorials and Tests from Indiana University
• Cite properly and give credit for sources of ideas. MLA Bibliographic Form (7th edition, 2009) MLA Bibliographic Form (8th edition, 2016) Turabian Bibliographic Form: Footnote/Endnote Turabian Bibliographic Form: Parenthetical Reference Use a citation manager: Zotero or Refworks

Adapted from the Association of Colleges and Research Libraries "Objectives for Information Literacy Instruction" , which are more complete and include outcomes. See also the broader "Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education."

Getting Started with Library Research

Research needs and requirements vary with each assignment, project, or paper. Although there is no single “right” way to conduct research, certain methods and skills can make your research efforts more efficient and effective.

If you have questions or can’t find what you need,  ask a librarian .

Developing a Research Topic

All research starts with a question.

• Discuss your ideas with a librarian or with your professor.
• Formulate a research question and identify keywords.
• Search subject-focused encyclopedias, books, and journals to see what kind of information already exists on your topic. If you are having trouble finding information, you may need to change your search terms or ask for help.

Additional resources:

• Library Research at Cornell
• Research Guides

Using the Library to Find Research Materials

The Library is the top resource when it comes to locating and accessing research materials.

• Use the library catalog to find materials such as books, music, videos, journals, and audio recordings in our collections.
• Search databases to find articles, book chapters, and other sources within a specific subject area or discipline.
• For materials the Library does not own, use BorrowDirect or Interlibrary Loan for quick and easy access.
• Each library unit has unique collections and subject knowledge. See individual library websites for additional resources in specific subject areas.
• Check out our library research guides for lists of resources curated by library staff. Browse by subject or find guides specific to course offerings.

Evaluating Sources

When using a book, article, report, or website for your research, it is important to gauge how reliable the source is. Visit these research guides for more information:

• How to distinguish scholarly vs non-scholarly sources
• Tips for critically analyzing information sources
• Identify misinformation, disinformation, and propaganda

Citing Sources

When writing a research paper, it is important to cite the sources you used in a way that would enable a reader to easily find them.

• Citation Management
• How to Prepare an Annotated Bibliography
• Code of Academic Integrity

Mass Communication

7 steps to effective library research.

• Open Educational Resources (OER)
• Find an Article
• Journals and Magazines
• Primary and Secondary Resources
• Cite Sources

The following steps provide an effective strategy for conducting efficient and accurate library research.

STEP 1 

SELECT YOUR TOPIC

Before you can do any research, you need to be clear about what you are researching. A helpful way to clarify your topic is to state your topic in the form of a question.

Example Question : What effect does alcohol abuse have on college students?

Don't worry about being too general, you will refine your topic later.

STEP 2 

IDENTIFY KEY WORDS THAT DESCRIBE YOUR TOPIC

Make a list of words and terms that describe your topic. To this list add synonyms of those words and other terms related to your topic.

Example Keywords : alcohol abuse, college students

Example Related Words : alcoholism, binge drinking, young adults

This is a very important step because almost all your subsequent research will involve entering these words into various search engines (e.g. the library catalog to find books, a research database to find a journal article).

STEP 3 

FIND BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Begin your search with printed or online encyclopedias such as Credo Reference or Britannica Online, using the key words and related words that you identified as search terms in Steps 1 and 2. Articles in encyclopedias and similar sources will help you refine your topic. Note any relevant references to books, articles, and other information in the bibliographies at the end of the encyclopedia articles. You may want to use them in your research.

STEP 4 

USE ONLINE CATALOG TO FIND BOOKS

Using words that describe your topic (Identified in Steps 1 and 2 above), do a Keyword search to find books relevant to your topic in the library's  online catalog . Once you find appropriate materials, note the citation (author, title, etc.), call number, location, and circulation status of the book.

USE RESEARCH DATABASES TO FIND JOURNAL ARTICLES

Consult a research database like  Academic Search Complete  to find articles on your topic. Some search results will include the full text of the article. If the full text is not included, please use Journal Finder to see if the full text is available in the library or in another research database.

If the full text is not available, you may hope to use the library's  Interlibrary Loan (ILL) Service  to borrow books or obtain copies of articles not available at ECSU.

EVALUATE WHAT YOU FIND

Evaluate the authority and quality of the materials you have located. Consider the author, publisher, and date of each resource. Is the material comprehensive? Is it biased? Who is the intended audience?

Is the article  peer-reviewed  or from a  scholarly  journal? A  scholarly  journal has all of its articles reviewed by panel of experts in the field before the articles are published. Peer-reviewed articles are the "Gold Standard" of academic research. Answering the following questions will help you identify a  peer-reviewed  article.

Is the author of the article listed near the beginning of the article?

Is the journal in which the article published named?

Is there an  abstract  of the article available in the database? An  abstract  is a one paragraph description of the contents of the article.

Does the article have an extensive bibliography (not just a couple of citations)?

If the answer to these questions is 'Yes', the article is probably  peer-reviewed .

REVIEW YOUR PROGRESS

After you have completed the previous steps, examine the information you have collected. Ask yourself the following questions.

Does it answer the topic question you posed in Step 1?

Is your topic question too general?

Does it need to be more specific?

Do you need more information about any aspect of your topic?

After you answer these questions, return to Step 1 and repeat the process. (You may be able to skip Step 3 Find Background Information.)

REMEMBER TO ASK A LIBRARIAN FOR HELP IF YOU NEED IT!

Librarians are here to help you with your research. Librarians know the resources the Library has and are eager to assist students.

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• Next: Books >>
• Last Updated: Jul 13, 2023 12:45 PM
• URL: https://shepard.libguides.nccu.edu/masscomm

Library Research at Cornell: The Research Steps

• The Research Steps
• Which Topic?
• Find the Context
• Find Articles
• Evaluate Sources
• Cite Sources
• Review the Steps
• Find Primary Sources
• Find Images
• Library Jargon

Steps to Effective Library Research

• Identifying and Negotiating a Research Topic How to identify a viable topic and negotiate changes in your topic as you go
• Reference Sources for Background and Context on a Topic Find articles that summarize the topic, explain key concepts, define terminology and much more
• Finding Books Find items held at Cornell (books, videos, journal holdings, etc.)
• Finding Articles Find articles, essays, and book chapters
• Requesting Items not available at Cornell BorrowDirect and Interlibrary Loan
• Evaluating Your sources Some tips on how to evaluate the sources you've found
• Citing Your Sources Guides and resources for preparing your bibliography
• Getting Help Ask a Librarian!

Library Jargon: Common Terms Defined

Permission to Use the Content of this Web Site

If you wish to use or adapt any or all of the content of this LibGuide or subsidiary pages, please review our use permissions and Creative Commons license .

Reference Help

• Next: Which Topic? >>
• Last Updated: Jul 17, 2024 1:36 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.cornell.edu/sevensteps

How to Do Library Research

Choosing a research topic, finding keywords, fine-tuning your keywords.

• Places to Search
• Evaluating search results
• Sources by Type
• Sources by Format
• Finding a Book on the Shelf

Interesting Reads

Guide Creator

• Review the topic guidelines for your assignment. Are there things you must or cannot research? How long is the paper? Are you required to find scholarly sources?
• Note: Re-purposing an assignment from one course for another is a form of plagiarism, so don't do it!
• After you have brainstormed several areas you are interested in, you can develop a topic by combining 2-3 of your interests.
• Conduct an initial search about your topic. Submitting your interests to initial research will help you learn more about your topic, and the possible angles to pursue.
• Then you can phrase your topic as a question. The question should be answerable, but not by the words "yes" or "no".

Places to Look for Research Topic Ideas:

You've found a topic that you are interested in, and you've phrased it as a question. Great! Now you can use the nouns in your research question as keywords for search .

Other places you can find keywords:

• On Wikipedia
• In the references or works cited found at the end of scholarly books and articles
• Narrower or broader versions of the keywords you originally thought of
• Related or synonymous words with the keywords you originally thought of
• Subject terms

Subject Terms

• Subject terms, also known as subject headings, are "controlled vocabulary" words used by databases to ensure that all items relevant to a particular topic will be found. 
• Sometimes you can click on a subject term and the database will automatically run the search for you.

Too Few Results?

• Try related words: you can use several related words at a time by typing OR between them in your search box. Related words may include synonyms, broader terms, narrower terms, or related terms. 
• Librar* would retrieve the words library, librarian, and librarianship, if this feature is supported.
• If you are discussing the environmental impact of cryptocurrency, you can search separately for information about the popularity of cryptocurrency investment and its carbon emissions, and cite each article in your paper.
• Still no luck?  Try searching elsewhere .

Irrelevant Results?

• Instead of "how many bookstores are in the united states," try "bookseller statistics".
• If you search for the words Party City, your results will include any article that includes either party or city. If you search for "Party City" you are likelier to find mentions of both words together, in that order.
• If you are searching for information about the mythological creature called a phoenix, and many of your results are about the city in Arizona, you can search phoenix -arizona . 
• In some systems, using the word NOT before an unwanted term works the same way.

Too Many Results?

• Try doing an "advanced search" which lets you search individual fields, and enter your keywords in the ABSTRACT or TITLE of articles. 
• Filter your results. For examples of filtering mechanisms offered by various repositories, read on !
• Next: Places to Search >>
• Last Updated: Aug 5, 2024 2:11 PM
• URL: https://sccollege.libguides.com/library-research

How to Do Research: A Step-By-Step Guide: Get Started

• Get Started
• 1a. Select a Topic
• 1b. Develop Research Questions
• 1c. Identify Keywords
• 1d. Find Background Information
• 1e. Refine a Topic
• 2a. Search Strategies
• 2d. Articles
• 2e. Videos & Images
• 2f. Databases
• 2g. Websites
• 2h. Grey Literature
• 2i. Open Access Materials
• 3a. Evaluate Sources
• 3b. Primary vs. Secondary
• 3c. Types of Periodicals
• 4a. Take Notes
• 4b. Outline the Paper
• 4c. Incorporate Source Material
• 5a. Avoid Plagiarism
• 5b. Zotero & MyBib
• 5c. MLA Formatting
• 5d. MLA Citation Examples
• 5e. APA Formatting
• 5f. APA Citation Examples
• 5g. Annotated Bibliographies

Related Guides

• Elmira College Writing Center Get one-on-one assistance for all types of writing.

Recommended Websites

• Purdue University's Online Writing Lab (OWL)

Research Process Overview

Step 1.  Develop a topic Select a Topic | Develop Research Questions | Identify Keywords | Find Background Information | Refine a Topic

Step 2. Locate information Search Strategies | Books | eBooks | Articles  | Videos & Images | Databases | Websites | Grey Literature

Step 3. Evaluate and analyze information Evaluate Sources | Primary vs Secondary | Types of Periodicals

Step 4. Write, organize, and communicate information Take Notes | Outline the Paper | Incorporate Source Material

Step 5. Cite sources Avoid Plagiarism | Zotero & MyBib | MLA | APA | Chicago Style | Annotated Bibliographies

For research help,  use one of the following options:

Ask the GTL

• Next: Step 1: Develop a Topic >>
• Last Updated: Aug 13, 2024 3:10 PM
• URL: https://libguides.elmira.edu/research

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The Oxford Guide to Library Research

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With all of the new developments in information storage and retrieval, researchers today need a clear and comprehensive overview of the full range of their options, both online and offline, for finding the best information quickly. In this third edition of The Oxford Guide to Library Research, Thomas Mann maps out an array not just of important databases and print sources, but of several specific search techniques that can be applied profitably in any area of research. From academic resources to government documents to manuscripts in archives to business Web sites, Mann shows readers how best to exploit controlled subject headings, explains why browsing library shelves is still important in an online age, demonstrates how citation searching and related record searching produce results far beyond keyword inquiries, and offers practical tips on making personal contacts with knowledgeable people. Against the trendy but mistaken assumption that "everything" can be found on the Internet, Mann shows the lasting value of physical libraries and the unexpected power of traditional search mechanisms, while also providing the best overview of the new capabilities of computer indexing. Throughout the book Mann enlivens his advice with real-world examples derived from his experience of having helped thousands of researchers, with interests in all subjects areas, over a quarter century. Along the way he provides striking demonstrations and powerful arguments against those theorists who have mistakenly announced the demise of print. Essential reading for students, scholars, professional researchers, and laypersons, The Oxford Guide to Library Research offers a rich, inclusive overview of the information field, one that can save researchers countless hours of frustration in the search for the best sources on their topics.

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Conducting research.

• The Process
• Step 1: Exploring an idea
• Step 2: Finding background info.
• Step 3: Finding Print/E-Books
• Step 4: Finding Articles (Current Research)
• Step 5: Evaluating your sources
• Step 6: Citing your sources
• FAQs This link opens in a new window
• Library Vocabulary
• Research in the Humanities
• Research in the Social Sciences
• Research in the Sciences

The Research Process

If you have any questions, please reach out to a Subject Librarian.

The Research Process can be broken up into many steps. For the purposes of this guide, it has been broken into six (6) steps:

• Exploring an Idea
• Finding Background Information
• Gathering More Information
• Locating Current Research
• Evaluating your Sources
• Citing your Sources

Additionally, the guide also provides information on conducting research in the Humanities, Social Sciences, and Sciences.

• Next: Step 1: Exploring an idea >>
• Last Updated: Aug 14, 2024 7:12 AM
• URL: https://libguides.wustl.edu/research

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Research: An Overview

• Narrowing a Topic
• Doing Presearch
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• Finding Books
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• Film & Video
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• Zotero: Tracking Sources
• Information In Real Life Tutorial
• Scholarship as a Conversation and Article Deep Dive
• UC 1900 Library Tutorial Covers six components to help new students understand what the library offers and how to use its resources. ArticlesPlus ALICE Digital collections Your Library Account Printing Get Help

The Library Research Process: What's On These Pages

A strategy for your project; where to start?

Finding a Topic  & Presearch

Start Big; narrow by aspect; start investigating

Search Techniques

How to find what you need in a database

Types of Resources  & Finding Them

Formats and characteristics of information

Evaluating Sources

Investigate or test the information for reliability

Citing Sources

Details of style and using Zotero

Information in Real Life Tutorial 

Finding and using information after college

Librarians can be especially helpful in two aspects of the information-gathering portion of the research process:

• WHERE to search: recommending appropriate databases and other research tools for your particular topic
• HOW to search: coming up with good terms to use when you use these research tools, and arranging those terms in ways that will give you the best results
• Next: Research: An Overview >>

• Background Information
• Find Articles
• Get the Full Text of a Journal Article
• Why Can't I Find That Article?

Library Research Methods

• Evaluating Websites
• Citing Sources
• Productivity Tools for Scholars

(Adapted from Thomas Mann, Library Research Models )

Keyword searches . Search relevant keywords in catalogs, indexes, search engines, and full-text resources. Useful both to narrow a search to the specific subject heading and to find sources not captured under a relevant subject heading. To search a database effectively, start with a Keyword search, find relevant records, and then find relevant Subject Headings. In search engines, include many keywords to narrow the search and carefully evaluate what you find.

Subject searches .  Subject Headings (sometimes called Descriptors) are specific terms or phrases used consistently by online or print indexes to describe what a book or journal article is about. This is true of the library’s Catalog as well as many other library databases . 

Look for recent, scholarly books and articles. Within catalogs and databases, sort by the most recent date and look for books from scholarly presses and articles from scholarly journals. The more recent the source, the more up-to-date the references and citations.

Citation searches in scholarly sources .  Track down references, footnotes, endnotes, citations, etc. within relevant readings. Search for specific books or journals in the library’s Catalog . This technique helps you become part of the scholarly conversation on a particular topic.

Searches through published bibliographies (including sets of footnotes in relevant subject documents).  Published bibliographies on particular subjects (Shakespeare, alcoholism, etc.) often list sources missed through other kinds of searches. BIBLIOGRAPHY is a subject heading in the Catalog , so a Guided Search with BIBLIOGRAPHY as a Subject and your topic as a keyword will help you find these.

Searches through people sources (whether by verbal contact, e-mail, etc.). People are often more willing to help than you might think. The people to start with are often professors with relevant knowledge or librarians.

Systematic browsing, especially of full-text sources arranged in predictable subject groupings . Libraries organize books by subject, with similar books shelved together.  Browsing the stacks is a good way to find similar books; however, in large libraries, some books are not in the main stacks (e.g., they might be checked out or in ReCAP), so use the catalog as well.

The advantages of trying all these research methods are that:

Each of these ways of searching is applicable in any subject area

None of them is confined exclusively to English-language sources

Each has both strengths and weaknesses, advantages and disadvantages

The weaknesses within any one method are balanced by the strengths of the others

The strength of each is precisely that it is capable of turning up information or knowledge records that cannot be found efficiently—or often even at all—by any of the others

How to Gut a (Scholarly) Book in 5 Almost-easy Steps

Evaluating sources.

From Wayne C. Booth et al., The Craft of Research , 4th ed., pp.76-79

5.4 EVALUATING SOURCES FOR RELEVANCE AND RELIABILITY When you start looking for sources, you’ll find more than you can use, so you must quickly evaluate their usefulness; use two criteria: relevance and reliability.

5.4.1 Evaluating Sources for Relevance

If your source is a book, do this:

• Skim its index for your key words, then skim the pages on which those words occur.
• Skim the first and last paragraphs in chapters that use a lot of your key words.
• Skim prologues, introductions, summary chapters, and so on.
• Skim the last chapter, especially the >rst and last two or three pages.
• If the source is a collection of articles, skim the editor’s introduction.
• Check the bibliography for titles relevant to your topic.

If your source is an article, do this:

• Read the abstract, if it has one.
• Skim the introduction and conclusion, or if they are not marked by headings, skim the first six or seven paragraphs and the last four or five.
• Skim for section headings, and read the first and last paragraphs of those sections.

If your source is online, do this:

• If it looks like a printed article, follow the steps for a journal article.
• Skim sections labeled “introduction,” “overview,” “summary,” or the like. If there are none, look for a link labeled “About the Site” or something similar.
• If the site has a link labeled “Site Map” or “Index,” check it for your key words and skim the referenced pages.
• If the site has a “search” resource, type in your key words.

This kind of speedy reading can guide your own writing and revision. If you do not structure your report so your readers can skim it quickly and see the outlines of your argument, your report has a problem, an issue we discuss in chapters 12 and 14.

5.4.2 Evaluating Sources for Reliability You can’t judge a source until you read it, but there are signs of its reliability:

1. Is the source published or posted online by a reputable press? Most university presses are reliable, especially if you recognize the name of the university. Some commercial presses are reliable in some fields, such as Norton in literature, Ablex in sciences, or West in law. Be skeptical of a commercial book that makes sensational claims, even if its author has a PhD after his name. Be especially careful about sources on hotly contested social issues such as stem-cell research, gun control, and global warming. Many books and articles are published by individuals or organizations driven by ideology. Libraries often include them for the sake of coverage, but don’t assume they are reliable.

2. Was the book or article peer-reviewed? Most reputable presses and journals ask experts to review a book or article before it is published; it is called “peer review.” Many essay collections, however, are reviewed only by the named editor(s). Few commercial magazines use peer review. If a publication hasn’t been peer-reviewed, be suspicious.

3. Is the author a reputable scholar? This is hard to answer if you are new to a field. Most publications cite an author’s academic credentials; you can find more with a search engine. Most established scholars are reliable, but be cautious if the topic is a contested social issue such as gun control or abortion. Even reputable scholars can have axes to grind, especially if their research is financially supported by a special interest group. Go online to check out anyone an author thanks for support, including foundations that supported her work.

4. If the source is available only online, is it sponsored by a reputable organization? A Web site is only as reliable as its sponsor. You can usually trust one sponsored and maintained by a reputable organization. But if the site has not been updated recently, it may have been abandoned and is no longer endorsed by its sponsor. Some sites supported by individuals are reliable; most are not. Do a Web search for the name of the sponsor to find out more about it.

5. Is the source current? You must use up-to-date sources, but what counts as current depends on the field. In computer science, a journal article can be out-of-date in months; in the social sciences, ten years pushes the limit. Publications have a longer life in the humanities: in philosophy, primary sources are current for centuries, secondary ones for decades. In general, a source that sets out a major position or theory that other researchers accept will stay current longer than those that respond to or develop it. Assume that most textbooks are not current (except, of course, this one).

If you don’t know how to gauge currency in your field, look at the dates of articles in the works cited of a new book or article: you can cite works as old as the older ones in that list (but perhaps not as old as the oldest). Try to find a standard edition of primary works such as novels, plays, letters, and so on (it is usually not the most recent). Be sure that you consult the most recent edition of a secondary or tertiary source (researchers often change their views, even rejecting ones they espoused in earlier editions).

6. If the source is a book, does it have a notes and a bibliography? If not, be suspicious, because you have no way to follow up on anything the source claims.

7. If the source is a Web site, does it include bibliographical data? You cannot know how to judge the reliability of a site that does not indicate who sponsors and maintains it, who wrote what’s posted there, and when it was posted or last updated.

8. If the source is a Web site, does it approach its topic judiciously? Your readers are unlikely to trust a site that engages in heated advocacy, attacks those who disagree, makes wild claims, uses abusive language, or makes errors of spelling, punctuation, and grammar.

The following criteria are particularly important for advanced students:

9. If the source is a book, has it been well reviewed? Many fields have indexes to published reviews that tell you how others evaluate a source.

10. Has the source been frequently cited by others? You can roughly estimate how influential a source is by how often others cite it. To determine that, consult a citation index.

• << Previous: Why Can't I Find That Article?
• Next: Evaluating Sources >>
• Last Updated: Jul 31, 2024 9:15 AM
• URL: https://libguides.princeton.edu/philosophy

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Improve Your Library Research Skills

Barbara's basics for department of health sciences: improve your library research skills, created by health science librarians.

• First Things First: Do This Now!
• Librarians Rock

New to library research? Has it been awhile since you wrote a research paper?

• University of Minnesota Libraries: Library Search Tips (including Boolean searching and more)
• Database Search Tips: Boolean Operators and more (MIT Libraries)
• A tool designed to teach you how to create a search string using Boolean logic. While it is not a database and is not designed to input a search, you should be able to cut and paste the results into most databases’ search boxes.
• Finding Articles & Journals
• Finding Books

Use this guide to help visualize and plan your search:

• Dowload Purdue University Libraries' Search Statement Worksheet (.pdf)

Use this guide to learn to ask good clinical questions and use the PICO format to search for the best evidence:

• Forming Focused Questions with PICO
• Helps you form a focused question that will return relevant results
• Helps you retrieve a manageable amount of results
• Assists you in brainstorming keywords for your research
• Saves time!

Use this log to keep your search organized and to document your search strategy for reporting:

• Sample Database Search Log Sheet

Don't forget, we can get you any article you need.

• Use the 'Find @ UNC' link in database search results to look for full text. See Full-Text Articles via Find@UNC for more information
• When the article is not online, use the options at the bottom of the Find @ UNC page to search the catalog for print or to request the article via Interlibrary Loan.
• Is the book you want in circulation or does the library not own it? Use Interlibrary Loan to place a hold or request a book from another library (free to you).
• Learn more about Interlibrary Loan .

Learn about Scholarly Research Articles.

• Includes a comparison of scholarly journals, professional trade journals, and popular or newstand magazines .

Learn about Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources. 

• In this guide from the University of Minnesota Health Sciences Sciences Libraries, Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources in the Health Sciences , learn whether sources are considered primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the originality of the information presented and their proximity or how close they are to the source of information.

Once you find it, how do you know it is any good?

• How to evaluate information, from social media and internet resources to scholarly articles.
• Learn about Peer Review and how to know if an article has been peer reviewed.

Critical thinking is a key skill in information literacy, along with the related skill of media literacy.  Discussion of “fake news” has led to renewed focus on these skills and the importance of colleges and universities providing education in these areas. IFLA, the International Federation of Library Associations has provided this infographic , available in multiple languages, with eight simple steps (based on FactCheck.org’s 2016 article  How to Spot Fake News )  to discover the verifiability of a given news-piece in front of you .  

By IFLA (http://www.ifla.org/publications/node/11174) [CC BY 4.0  (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Don't forget, stay organized:

• Register for a free UNC account to try out the bibliographic citation manager  Sciwheel
• Sciwheel Guide
• For other options, consult the comparison chart at the bottom of the page on citing & writing tools .

  Check our FAQ's

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   Call (919) 962-0800

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  Request a systematic or scoping review consultation

Librarians  Rock

Ask Us whenever you need help.

• Email, call, text or meet with a librarian . We can save you time. We really mean it!

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• Subject Guides
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• How Do I? and How To?

How To Do Library Research

• Introduction

Guide Contents

Getting started.

• Selecting a Topic
• Understanding Keywords
• Tips and Tricks
• Types of Information
• Publication Cycles
• Follow a Citation
• Finding and Using EBooks
• Finding Books
• Finding Articles
• Finding Statistics & Data
• Finding Primary Sources
• Citation Help This link opens in a new window
• Ask A Librarian This link opens in a new window

Welcome to the How To Do Library Research guide! Use the menu on the left to get research advice that will help you successfully navigate the Libraries' print and electronic collections.

If you're new to the Libraries, you may want to visit our Services for Undergrads page or Services for Grad Students page to learn about the library resources and services that are available to you.

If at any point you need help, you can  Ask a Librarian  or consult the Libraries'  tutorials .

Depending on your topic and type of assignment, the resources you'll need for your research may include books from academic publishers, articles from scholarly journals, data and statistics, primary sources, articles from trade journals and popular publications, government documents, standards, images, music, videos, and more. All of these types of sources can be found in the Libraries and on the Libraries' website.

When getting started on a research assignment, the first thing you'll need to do is make sure you understand the scope of the project and your instructor's expectations. In addition to carefully reading any assignment prompts, directions, rubrics, etc. that your instructor has provided, you may also want to consult these tips and tools for specific types of research assignments and writing in particular fields .

Once you've familiarized yourself with the particulars of your assignment, you'll need to start thinking about a topic. If you're choosing your own topic, the next section of this guide, Selecting a Topic has useful advice on that. If your topic has been decided for you, you can jump ahead to Search Strategies .

Before you dive in to your research, you may want to make a time management plan to help you stay on track. The Libraries' Research Project Calculator can be used to plan your research and writing with an eight-step process.

• Next: Selecting a Topic >>
• Last Updated: Jul 17, 2024 12:31 PM
• URL: https://libraryguides.binghamton.edu/libraryresearch
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Library & Research Overview: Library Research Basics

• Library Research Basics
• What are Academic Resources?
• Resources for Research & Writing
• TRY IT ~ Find this Book
• TRY IT ~ Find this Article
• Scholarly vs. Non-Scholarly Books
• Database Searching Help
• Scholarly vs. Non-Scholarly Periodicals
• How to Identify a Peer-Reviewed Research Article
• Artificial Intelligence (AI)
• How to Evaluate an Article
• How to Evaluate Websites
• Read and Evaluate a Scholarly Article
• Cite Sources This link opens in a new window
• Primary Sources
• Archives & Special Collections This link opens in a new window
• Interlibrary Loan This link opens in a new window
• Library Help This link opens in a new window

Seven Steps to Effective Library Research

1. UNDERSTAND THE ASSIGNMENT AND SELECT YOUR TOPIC

State your topic idea as a question.  Identify the main concepts or keywords in your question. 

2. FIND BACKGROUND INFORMATION IN REFERENCE SOURCES

Once you have selected key terms for your topic, look for them in an encyclopedia, dictionary or other reference resource. Review definitions of terms and identify other terms used to describe the concepts.  Are your terms accurate?   Investigate background information to identify important issues, events, and people associated with your topic. Then search for books and articles using these key terms that describe the concepts, issues, events, and people.

3. USE CATALOGS TO FIND BOOKS 

Start with keyword searching, review results and identify subject headings.  Note the citation (author, title, etc.), the location information (call number and library or ebook), and circulation status.

4. USE DATABASES TO FIND PERIODICAL ARTICLES

Search databases to find articles on your topic.  Many will include the full-text of the article.  Most databases are accessible both in the library and off-campus through the campus network.

5. FIND INTERNET RESOURCES 

Use search engines and subject directories to locate materials on the Web.  Information on the Internet varies in its reliability; before using information from a website, review the Website Evaluation guidelines .

6. EVALUATE WHAT YOU FIND / REVIEW YOUR PROGRESS

Evaluate the authority and quality of the materials you have located. Consider the author, publisher, and date of each resource. Is the material biased? Is it comprehensive? Who is the intended audience? Is the material of scholarly value? After you have completed the previous steps, examine the information you have collected. Ask yourself the following questions: Does it answer the topic question you posed in Step 1? Is your topic question too general? Does it need to be more specific? Do you need more information about any aspect of your topic? After you answer these questions, return to Step 1 and repeat the process. 

7. CITE WHAT YOU FIND USING A STANDARD FORMAT

Avoid plagiarism and use a style manual to be sure to correctly format your citations for both print and electronic resources. Check with your instructor about which citation style you should use.   Learn more about  Citing Sources.

RESEARCH TIPS:

RESEARCH IS A PROCESS , YOU WILL TRY ONE SEARCH, EVALUATE YOUR RESULTS, MODIFY YOUR STRATEGY AND TRY AGAIN.

• START YOUR RESEARCH EARLY
• WORK FROM THE GENERAL TO THE SPECIFIC
• TAKE NOTES OF WHAT YOU FIND AND WHERE YOU FOUND IT
• USE THE SUBJECT TERMS OF THE DATABASES AND CATALOGS YOU USE
• CONSULT BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND ARTICLE REFERENCES 
•  IF WE DO NOT HAVE IT, WE WILL GET IT FOR YOU THRU INTERLIBRARY LOAN
• ASK A LIBRARIAN FOR HELP
• << Previous: Introduction
• Next: What are Academic Resources? >>
• Last Updated: Jun 25, 2024 10:41 AM
• URL: https://library.culinary.edu/research

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Click here to find the Conducting a Search Tutorial Starting a search in a database is an important step in the research process. This tutorial will help you understand how to use your keywords in Discover@MU, find additional keywords, and learn how to use the provided filters. 

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YSN Doctoral Programs: Steps in Conducting a Literature Review

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What is a literature review?

A literature review is an integrated analysis -- not just a summary-- of scholarly writings and other relevant evidence related directly to your research question.  That is, it represents a synthesis of the evidence that provides background information on your topic and shows a association between the evidence and your research question.

A literature review may be a stand alone work or the introduction to a larger research paper, depending on the assignment.  Rely heavily on the guidelines your instructor has given you.

Why is it important?

A literature review is important because it:

• Explains the background of research on a topic.
• Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
• Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
• Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
• Identifies critical gaps and points of disagreement.
• Discusses further research questions that logically come out of the previous studies.

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1. Choose a topic. Define your research question.

Your literature review should be guided by your central research question.  The literature represents background and research developments related to a specific research question, interpreted and analyzed by you in a synthesized way.

• Make sure your research question is not too broad or too narrow.  Is it manageable?
• Begin writing down terms that are related to your question. These will be useful for searches later.
• If you have the opportunity, discuss your topic with your professor and your class mates.

2. Decide on the scope of your review

How many studies do you need to look at? How comprehensive should it be? How many years should it cover? 

• This may depend on your assignment.  How many sources does the assignment require?

3. Select the databases you will use to conduct your searches.

Make a list of the databases you will search. 

Where to find databases:

• use the tabs on this guide
• Find other databases in the Nursing Information Resources web page
• More on the Medical Library web page
• ... and more on the Yale University Library web page

4. Conduct your searches to find the evidence. Keep track of your searches.

• Use the key words in your question, as well as synonyms for those words, as terms in your search. Use the database tutorials for help.
• Save the searches in the databases. This saves time when you want to redo, or modify, the searches. It is also helpful to use as a guide is the searches are not finding any useful results.
• Review the abstracts of research studies carefully. This will save you time.
• Use the bibliographies and references of research studies you find to locate others.
• Check with your professor, or a subject expert in the field, if you are missing any key works in the field.
• Ask your librarian for help at any time.
• Use a citation manager, such as EndNote as the repository for your citations. See the EndNote tutorials for help.

Review the literature

Some questions to help you analyze the research:

• What was the research question of the study you are reviewing? What were the authors trying to discover?
• Was the research funded by a source that could influence the findings?
• What were the research methodologies? Analyze its literature review, the samples and variables used, the results, and the conclusions.
• Does the research seem to be complete? Could it have been conducted more soundly? What further questions does it raise?
• If there are conflicting studies, why do you think that is?
• How are the authors viewed in the field? Has this study been cited? If so, how has it been analyzed?

Tips: 

• Review the abstracts carefully.  
• Keep careful notes so that you may track your thought processes during the research process.
• Create a matrix of the studies for easy analysis, and synthesis, across all of the studies.
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Conducting Research: How to Conduct Research

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About Research

A common misconception about research is that it is a single, isolated step in writing a paper.

Actually, research is a cyclic process that occurs the entire time you're writing a paper. It can even result in dramatic changes of direction for the work and in the development of a different thesis.

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For some students, one of the biggest differences between high school and college is the amount and depth of research that is required for research papers.

College professors expect students to be quite adept at researching, and for some students, this is a big change from high school. This is not to say that high school teachers don't do a great job of preparing students for college-level research—quite the contrary!

Teachers fill a tough and essential role in teaching students how to research and write. College professors simply require students to take that skill to a new level.

For example, you may soon discover that many college professors won’t accept encyclopedia articles as sources. Encyclopedias are great for finding a compact, informative accumulation of research on a specific topic. They are a great resource for finding the basic facts, but they are limited when it comes to offering interpretations of the facts.

Professors require students to dig a little deeper than that, accumulate their own evidence from broader sources, and form opinions about their sources as well as the specific topics.

For this reason, college-bound students should become familiar with the library and all its terms, rules, and methods. They should also have the confidence to venture outside the comfort of the local public library and explore more diverse resources.

Card Catalog

For years, the card catalog was the only resource for finding much of the material available in the library. Now, of course, much of the catalog information has become available on computers.

But not so fast! Most libraries still have resources that haven’t been added to the computer database. As a matter of fact, some of the most interesting items—the items in special collections, for instance—will be the last to be computerized.

There are many reasons for this. Some documents are old, some are hand-written, and some are too fragile or too cumbersome to handle. Sometimes it’s a matter of manpower. Some collections are so extensive and some staffs are so small, that the collections will take years to computerize.

For this reason, it’s a good idea to practice using the card catalog. It offers an alphabetical listing of titles, authors, and subjects. The catalog entry gives the call number of the source. The call number is used to locate the specific physical location of your source.

Call Numbers

Each book in the library has a specific number, called a call number. Public libraries contain many books of fiction and books relevant to general use.

For this reason, public libraries often use the Dewey Decimal System, the preferred system for fictional books and general use books. Generally, fiction books are alphabetized by the author under this system.

Research libraries use a very different system, called the Library of Congress (LC) system. Under this system, books are sorted by topic instead of the author.

The first section of the LC call number (before the decimal) refers to the subject of the book. That is why, when browsing books on shelves, you will notice that books are always surrounded by other books on the same topic.

Library shelves are usually labeled on each end, to indicate which call numbers are contained within the particular aisle.

Computer Search

Computer searches are great, but they can be confusing. Libraries are usually affiliated or connected to other libraries (university systems or county systems). For this reason, computer databases will often list books that are not located in your local library.

For instance, your public library computer may give you a “hit” on a certain book. On closer inspection, you may discover that this book is only available at a different library in the same system (county). Don’t let this confuse you!

This is actually a great way to locate rare books or books that are published and distributed within a small geographic location. Just be aware of codes or other indication which specify the location of your source. Then ask your librarian about interlibrary loans.

If you want to limit your search to your own library , it is possible to conduct internal searches. Just become familiar with the system.

When using a computer, be sure to keep a pencil handy and write down the call number carefully, to avoid sending yourself on a wild goose chase!

Remember, it’s a good idea to consult the computer and the card catalog, to avoid missing a great source.

If you already enjoy research, you'll grow to love special collections departments. Archives and special collections contain the most interesting items you'll encounter as you conduct your research, such as valuable and unique objects of historical and cultural significance.

Things like letters, diaries, rare and local publications, pictures, original drawings, and early maps are located in special collections.

Each library or archive will have a set of rules relevant to its own special collections room or department. Normally, any special collection will be set apart from the public areas and will require special permission to enter or to access.

• You may be required to put most of your belongings into a locker as you enter the room or building where special items are held. Things like pens, markers, beepers , phones , are not permitted, as they could damage delicate collection items or disrupt other researchers.
• You may find special collections materials by doing a normal library search with index cards, but the search process may differ from place to place.
• Some libraries will have all the collections materials indexed in their electronic databases, but some will have special books or guides for the special collections. Don't worry, someone will always be on hand to guide you and let you know where to find materials that sound interesting.
• Some material will be available on microfilm or microfiche. Film items are usually kept in drawers, and you can probably retrieve either of these yourself. Once you find the right film, you will need to read it on a machine. These machines may differ from place to place, so just ask for a little direction.
• If you conduct a search and identify a rare item you'd like to view, you will probably have to fill out a request for it. Ask for a request form, fill it in, and turn it in. One of the archivists will retrieve the item for you and tell you how to handle it. You may have to sit at a specific table and wear gloves to view the item.

Does this process sound a little intimidating? Don't be frightened off by the rules! They are put into place so that archivists can protect their very special collections!

You'll soon find that some of these items are so intriguing and so valuable to your research that they're well worth the extra effort.

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Home > Student Journals > Culture, Society, and Praxis > Vol. 12 > No. 1 (2020)

How to Conduct Library Research

Jessilyn Barrow , California State University, Monterey Bay Follow

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Main Theme / Tema Central

The ability to conduct library research is an important skill to have when it comes to writing research papers or literature reviews. In this essay, I will be explaining in great detail the process of conducting useful research. I will also be giving examples from my experience finding research to further help you understand each step. In order to conduct library research, you should consider three things. First, come up with a specific research question interesting to you, secondly, find scholarly articles with abstracts on a library website, and lastly, briefly reading the parts in each article that relates to your topic.

Recommended Citation

Barrow, Jessilyn (2020) "How to Conduct Library Research," Culture, Society, and Praxis : Vol. 12: No. 1, Article 2. Available at: https://digitalcommons.csumb.edu/csp/vol12/iss1/2

Since May 26, 2020

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Research Steps

Welcome nursing students.

This guide has been designed to help you learn how to conduct your own successful research using Linfield Library resources. Please feel free to reach out to me, Pat Love ( [email protected] ), if you have any questions or need additional assistance. Here are the five major steps to conducting research you will be working through in this guide:

Step One: Formulating A Research Topic

Step one : formulating a research topic/question.

Coming up with a research topic can often feel daunting, so try sticking with a subject that you feel passionate about! It's way easier to write or conduct research on a topic that actually matters to you. If you're feeling stuck, try brainstorming for ideas by writing down everything that comes into your mind on a blank piece of paper. This will often generate good ideas for your research topic.

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Oral History Research

Handbooks and guides to oral history methodology, selected resources to make your own oral histories, participative resources and projects for oral history, harvard library research guides for oral history, oral history collections at harvard, oral history collections beyond harvard, scholarship & commentary on oral history methodology.

ArcGIS StoryMaps An engaging platform for presenting your oral histories.

American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress. Oral History Interviews Recommendations for planning an oral history project and tips for conducting interviews

American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress. Folklife and Fieldwork: A Layman’s Introduction to Field Techniques Although folklorists tend to be more interested in documenting ways of living than history, per se, many of their methods are similar. This guide includes helpful advice for conducting fieldwork in folklore, including tips for planning, conducting, recording, and archiving interviews.

Indigenous Studies: Oral History Provides helpful information and resources to inform respectful understanding and citation of Indigenous oral histories.

Oral History Association: Principles and Best Practices An invaluable document for maintaining an ethical stance as a researcher, with guidance on archiving interviews and managing rights/copyright.

Oral History Methodology (Hajek A., 2014) The case study starts with a historical outline of the advent of oral history research in Western society, its strengths and its weaknesses, before it moves to a practical exploration of oral history methodology. It explains how to set up an oral history project, how to conduct interviews and what legal concerns to keep in mind. It also provides details on recording equipment and discusses a number of potential outputs of oral history data.

The Oral History Reader (edited by Perks, R. and Thomson, A., 2015)   A comprehensive, international anthology combining major classic articles with cutting-edge pieces on the theory, method and use of oral history.

Webinar: Introduction to Oral History and Interviewing , Centre for Oral History and Digital Storytelling, Concordia University

Library Support For Qualitative Research On the "Interview Research" page of this guide, see the "Conducting Interviews" , "Transcription" and "Data Analysis"  sub-pages. There, you will find technical tools, tips, and assistance available at Harvard. Please note that these resources have been selected for a wide range of interviewing methodologies; thus, some may not apply to the oral history genre.

Beyond Harvard

The Centre for Oral History and Digital Storytelling at Concordia University You will find here innovative approaches to oral history, some of which utilize various art forms.

Columbia Center for Oral History Research: Resources A helpful selection of resources for conducting oral history research.

Oral History guide from Coates Library, Trinity University Useful tips and resources compiled by Abna Schnur.

Oral History Metadata Synchronizer (OHMS) Created by the Louie B. Nunn Center for Oral History at the University of Kentucky, this tool allows producers of oral history to inexpensively and efficiently enhance access to oral history online. Because OHMS provides word-level search capability and a time-correlated transcript or indexed interview, the audience is connected from a search result to the corresponding moment in a recorded interview. 

Library Support For Qualitative Research This Harvard Library guide has a useful section on interview research, much of which is relevant to oral history research.

Oral History and Interviews, Harvard Library Research Guide for History Compiled by Harvard Librarians, this guide offers strategies for locating oral history interviews, as well as a list of relevant databases and collections.

Oral Histories at Schlesinger Library on the History of Women in America Get started with archival research on women's oral histories with this guide.

Freshman Seminar 64 E Asian American Literature The "Oral History" section of this guide lists several oral history resources  relevant to researching the Asian American experience in the 1960s.

Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System Digital Collection: Interviews and Manuals, 1950-1953 (inclusive) Named the Harvard Project on the Soviet Social System (also known as the Harvard Refugee Interview Project), this was a large scale, unclassified project, based largely on interviews with Soviet émigrés in West Germany, Austria, and the United States, aimed at gaining new insights into strategic psychological and sociological aspects of the Soviet social system. 

Woodberry Poetry Room Oral History Initiative Check out video recordings on YouTube of this 2021 series of oral histories on   pioneering Boston women poets. Tip: Look for  "ORAL HISTORY INITIATIVE" in the title.  

Find More at Harvard

You may search for interviews and oral histories (whether in textual or audiovisual formats) held in archival collections at Harvard Library. HOLLIS searches all documented collections at Harvard, whereas HOLLIS for Archival Discovery searches only those with finding aids. Although HOLLIS for Archival Discovery covers less material, you may find it easier to parse your search results, especially when you wish to view results at the item level (within collections). Try these approaches:

Search in HOLLIS:  

• To retrieve items available online, do an Advanced Search for interview* OR "oral histor*" (in Subject), with Resource Type "Archives/Manuscripts," then refine your search by selecting "Online" under "Show Only" on the right of your initial result list.  Revise the search above by adding your topic in the Keywords or Subject field (for example: African Americans ) and resubmitting the search.  
•  To enlarge your results set, you may also leave out the "Online" refinement; if you'd like to limit your search to a specific repository, try the technique of searching for Code: Library + Collection on the "Advanced Search" page .  

Search in HOLLIS for Archival Discovery:  

• To retrieve items available online, search for  interview* OR "oral histor*" limited to digital materials . Revise the search above by adding your topic (for example:  artist* ) in the second search box (if you don't see the box, click +).  
• To preview results by collection, search for interview* OR "oral histor*" limited to collections .  Revise the search above by adding your topic (for example:  artist* ) in the second search box (if you don't see the box, click +). Although this method does not allow you to isolate digitized content, you may find the refinement options on the right side of the screen (refine by repository, subject or names) helpful. Once your select a given collection, you may search within it (e.g., for your topic or the term interview).

Digital Public Library of America (DPLA) To find oral histories among the millions of materials from libraries, archives, museums, and other cultural institutions across the United States, search for "oral history," and then use the subject and other refinements to discover oral histories of interest to you.

The HistoryMakers Contains interviews African Americans who have made a significant contribution in area of American life or culture, or who has been associated with a particular movement or organization that is important in the African American community. Disciplines include Art, Business, Civics, Education, Entertainment, Law, Media, Medicine, Military, Music, Politics, Religion, Science, Sports and Style. Harvard constituents have full access to this database when connecting via Harvard.

Library of Congress Digital Collections The Library of Congress provides several oral history collections online. To locate them, search the Digital Collections site for "oral history".

Oral History Centers and Collections Curated by members of the H-OralHist Network.

Oral History Online An index to worldwide oral history collections, with links to interview-level bibliographic records in English and to full-text materials, audio files and visual files where these are available. 

Smithsonian Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage Collections More than 80,000 historical and contemporary items from the Smithsonian Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage's Ralph Rinzler Folklife Archives and Collections are available in the Smithsonian’s Collections Search Center . Find complete collection descriptions in finding aids and inventories in the Smithsonian Online Virtual Archive , which often include digital surrogates.

South Asian Oral History Project The SAOHP has been conducted in four phases. Each phase is marked by key historical events that drew South Asians to the United States: 1) 1950s Immigrants, 2) 1960s and 1970s Immigrants, 3) 1980s Immigrants, 4) South Asian classical performing artists (vocalists, instrumentalists and dancers) in the Pacific Northwest. The transcriptions and audio recordings from phase one and the transcription and audio/video recordings from phase two through four are available digitally.

1947 Partition Archive The 1947 Partition Archive, "The Archive" has been preserving oral histories of Partition witnesses since 2010 through a combined program that includes an innovative technique for crowdsourcing by Citizen Historians, as well as collection by trained scholars. Nearly 10,000 oral histories have been preserved on digital video, making The Archive the largest documentation effort focused on Partition.  Oral histories have been recorded from 500+ cities in 15 countries across the world. See  information about accessing the archive materials .

Statue of Liberty Oral History Project: A Record of Living Memory One of the world’s largest and most diverse chronicles of the American immigrant experience, this resource includes interviews from passengers, families, immigration officials, military personnel, detainees, and former Ellis Island employees. It is available to researchers, students, educators, and the general public.

The Tretter Transgender Oral History Project A growing collection of oral histories of gender transgression, broadly understood through a trans framework.

Visual History Archive (VHA), USC Shoah Foundation Created by the Shoah Foundation, this fully indexed and searchable digital repository contains the visual testimony of approximately 55,000 survivors of genocidal wars. The majority of the testimonies are from Holocaust survivors (1939-1945) but the archive also includes survivor testimony from the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda (1994), the Armenian Genocide (1915-23) the Cambodian Genocide, the Guatemalan Genocide (1978-96) and the Nanjing Massacre (1937), among others. For more information about the testimonies, visit the VHA guide . Harvard constituents have full access to this repository when connecting via Harvard.

Ways of Knowing Oral History Collection This project documents the stories of individuals who have developed and implemented alternative library classification schemes or controlled vocabularies. These projects describe how institutional descriptive practices facilitate some ways of knowing and not others and demonstrate that such practices can change.

Belfast to Boston: Oral History Goes Awry WNYC Studios' "The Takeaway" speaks with Boston Globe columnist, Kevin Cullen, about how Boston College's well meaning attempt to promote truth and reconciliation around the Troubles backfired on the ground in Belfast.

Blee, K. (1993). Evidence, Empathy, and Ethics: Lessons from Oral Histories of the Klan. The Journal of American History, 80(2), 596-606. doi:10.2307/2079873 Critically examines issues that arise in oral history methodology around the life stories of ordinary people whose political agendas are unsavory, dangerous, or deliberately deceptive.

Davis, M., & Kennedy, E. (1986). Oral History and the Study of Sexuality in the Lesbian Community: Buffalo, New York, 1940-1960.  Feminist Studies,   12 (1), 7-26. doi:10.2307/3177981 This article explores the role of sexuality in the cultural and political development of the Buffalo lesbian community.

Portelli, Alessandro. (2010). The death of Luigi Trastulli. Memory and event - memory and fact. Anuarul Institutului De Istorie Orală : AIO, 12, 245-274. Luigi Trastulli, a young steel worker in Terni, Italy, died in an altercation with police in 1949, when workers left the factory to protest against a North-Atlantic Treaty signed by the Italian Government. The strike, confrontation and assassination greatly impacted the identity and culture of Terni. This essay discusses how the event has been portrayed and interpreted over the years in both official and oral sources. The essay linked above is in Italian. For an English language translation, see The Death of Luigi Trastulli, and Other Stories.

Portelli, Alessandro (2016). What makes oral history different. In Perks, Robert and Alistair Thomson, The Oral History Reader, Routledge, p. 68-78. Publisher abstract: "There seems to be a fear that once the floodgates of orality are opened, writing (and rationality along with it) will be swept out as if by a spontaneous uncontrollable mass of fluid, amorphous material. But this attitude blinds us to the fact that our awe of writing has distorted our perception of language and communication to the point where we no longer understand either orality or the nature of writing itself. As a matter of fact, written and oral sources are not mutually exclusive. They have common as well as autonomous characteristics, and specific functions which only either one can fill (or which one set of sources fills better than the other). Therefore, they require different specific interpretative instruments. But the undervaluing and the overvaluing of oral sources end up by cancelling out specific qualities, turning these sources either into mere supports for traditional written sources, or into an illusory cure for all ills. This chapter will attempt to suggest some of the ways in which oral history is intrinsically different, and therefore specifically useful."

Except where otherwise noted, this work is subject to a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , which allows anyone to share and adapt our material as long as proper attribution is given. For details and exceptions, see the Harvard Library Copyright Policy ©2021 Presidents and Fellows of Harvard College.

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Connecting You to Non-Profit Research

The library is a key community resource for conducting all kinds of research: business, historical, legal, scientific, and more. BCLS customers can also add grant research to the list thanks to two additional databases we now offer: Foundation Directory Online and GuideStar .

These products allow users to investigate different aspects of nonprofits. The directory helps customers discover fundraising resources from more than 200,000 grant-giving organizations, while GuideStar offers detailed information for some two million nonprofit groups.

How may I direct your search?                                   

Although it does not host grant applications or instructions directly, the directory provides researchers with the tools to hone in on the best possible opportunities. Searching “food banks,” for example, returns tens of thousands of hits! But by using the Advanced Search & Filters feature to add categories like Geographic Focus and Population Served, you can narrow your scope to the most relevant grants.

From there, entries on the grantors and recipients will give you a glimpse at their work and financials, and even the ability to engage with organizational stakeholders directly via LinkedIn. Simply put, the directory lets you see what other groups have done and helps you target those same sources of funding.

Let us be your guide

Using GuideStar is even more straightforward. Through a simple search, users can find a thorough breakdown of more than two million nonprofit organizations. This breakdown includes a business summary, programs and areas of impact, financials, operational data, organization demographics, and more.

Like the Foundation Directory Online , use filtering tools to find the most relevant organizations to research. Want to volunteer at an animal shelter, but looking for a reputable organization nearby? Choose the appropriate geographic area(s) and Seal of Transparency to locate a group that works for you! Interested in teaching vocational skills to teens? Select the subject area and population served that fit best. There are loads of categories to choose from to lead you to the perfect organization.

Both products are only accessible in-person at your local library, so head on over to find your next source of funds, volunteer opportunity, or choice of donation, and nonprofits thrive.

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Model Codes

Review the Model Codes page in the library's Legal Ethics and Legal Profession Research Guide which explains model codes and lists the available versions, including the most recent title Model Rules of Professional Conduct .

State Codes

Review the State Codes page in the library's Legal Ethics and Legal Profession Research Guide which explains state ethical codes and lists compiled sources to find state ethical rules.

In the Ethics section of each of the library's state resources guides , sources for ethics codes found in databases and websites are listed.

Ethics Opinions & Disciplinary Proceedings

Compiled sources for ethics opinions from the American Bar Association and each state bar association will found on the Ethics Opinions page in the library's Legal Ethics and Legal Profession Research Guide. Resources that publishes disciplinary proceedings are also found on the guide.

In the Ethics section of each of the library's state resources guides , sources for ethics opinions found in databases and websites are listed.

The library's Legal Ethics and Professional Responsibility Treatises guide provides a list of introductory texts and in-depth resources on this topic.

Scholarly works on legal ethics in the library may be found by conducting a Library Catalog search with Subject is (exact)

• Legal Ethics -- United States
• Judicial Ethics -- United States
• Attorney and Client -- United States
• Lawyers -- Malpractice
• Lawyers -- United States -- Discipline

Prepared by the American Law Institute, the Restatement of the Law, Third: The Law Governing Lawyers, is an attempt to restate the law of legal ethics and is intended to clarify and synthesize common law applicable to the legal profession.

• HeinOnline Access to the Third Restatement of the Law Governing Lawyers is available through HeinOnline's American Law Institute Library.
• Restatement of the Law, Third: The Law Governing Lawyers (Westlaw) Electronic access to this resource is available through Westlaw.

This looseleaf service is an excellent source of primary materials and commentary on legal ethics.

• Print :  Lawyers' Manual on Professional Conduct, Current Reports
• Lawyers' Manual on Professional Conduct
• Lawyers' Manual on Professional Conduct: Model Rules and Standards
• Lawyers' Manual on Professional Conduct: Practice Guides Index
• Lawyers' Manual on Professional Conduct: Practice Guides
• Lawyers' Manual on Professional Conduct: State Ethics Opinions

Formerly a print and online publication known as the ABA/BNA Lawyer's Manual on Professional Conduct, the Manual is now available on Bloomberg Law.  It contains a discussion of a wide variety of issues in legal ethics, citing the Model Code and Model Rules where appropriate. Following the text, there are summaries of and citations to relevant cases. Summaries of recent ethics opinions from state and local bar associations are also included in the Manual. The Current Reports  section contains a biweekly newsletter that highlights and reviews the latest developments in the field. Georgetown Law Center users may sign up to receive an electronic version of this newsletter.

The library has access to this looseleaf service both electronically and in print. It collects the full text of each state's ethics code and selected ethics opinions. The most current version is available electronically; the print subscription was canceled in 2008.

• National Reporter on Legal Ethics and Professional Responsibility (Lexis Advance) Entering the title into the search box should allow you to apply this source as a filter to your searches in Lexis Advance.

Many journals publish articles on issues relating to legal ethics. To locate them, use the journal indexes below. For more help with finding articles, see our  Articles for Legal and Non-Legal Research Guide .

• Index to Legal Periodicals & Books

The Internet provides an inexhaustible amount of legal ethics materials of both primary and secondary authority.  An increasing number of government bodies, agencies, and special interest groups disseminate ethics materials via the internet. 

The following sites were found to be especially useful when performing legal ethics research online:

• American Bar Association Center for Professional Responsibility ABA publications, reports, and opinions, and links to state ethics materials. Also provides access to ETHICSearch, a legal ethics research service provided for free to ABA members.
• District of Columbia Bar Legal Ethics Materials Online access to D.C. Rules of Professional Conduct, opinions, reports, and other miscellaneous ethics materials.
• Legalethics.com Offers links to articles, rules and information related to ethical issues on the Internet. Includes links to other online resources.
• Legal Ethics Forum Academic blog about newsworthy legal ethics opinions and happenings.
• Tarlton Law Library 50 State Ethics Guide Links to legal ethics codes, regulations, and opinions, organized and searchable by state.
• Lexis 50-State Survey: Statutes & Regulations: Legal Ethics
• ABA Jurisdictional Rules Comparison Chart: Compares jurisdictional modifications to the ABA Model Rules of Professional Conduct.
• << Previous: Local Government
• Next: Multi-Jurisdictional Research (50 State Surveys, Chart Builders, etc.) >>
• © Georgetown University Law Library. These guides may be used for educational purposes, as long as proper credit is given. These guides may not be sold. Any comments, suggestions, or requests to republish or adapt a guide should be submitted using the Research Guides Comments form . Proper credit includes the statement: Written by, or adapted from, Georgetown Law Library (current as of .....).
• Last Updated: Aug 14, 2024 10:36 AM
• URL: https://guides.ll.georgetown.edu/statelegalresearch

Oxford University Press's Academic Insights for the Thinking World

Effective ways to communicate research in a journal article

Oxford Academic: Journals

We publish over 500 high-quality journals, with two-thirds in partnership with learned societies and prestigious institutions. Our diverse journal offerings ensure that your research finds a home alongside award-winning content, reaching a global audience and maximizing impact.

• By Megan Taphouse , Anne Foster , Eduardo Franco , Howard Browman , and Michael Schnoor
• August 12 th 2024

In this blog post, editors of OUP journals delve into the vital aspect of clear communication in a journal article. Anne Foster (Editor of Diplomatic History ), Eduardo Franco (Editor-in-Chief of JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute and JNCI Monographs ), Howard Browman (Editor-in-Chief of ICES Journal of Marine Science ), and Michael Schnoor (Editor-in-Chief of Journal of Leukocyte Biology ) provide editorial recommendations on achieving clarity, avoiding common mistakes, and creating an effective structure.

Ensuring clear communication of research findings

AF : To ensure research findings are clearly communicated, you should be able to state the significance of those findings in one sentence—if you don’t have that simple, clear claim in your mind, you will not be able to communicate it.

MS : The most important thing is clear and concise language. It is also critical to have a logical flow of your story with clear transitions from one research question to the next.

EF : It is crucial to write with both experts and interested non-specialists in mind, valuing their diverse perspectives and insights.

Common mistakes that obscure authors’ arguments and data

AF : Many authors do a lovely job of contextualizing their work, acknowledging what other scholars have written about the topic, but then do not sufficiently distinguish what their work is adding to the conversation.

HB : Be succinct—eliminate repetition and superfluous material. Do not attempt to write a mini review. Do not overinterpret your results or extrapolate far beyond the limits of the study. Do not report the same data in the text, tables, and figures.

The importance of the introduction

AF : The introduction is absolutely critical. It needs to bring them straight into your argument and contribution, as quickly as possible.

EF : The introduction is where you make a promise to the reader. It is like you saying, “I identified this problem and will solve it.” What comes next in the paper is how you kept that promise.

Structural pitfalls

EF : Remember, editors are your first audience; make sure your writing is clear and compelling because if the editor cannot understand your writing, chances are that s/he will reject your paper without sending it out for external peer review.

HB : Authors often misplace content across sections, placing material in the introduction that belongs in methods, results, or discussion, and interpretive phrases in results instead of discussion. Additionally, they redundantly present information in multiple sections.

Creating an effective structure

AF : I have one tip which is more of a thinking and planning strategy. I write myself letters about what I think the argument is, what kinds of support it needs, how I will use the specific material I have to provide that support, how it fits together, etc.

EF : Effective writing comes from effective reading—try to appreciate good writing in the work of others as you read their papers. Do you like their writing? Do you like their strategy of advancing arguments? Are you suspicious of their methods, findings, or how they interpret them? Do you see yourself resisting? Examine your reactions. You should also write frequently. Effective writing is like a physical sport; you develop ‘muscle memory’ by hitting a golf ball or scoring a 3-pointer in basketball.

The importance of visualizing data and findings

MS : It is extremely important to present your data in clean and well-organized figures—they act as your business card. Also, understand and consider the page layout and page or column dimensions of your target journal and format your tables and figures accordingly.

EF : Be careful when cropping gels to assemble them in a figure. Make sure that image contrasts are preserved from the original blots. Image cleaning for the sake of readability can alter the meaning of results and eventually be flagged by readers as suspicious.

The power of editing

AF : Most of the time, our first draft is for ourselves. We write what we have been thinking about most, which means the article reflects our questions, our knowledge, and our interests. A round or two of editing and refining before submission to the journal is valuable.

HB : Editing does yourself a favour by minimizing distractions-annoyances-cosmetic points that a reviewer can criticize. Why give reviewers things to criticize when you can eliminate them by submitting a carefully prepared manuscript?

Editing mistakes to avoid

AF : Do not submit an article which is already at or above the word limit for articles in the journal. The review process rarely asks for cuts; usually, you will be asked to clarify or add material. If you are at the maximum word count in the initial submission, you then must cut something during the revision process.

EF : Wait 2-3 days and then reread your draft. You will be surprised to see how many passages in your great paper are too complicated and inscrutable even for you. And you wrote it!

Featured image by Charlotte May via Pexels .

Megan Taphouse , Marketing Executive

Anne Foster , (Editor of Diplomatic History)

Eduardo Franco , (Editor-in-Chief of JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer institute and JNCI Monographs)

Howard Browman , (Editor-in-Chief of ICES Journal of Marine Science)

Michael Schnoor , (Editor-in-Chief of Journal of Leukocyte Biology)

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New Regulations under the Education Act: School Board Codes of Conduct

Pursuant to the Better Schools and Student Outcomes Act, 2023 , two new regulations impacting school boards were published on July 29, 2024:

Code of Conduct Amendments

Ontario Regulation 312/24 : Members of School Boards – Code of Conduct replaces Ontario Regulation 246/18 and takes immediate effect with respect to express requirements regarding trustee behaviour, which must be included in trustee codes of conduct by August 28, 2024 . School boards have existing codes of conduct for trustee members, and many are likely in substantial compliance with the expectations regarding behaviour that are set out in Regulation 312. Nevertheless, school boards should review their codes to ensure compliance. In addition, codes of conduct should be reviewed to ensure compliance with expected changes to the complaint resolution provisions, which we discuss below.

By August 28, 2024, school boards will also be required to post their trustee code of conduct on their website, with annotations identifying the dates of substantive changes, and to make previous versions available to the public. Going forward, any future changes will also need to be posted with annotations.

We note that one of the explicit requirements of the new regulation is a prohibition against allegations that are frivolous or vexatious, or made in bad faith. Additionally, no board member may engage in reprisal related to a complaint. However, these requirements are not in force until s. 24 of Schedule 2 of the Better Schools and Student Outcomes Act, 2023 is proclaimed in force. This date is yet to be determined.

Integrity Commissioners

A second and related new regulation is Ontario Regulation 306/24 : Integrity Commissioners and Process for Alleged Breaches of the Code of Conduct , which is also not in force until s. 24 of Schedule 2 of the Better Schools and Student Outcomes Act, 2023 is proclaimed, on a date yet to be determined.

Once in force, this regulation will require the replacement of school boards’ current code of conduct enforcement procedures with a mandatory three-step process. First, a complaint may be resolved internally. At the second stage, if resolution is not achieved within 20 days of the responding Trustee receiving written notice of the complaint, then the matter must be referred to an Integrity Commissioner.

An Integrity Commissioner has the authority to conduct an investigation and make a decision regarding a complaint referred to them. Where an Integrity Commissioner finds that a code of conduct has been breached, they may also assign consequences from an expanded list of sanctions, which will be available pursuant to amendments to the Education Act , including barring a member from exercising the privileges of the office, and reducing the member’s honorarium by up to 25%. [1]

There is a possible third stage, as either a school board or the member whose conduct was subject to the decision regarding a complaint may file an appeal of the Integrity Commissioner’s decision with the Deputy Minister of Education (or designate), who will then appoint a panel of three individuals to hear the appeal. The decision of the panel, which is final, must be communicated within 30 business days to the parties and to the Deputy Minister.

We can expect these changes to trustee code of conduct complaints to create greater consistency among school board processes and responses to prohibited behaviour. However, Regulation 306/24 provides that “A board shall pay all fees charged by an integrity commissioner appointed under the Act.” We can therefore also expect these costs to be significant for school boards, and potentially be of interest to the public.

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