problem solving techniques for competing value systems

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What Is A Competing Values Framework? The Competing Value Framework In A Nutshell

The competing values framework was created by Robert Quinn and John Rohrbaugh, emerging from research into the major characteristics of effective organizations. The competing values framework is a tool used to understand and characterize organizational behaviors and beliefs and how they contribute to success.

Table of Contents

Understanding the competing values framework

Based on the study of culture, leadership, structure, and information processing, Quinn and Rohrbaugh discovered 39 different indicators of effectiveness. These were then analyzed for patterns and distilled into two major dimensions of organizational success:

• Organizational focus –  which may be internal or external. Some companies focused on internal processes to achieve success, while others achieved similar results by maintaining a focus on competitive advantage and rivalry.
• Organizational structure – is the business flexible or does it prioritize stability? The researchers found that some companies were successful because they were adaptable and agile. Conversely, some succeeded because of stable leadership and process orientation.

The competing values framework has been recognized as one of the 40 most important frameworks in the history of business. It has wide-ranging applications in leadership competency, organizational culture, financial strategy , information processing, and life cycle stage development.

The four major models of the competing values framework

Four major models, or cultural archetypes, are derived from the degree to which a company is internally or externally focused and flexible or stable. 

The interaction between each archetype appears to send conflicting messages, which gives the competing values framework its name. For instance, an organization may need to be flexible while also displaying control and stability at the same time.

With that said, let’s take a look at each archetype below:

• Clan (collaborative) – an organization underpinned by shared values such as stability, cohesion, and participation. The culture is dominated by an emphasis on personal development, mentorship, empathy, and openness. Company effectiveness is also bolstered by risk aversion.
• Adhocracy (creative) – adhocracies are innovative, externally focussed, and flexible. Creative and diverse ideas drive the company forward because leadership is not afraid to take risks. This type of organization is supremely adept at navigating uncertainty, ambiguity, and instability. 
• Hierarchy (controlling) – these organizations are focused internally and owe their success to control, order, and continuous improvement. Culture is overtly formal and procedural. Leadership makes long-term predictions based on efficient, capable, and stable processes that are known quantities.
• Market (competing) – competing companies are driven by profitability, market share, and goal achievement. Success is acquired with an aggressive and decisive mindset that is energized by the presence of competitors. Winning through hard work and productivity is actively pursued. With a relatively stable structure, market organizations create a strong brand identity by delivering high customer value.

The competing values framework and leadership

The organizational values of the framework can also be used to model leadership styles.

Below is a brief look at some leadership types based on the hierarchies listed in the previous section:

• Mentor, team builder, facilitator (Clan) – these leaders value development, communication, and commitment. 
• Innovator, visionary, entrepreneur (Adhocracy) – these leaders preach values around agility, transformation, and innovation .
• Coordinator, organizer, monitor (Hierarchy) – these leaders prefer consistency, uniformity, predictability, timeliness, and efficiency.
• Producer, competitor, go-getter (Market) – these leaders are primarily concerned with attaining dominant market share, goal attainment, and profitability.

Competing values framework examples

To conclude, we’ll discuss some examples from each of the four main archetypes of the competing values framework.

1 – Clan (collaborative)

The clan culture is often found in start-ups and smaller companies, but it can also be found in companies that employ the franchise model.

One particular example is Tom’s of Maine, an American business and Certified B Corporation that manufactures natural health products such as toothpaste, soap, and deodorant.

Founder Tom Chappell stressed the importance of respectful relationships between co-workers, customers, owners, suppliers, the community, and the environment.

Employees are provided with a safe environment to grow and learn and the culture is more reminiscent of an extended family, with Chappell serving as a mentor and parental figure to subordinates.

2 – Adhocracy (creative)

Pixar has a flat organizational structure which creates the ideal conditions for adhocracy to thrive.

The company has a proven track record of both artistic and technological innovations and is known as a leading pioneer in computer animation.

Pixar is proud to proclaim that, unlike its competitors, it has never purchased scripts or ideas from external parties.

All of the company’s worlds and stories from movies such as Toy Story , Finding Nemo, and Cars came from a creative team who were encouraged to take risks and push the metaphorical envelope. 

Indeed, Pixar understands that true creative talent is rare and that management’s role is to not avoid risk entirely but ensure the company can recover easily when inevitable failures occur.

3 – Hierarchy (controlling)

Most investment banks such as Goldman Sachs operate under the hierarchical model with a strict and inflexible structure.

Each is characterized by the following levels with only minor derivations between companies:

• Vice President.
• Director or Senior Vice President, and
• Managing Director.

Each level is associated with certain rituals, benefits, and responsibilities, and employees need to be competitive and possess extreme levels of attention to detail.

Progression through these levels is well defined and has not changed considerably over time. 

To encourage employees to work under the intense pressure of a hierarchical structure, promotions are frequent and there is little exclusivity to the titles in most investment banks.

Goldman Sachs, for example, has over 10,000 vice presidents and many firms also have thousands of managing directors.

4 – Market (competing)

Amazon is an oft-cited example of the market culture. Numerous former employees have spoken about a culture that expected the very best they could deliver and to be constantly climbing the ladder.

There were also claims in a 2015 New York Times article that if employees hit the wall – a phrase used to describe one reaching their emotional or physical limits – they were told the only solution was to “climb the wall”.

While the company has made efforts to address its controversial culture in recent years, Amazon’s obvious focus to be the best means it embodies the best (and worst) aspects of the market model for now.

One look at the company’s leadership principles confirms this, with the blurb under the “ Deliver results” principle reading as follows: “ Leaders focus on the key inputs for their business and deliver them with the right quality and in a timely fashion. Despite setbacks, they rise to the occasion and never settle. ”

Drawbacks of the Competing Values Framework

Oversimplification of organizational culture.

One of the primary drawbacks is the potential oversimplification of complex organizational cultures. Reducing an organization’s culture to one of four categories may not capture the nuanced and multifaceted nature of actual working environments.

Risk of Stereotyping and Mislabeling

There’s a risk that using the CVF could lead to stereotyping or mislabeling of organizations. This might result in misguided strategies or change initiatives that don’t align with the true nature of the organization.

Potential Resistance to Change

Organizations identified with one particular culture type might resist moving towards another, even when necessary, due to a deep-rooted identification with their current cultural type.

Challenge in Balancing Competing Values

The framework’s focus on competing values can make it challenging for leaders to effectively balance these values, especially in dynamic and complex environments.

Difficulty in Measurement and Assessment

Assessing and measuring organizational culture based on the CVF can be challenging and subjective, often requiring in-depth analysis and interpretation.

When to Use the Competing Values Framework

In organizational culture assessment.

CVF is particularly useful for assessing and understanding an organization’s prevailing culture, providing a structured approach to analyze and categorize cultural traits.

During Strategic Planning

The framework can be used in strategic planning to align organizational strategies with the underlying cultural values.

For Leadership Development

Leaders can use the CVF to develop skills and approaches that are congruent with their organization’s cultural type or to adapt their style to drive cultural change.

In Organizational Change Initiatives

The CVF can guide change management processes by identifying cultural shifts that are necessary and feasible within the context of the existing cultural values.

How to Implement the Competing Values Framework

Identifying cultural characteristics.

Begin by identifying the dominant cultural characteristics of the organization using the four types of cultures defined in the CVF.

Analyzing Organizational Needs and Goals

Analyze the current and future needs of the organization to determine which cultural characteristics are most beneficial and aligned with organizational goals.

Developing Strategies for Cultural Alignment

Develop strategies and initiatives that reinforce the desired cultural characteristics. This might involve changes in leadership style, communication, decision-making processes, and human resource practices.

Facilitating Cultural Change

Implement programs and initiatives that facilitate the desired cultural change, ensuring involvement and buy-in from all levels of the organization.

Continuous Monitoring and Adaptation

Regularly monitor the cultural shifts and adapt strategies as necessary. This includes ongoing assessment of the organization’s cultural alignment with its strategic goals.

What to Expect from Implementing the Competing Values Framework

Enhanced understanding of organizational culture.

The CVF provides a comprehensive understanding of the organization’s culture, aiding in identifying strengths and areas for development.

Improved Strategic Alignment

By aligning cultural values with organizational strategies, the CVF can lead to more effective and coherent strategic implementation.

Better Leadership and Management Practices

Understanding the dominant cultural type can guide leaders and managers in adopting practices and behaviors that are more effective within their specific cultural context.

Potential for Increased Organizational Effectiveness

When cultural traits are effectively aligned with organizational goals and strategies, it can lead to increased overall effectiveness and success.

Key takeaways:

• The competing values framework categorizes the values, beliefs, and behaviors that make up organizational and individual success.
• The competing values framework measures success in terms of organizational structure and focus, two dimensions based on the quantitative analysis of 39 effectiveness indicators.
• The competing values framework suggests four different archetypes, with each displaying varying degrees of structure and focus. They are clan, adhocracy, hierarchy, and market. The framework also details the leadership styles that thrive in each archetype.

Key Highlights

• Definition : The Competing Values Framework, crafted by Robert Quinn and John Rohrbaugh, stems from research on effective organizations. It aims to understand and characterize organizational behaviors and beliefs that contribute to success.
• Derived from research in culture, leadership, structure, and information processing.
• Distilled into two dimensions: Organizational focus (internal/external) and Organizational structure (flexible/stable).
• The framework has broad applications in leadership, culture, finance, information processing, and organizational development.
• Clan (Collaborative) : Emphasizes shared values, cohesion, and participation. Focus on personal development, empathy, risk aversion, and mentorship.
• Adhocracy (Creative) : Innovates, is externally focused, and embraces flexibility. Thrives in uncertainty and values diverse, innovative ideas.
• Hierarchy (Controlling) : Internally focused, values control, order, and continuous improvement. Emphasis on stability, efficiency, and established processes.
• Market (Competing) : Driven by profitability, market share, and aggressive goal achievement. Focuses on productivity, customer value, and stability.
• Clan : Mentors, team builders, facilitators who value development and communication.
• Adhocracy : Innovators, visionaries, entrepreneurs focused on agility and innovation .
• Hierarchy : Coordinators, organizers, monitors preferring consistency and efficiency.
• Market : Producers, competitors, goal-oriented leaders seeking market dominance.
• Clan Culture : Tom’s of Maine emphasizes respectful relationships, personal growth , mentorship, and risk aversion.
• Adhocracy Culture : Pixar’s flat structure encourages creativity, innovation , and risk-taking.
• Hierarchy Culture : Investment banks like Goldman Sachs embody a strict, inflexible, hierarchical structure.
• Market Culture : Amazon exemplifies a market-driven culture, emphasizing constant improvement and ambition.
• The Competing Values Framework identifies values, behaviors, and beliefs for organizational success.
• Based on organizational focus and structure dimensions.
• Four cultural archetypes: Clan, Adhocracy, Hierarchy, and Market, each with distinct leadership styles.

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Learn Creative Problem Solving Techniques to Stimulate Innovation in Your Organization

By Kate Eby | October 20, 2017 (updated August 27, 2021)

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In today’s competitive business landscape, organizations need processes in place to make strong, well-informed, and innovative decisions. Problem solving - in particular creative problem solving (CPS) - is a key skill in learning how to accurately identify problems and their causes, generate potential solutions, and evaluate all the possibilities to arrive at a strong corrective course of action. Every team in any organization, regardless of department or industry, needs to be effective, creative, and quick when solving problems. 

In this article, we’ll discuss traditional and creative problem solving, and define the steps, best practices, and common barriers associated. After that, we’ll provide helpful methods and tools to identify the cause(s) of problematic situations, so you can get to the root of the issue and start to generate solutions. Then, we offer nearly 20 creative problem solving techniques to implement at your organization, or even in your personal life. Along the way, experts weigh in on the importance of problem solving, and offer tips and tricks. 

What Is Problem Solving and Decision Making?

Problem solving is the process of working through every aspect of an issue or challenge to reach a solution. Decision making is choosing one of multiple proposed solutions  — therefore, this process also includes defining and evaluating all potential options. Decision making is often one step of the problem solving process, but the two concepts are distinct. 

Collective problem solving is problem solving that includes many different parties and bridges the knowledge of different groups. Collective problem solving is common in business problem solving because workplace decisions typically affect more than one person. 

Problem solving, especially in business, is a complicated science. Not only are business conflicts multifaceted, but they often involve different personalities, levels of authority, and group dynamics. In recent years, however, there has been a rise in psychology-driven problem solving techniques, especially for the workplace. In fact, the psychology of how people solve problems is now studied formally in academic disciplines such as psychology and cognitive science.

Joe Carella is the Assistant Dean for Executive Education at the University of Arizona . Joe has over 20 years of experience in helping executives and corporations in managing change and developing successful business strategies. His doctoral research and executive education engagements have seen him focus on corporate strategy, decision making and business performance with a variety of corporate clients including Hershey’s, Chevron, Fender Musical Instruments Corporation, Intel, DP World, Essilor, BBVA Compass Bank.

He explains some of the basic psychology behind problem solving: “When our brain is engaged in the process of solving problems, it is engaged in a series of steps where it processes and organizes the information it receives while developing new knowledge it uses in future steps. Creativity is embedded in this process by incorporating diverse inputs and/or new ways of organizing the information received.”

Laura MacLeod is a Professor of Social Group Work at City University of New York, and the creator of From The Inside Out Project® , a program that coaches managers in team leadership for a variety of workplaces. She has a background in social work and over two decades of experience as a union worker, and currently leads talks on conflict resolution, problem solving, and listening skills at conferences across the country. 

MacLeod thinks of problem solving as an integral practice of successful organizations. “Problem solving is a collaborative process — all voices are heard and connected, and resolution is reached by the group,” she says. “Problems and conflicts occur in all groups and teams in the workplace, but if leaders involve everyone in working through, they will foster cohesion, engagement, and buy in. Everybody wins.”

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What Is the First Step in Solving a Problem?

Although problem solving techniques vary procedurally, experts agree that the first step in solving a problem is defining the problem. Without a clear articulation of the problem at stake, it is impossible to analyze all the key factors and actors, generate possible solutions, and then evaluate them to pick the best option. 

Dr. Elliott Jaffa is a behavioral and management psychologist with over 25 years of problem solving training and management experience. “Start with defining the problem you want to solve,” he says, “And then define where you want to be, what you want to come away with.” He emphasizes these are the first steps in creating an actionable, clear solution. 

Bryan Mattimore is Co-Founder of Growth Engine, an 18-year old innovation agency based in Norwalk, CT. Bryan has facilitated over 1,000 ideation sessions and managed over 200 successful innovation projects leading to over $3 billion in new sales. His newest book is 21 Days to a Big Idea . When asked about the first critical component to successful problem solving, Mattimore says, “Defining the challenge correctly, or ‘solving the right problem’ … The three creative techniques we use to help our clients ‘identify the right problem to be solved’ are questioning assumptions, 20 questions, and problem redefinition. A good example of this was a new product challenge from a client to help them ‘invent a new iron. We got them to redefine the challenge as first: a) inventing new anti-wrinkle devices, and then b) inventing new garment care devices.”

What Are Problem Solving Skills?

To understand the necessary skills in problem solving, you should first understand the types of thinking often associated with strong decision making. Most problem solving techniques look for a balance between the following binaries:

• Convergent vs. Divergent Thinking: Convergent thinking is bringing together disparate information or ideas to determine a single best answer or solution. This thinking style values logic, speed, and accuracy, and leaves no chance for ambiguity. Divergent thinking is focused on generating new ideas to identify and evaluate multiple possible solutions, often uniting ideas in unexpected combinations. Divergent thinking is characterized by creativity, complexity, curiosity, flexibility, originality, and risk-taking.
• Pragmatics vs. Semantics: Pragmatics refer to the logic of the problem at hand, and semantics is how you interpret the problem to solve it. Both are important to yield the best possible solution.
• Mathematical vs. Personal Problem Solving: Mathematical problem solving involves logic (usually leading to a single correct answer), and is useful for problems that involve numbers or require an objective, clear-cut solution. However, many workplace problems also require personal problem solving, which includes interpersonal, collaborative, and emotional intuition and skills. 

The following basic methods are fundamental problem solving concepts. Implement them to help balance the above thinking models.

• Reproductive Thinking: Reproductive thinking uses past experience to solve a problem. However, be careful not to rely too heavily on past solutions, and to evaluate current problems individually, with their own factors and parameters. 
• Idea Generation: The process of generating many possible courses of action to identify a solution. This is most commonly a team exercise because putting everyone’s ideas on the table will yield the greatest number of potential solutions. 

However, many of the most critical problem solving skills are “soft” skills: personal and interpersonal understanding, intuitiveness, and strong listening. 

Mattimore expands on this idea: “The seven key skills to be an effective creative problem solver that I detail in my book Idea Stormers: How to Lead and Inspire Creative Breakthroughs are: 1) curiosity 2) openness 3) a willingness to embrace ambiguity 4) the ability to identify and transfer principles across categories and disciplines 5) the desire to search for integrity in ideas, 6) the ability to trust and exercise “knowingness” and 7) the ability to envision new worlds (think Dr. Seuss, Star Wars, Hunger Games, Harry Potter, etc.).”

“As an individual contributor to problem solving it is important to exercise our curiosity, questioning, and visioning abilities,” advises Carella. “As a facilitator it is essential to allow for diverse ideas to emerge, be able to synthesize and ‘translate’ other people’s thinking, and build an extensive network of available resources.”

MacLeod says the following interpersonal skills are necessary to effectively facilitate group problem solving: “The abilities to invite participation (hear all voices, encourage silent members), not take sides, manage dynamics between the monopolizer, the scapegoat, and the bully, and deal with conflict (not avoiding it or shutting down).” 

Furthermore, Jaffa explains that the skills of a strong problem solver aren’t measurable. The best way to become a creative problem solver, he says, is to do regular creative exercises that keep you sharp and force you to think outside the box. Carella echoes this sentiment: “Neuroscience tells us that creativity comes from creating novel neural paths. Allow a few minutes each day to exercise your brain with novel techniques and brain ‘tricks’ – read something new, drive to work via a different route, count backwards, smell a new fragrance, etc.”

What Is Creative Problem Solving? History, Evolution, and Core Principles

Creative problem solving (CPS) is a method of problem solving in which you approach a problem or challenge in an imaginative, innovative way. The goal of CPS is to come up with innovative solutions, make a decision, and take action quickly. Sidney Parnes and Alex Osborn are credited with developing the creative problem solving process in the 1950s. The concept was further studied and developed at SUNY Buffalo State and the Creative Education Foundation. 

The core principles of CPS include the following:

• Balance divergent and convergent thinking
• Ask problems as questions
• Defer or suspend judgement
• Focus on “Yes, and…” rather than “No, but…”

According to Carella, “Creative problem solving is the mental process used for generating innovative and imaginative ideas as a solution to a problem or a challenge. Creative problem solving techniques can be pursued by individuals or groups.”

When asked to define CPS, Jaffa explains that it is, by nature, difficult to create boundaries for. “Creative problem solving is not cut and dry,” he says, “If you ask 100 different people the definition of creative problem solving, you’ll get 100 different responses - it’s a non-entity.”

Business presents a unique need for creative problem solving. Especially in today’s competitive landscape, organizations need to iterate quickly, innovate with intention, and constantly be at the cutting-edge of creativity and new ideas to succeed. Developing CPS skills among your workforce not only enables you to make faster, stronger in-the-moment decisions, but also inspires a culture of collaborative work and knowledge sharing. When people work together to generate multiple novel ideas and evaluate solutions, they are also more likely to arrive at an effective decision, which will improve business processes and reduce waste over time. In fact, CPS is so important that some companies now list creative problem solving skills as a job criteria.

MacLeod reiterates the vitality of creative problem solving in the workplace. “Problem solving is crucial for all groups and teams,” she says. “Leaders need to know how to guide the process, hear all voices and involve all members - it’s not easy.”

“This mental process [of CPS] is especially helpful in work environments where individuals and teams continuously struggle with new problems and challenges posed by their continuously changing environment,” adds Carella. 

Problem Solving Best Practices

By nature, creative problem solving does not have a clear-cut set of do’s and don’ts. Rather, creating a culture of strong creative problem solvers requires flexibility, adaptation, and interpersonal skills. However, there are a several best practices that you should incorporate:

• Use a Systematic Approach: Regardless of the technique you use, choose a systematic method that satisfies your workplace conditions and constraints (time, resources, budget, etc.). Although you want to preserve creativity and openness to new ideas, maintaining a structured approach to the process will help you stay organized and focused. 
• View Problems as Opportunities: Rather than focusing on the negatives or giving up when you encounter barriers, treat problems as opportunities to enact positive change on the situation. In fact, some experts even recommend defining problems as opportunities, to remain proactive and positive.
• Change Perspective: Remember that there are multiple ways to solve any problem. If you feel stuck, changing perspective can help generate fresh ideas. A perspective change might entail seeking advice of a mentor or expert, understanding the context of a situation, or taking a break and returning to the problem later. “A sterile or familiar environment can stifle new thinking and new perspectives,” says Carella. “Make sure you get out to draw inspiration from spaces and people out of your usual reach.”
• Break Down Silos: To invite the greatest possible number of perspectives to any problem, encourage teams to work cross-departmentally. This not only combines diverse expertise, but also creates a more trusting and collaborative environment, which is essential to effective CPS. According to Carella, “Big challenges are always best tackled by a group of people rather than left to a single individual. Make sure you create a space where the team can concentrate and convene.”
• Employ Strong Leadership or a Facilitator: Some companies choose to hire an external facilitator that teaches problem solving techniques, best practices, and practicums to stimulate creative problem solving. But, internal managers and staff can also oversee these activities. Regardless of whether the facilitator is internal or external, choose a strong leader who will value others’ ideas and make space for creative solutions.  Mattimore has specific advice regarding the role of a facilitator: “When facilitating, get the group to name a promising idea (it will crystalize the idea and make it more memorable), and facilitate deeper rather than broader. Push for not only ideas, but how an idea might specifically work, some of its possible benefits, who and when would be interested in an idea, etc. This fleshing-out process with a group will generate fewer ideas, but at the end of the day will yield more useful concepts that might be profitably pursued.” Additionally, Carella says that “Executives and managers don’t necessarily have to be creative problem solvers, but need to make sure that their teams are equipped with the right tools and resources to make this happen. Also they need to be able to foster an environment where failing fast is accepted and celebrated.”
• Evaluate Your Current Processes: This practice can help you unlock bottlenecks, and also identify gaps in your data and information management, both of which are common roots of business problems.

MacLeod offers the following additional advice, “Always get the facts. Don’t jump too quickly to a solution – working through [problems] takes time and patience.”

Mattimore also stresses that how you introduce creative problem solving is important. “Do not start by introducing a new company-wide innovation process,” he says. “Instead, encourage smaller teams to pursue specific creative projects, and then build a process from the ground up by emulating these smaller teams’ successful approaches. We say: ‘You don’t innovate by changing the culture, you change the culture by innovating.’”

Barriers to Effective Problem Solving

Learning how to effectively solve problems is difficult and takes time and continual adaptation. There are several common barriers to successful CPS, including:

• Confirmation Bias: The tendency to only search for or interpret information that confirms a person’s existing ideas. People misinterpret or disregard data that doesn’t align with their beliefs.
• Mental Set: People’s inclination to solve problems using the same tactics they have used to solve problems in the past. While this can sometimes be a useful strategy (see Analogical Thinking in a later section), it often limits inventiveness and creativity.
• Functional Fixedness: This is another form of narrow thinking, where people become “stuck” thinking in a certain way and are unable to be flexible or change perspective.
• Unnecessary Constraints: When people are overwhelmed with a problem, they can invent and impose additional limits on solution avenues. To avoid doing this, maintain a structured, level-headed approach to evaluating causes, effects, and potential solutions.
• Groupthink: Be wary of the tendency for group members to agree with each other — this might be out of conflict avoidance, path of least resistance, or fear of speaking up. While this agreeableness might make meetings run smoothly, it can actually stunt creativity and idea generation, therefore limiting the success of your chosen solution.
• Irrelevant Information: The tendency to pile on multiple problems and factors that may not even be related to the challenge at hand. This can cloud the team’s ability to find direct, targeted solutions.
• Paradigm Blindness: This is found in people who are unwilling to adapt or change their worldview, outlook on a particular problem, or typical way of processing information. This can erode the effectiveness of problem solving techniques because they are not aware of the narrowness of their thinking, and therefore cannot think or act outside of their comfort zone.

According to Jaffa, the primary barrier of effective problem solving is rigidity. “The most common things people say are, ‘We’ve never done it before,’ or ‘We’ve always done it this way.’” While these feelings are natural, Jaffa explains that this rigid thinking actually precludes teams from identifying creative, inventive solutions that result in the greatest benefit.

“The biggest barrier to creative problem solving is a lack of awareness – and commitment to – training employees in state-of-the-art creative problem-solving techniques,” Mattimore explains. “We teach our clients how to use ideation techniques (as many as two-dozen different creative thinking techniques) to help them generate more and better ideas. Ideation techniques use specific and customized stimuli, or ‘thought triggers’ to inspire new thinking and new ideas.” 

MacLeod adds that ineffective or rushed leadership is another common culprit. “We're always in a rush to fix quickly,” she says. “Sometimes leaders just solve problems themselves, making unilateral decisions to save time. But the investment is well worth it — leaders will have less on their plates if they can teach and eventually trust the team to resolve. Teams feel empowered and engagement and investment increases.”

Strategies for Problem Cause Identification

As discussed, most experts agree that the first and most crucial step in problem solving is defining the problem. Once you’ve done this, however, it may not be appropriate to move straight to the solution phase. Rather, it is often helpful to identify the cause(s) of the problem: This will better inform your solution planning and execution, and help ensure that you don’t fall victim to the same challenges in the future. 

Below are some of the most common strategies for identifying the cause of a problem:

• Root Cause Analysis: This method helps identify the most critical cause of a problem. A factor is considered a root cause if removing it prevents the problem from recurring. Performing a root cause analysis is a 12 step process that includes: define the problem, gather data on the factors contributing to the problem, group the factors based on shared characteristics, and create a cause-and-effect timeline to determine the root cause. After that, you identify and evaluate corrective actions to eliminate the root cause.

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Problem Solving Techniques and Strategies

In this section, we’ll explain several traditional and creative problem solving methods that you can use to identify challenges, create actionable goals, and resolve problems as they arise. Although there is often procedural and objective crossover among techniques, they are grouped by theme so you can identify which method works best for your organization.

Divergent Creative Problem Solving Techniques

Brainstorming: One of the most common methods of divergent thinking, brainstorming works best in an open group setting where everyone is encouraged to share their creative ideas. The goal is to generate as many ideas as possible – you analyze, critique, and evaluate the ideas only after the brainstorming session is complete. To learn more specific brainstorming techniques, read this article . 

Mind Mapping: This is a visual thinking tool where you graphically depict concepts and their relation to one another. You can use mind mapping to structure the information you have, analyze and synthesize it, and generate solutions and new ideas from there. The goal of a mind map is to simplify complicated problems so you can more clearly identify solutions.

Appreciative Inquiry (AI): The basic assumption of AI is that “an organization is a mystery to be embraced.” Using this principle, AI takes a positive, inquisitive approach to identifying the problem, analyzing the causes, and presenting possible solutions. The five principles of AI emphasize dialogue, deliberate language and outlook, and social bonding. 

Lateral Thinking: This is an indirect problem solving approach centered on the momentum of idea generation. As opposed to critical thinking, where people value ideas based on their truth and the absence of errors, lateral thinking values the “movement value” of new ideas: This means that you reward team members for producing a large volume of new ideas rapidly. With this approach, you’ll generate many new ideas before approving or rejecting any.

Problem Solving Techniques to Change Perspective

Constructive Controversy: This is a structured approach to group decision making to preserve critical thinking and disagreement while maintaining order. After defining the problem and presenting multiple courses of action, the group divides into small advocacy teams who research, analyze, and refute a particular option. Once each advocacy team has presented its best-case scenario, the group has a discussion (advocacy teams still defend their presented idea). Arguing and playing devil’s advocate is encouraged to reach an understanding of the pros and cons of each option. Next, advocacy teams abandon their cause and evaluate the options openly until they reach a consensus. All team members formally commit to the decision, regardless of whether they advocated for it at the beginning. You can learn more about the goals and steps in constructive controversy here . 

Carella is a fan of this approach. “Create constructive controversy by having two teams argue the pros and cons of a certain idea,” he says. “It forces unconscious biases to surface and gives space for new ideas to formulate.”

Abstraction: In this method, you apply the problem to a fictional model of the current situation. Mapping an issue to an abstract situation can shed extraneous or irrelevant factors, and reveal places where you are overlooking obvious solutions or becoming bogged down by circumstances. 

Analogical Thinking: Also called analogical reasoning , this method relies on an analogy: using information from one problem to solve another problem (these separate problems are called domains). It can be difficult for teams to create analogies among unrelated problems, but it is a strong technique to help you identify repeated issues, zoom out and change perspective, and prevent the problems from occurring in the future. .

CATWOE: This framework ensures that you evaluate the perspectives of those whom your decision will impact. The factors and questions to consider include (which combine to make the acronym CATWOE):

• Customers: Who is on the receiving end of your decisions? What problem do they currently have, and how will they react to your proposed solution?
• Actors: Who is acting to bring your solution to fruition? How will they respond and be affected by your decision?
• Transformation Process: What processes will you employ to transform your current situation and meet your goals? What are the inputs and outputs?
• World View: What is the larger context of your proposed solution? What is the larger, big-picture problem you are addressing?
• Owner: Who actually owns the process? How might they influence your proposed solution (positively or negatively), and how can you influence them to help you?
• Environmental Constraints: What are the limits (environmental, resource- and budget-wise, ethical, legal, etc.) on your ideas? How will you revise or work around these constraints?

Complex Problem Solving

Soft Systems Methodology (SSM): For extremely complex problems, SSM can help you identify how factors interact, and determine the best course of action. SSM was borne out of organizational process modeling and general systems theory, which hold that everything is part of a greater, interconnected system: This idea works well for “hard” problems (where logic and a single correct answer are prioritized), and less so for “soft” problems (i.e., human problems where factors such as personality, emotions, and hierarchy come into play). Therefore, SSM defines a seven step process for problem solving: 

• Begin with the problem or problematic situation 
• Express the problem or situation and build a rich picture of the themes of the problem 
• Identify the root causes of the problem (most commonly with CATWOE)
• Build conceptual models of human activity surrounding the problem or situation
• Compare models with real-world happenings
• Identify changes to the situation that are both feasible and desirable
• Take action to implement changes and improve the problematic situation

SSM can be used for any complex soft problem, and is also a useful tool in change management . 

Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA): This method helps teams anticipate potential problems and take steps to mitigate them. Use FMEA when you are designing (redesigning) a complex function, process, product, or service. First, identify the failure modes, which are the possible ways that a project could fail. Then, perform an effects analysis to understand the consequences of each of the potential downfalls. This exercise is useful for internalizing the severity of each potential failure and its effects so you can make adjustments or safeties in your plan. 

‌ Download FMEA Template  

Problem Solving Based on Data or Logic (Heuristic Methods)

TRIZ: A Russian-developed problem solving technique that values logic, analysis, and forecasting over intuition or soft reasoning. TRIZ (translated to “theory of inventive problem solving” or TIPS in English) is a systematic approach to defining and identifying an inventive solution to difficult problems. The method offers several strategies for arriving at an inventive solution, including a contradictions matrix to assess trade-offs among solutions, a Su-Field analysis which uses formulas to describe a system by its structure, and ARIZ (algorithm of inventive problem solving) which uses algorithms to find inventive solutions. 

Inductive Reasoning: A logical method that uses evidence to conclude that a certain answer is probable (this is opposed to deductive reasoning, where the answer is assumed to be true). Inductive reasoning uses a limited number of observations to make useful, logical conclusions (for example, the Scientific Method is an extreme example of inductive reasoning). However, this method doesn’t always map well to human problems in the workplace — in these instances, managers should employ intuitive inductive reasoning , which allows for more automatic, implicit conclusions so that work can progress. This, of course, retains the principle that these intuitive conclusions are not necessarily the one and only correct answer. 

Process-Oriented Problem Solving Methods

Plan Do Check Act (PDCA): This is an iterative management technique used to ensure continual improvement of products or processes. First, teams plan (establish objectives to meet desired end results), then do (implement the plan, new processes, or produce the output), then check (compare expected with actual results), and finally act (define how the organization will act in the future, based on the performance and knowledge gained in the previous three steps). 

Means-End Analysis (MEA): The MEA strategy is to reduce the difference between the current (problematic) state and the goal state. To do so, teams compile information on the multiple factors that contribute to the disparity between the current and goal states. Then they try to change or eliminate the factors one by one, beginning with the factor responsible for the greatest difference in current and goal state. By systematically tackling the multiple factors that cause disparity between the problem and desired outcome, teams can better focus energy and control each step of the process. 

Hurson’s Productive Thinking Model: This technique was developed by Tim Hurson, and is detailed in his 2007 book Think Better: An Innovator’s Guide to Productive Thinking . The model outlines six steps that are meant to give structure while maintaining creativity and critical thinking: 1) Ask “What is going on?” 2) Ask “What is success?” 3) Ask “What is the question?” 4) Generate answers 5) Forge the solution 6) Align resources. 

Control Influence Accept (CIA): The basic premise of CIA is that how you respond to problems determines how successful you will be in overcoming them. Therefore, this model is both a problem solving technique and stress-management tool that ensures you aren’t responding to problems in a reactive and unproductive way. The steps in CIA include:

• Control: Identify the aspects of the problem that are within your control.
• Influence: Identify the aspects of the problem that you cannot control, but that you can influence.
• Accept: Identify the aspects of the problem that you can neither control nor influence, and react based on this composite information. 

GROW Model: This is a straightforward problem solving method for goal setting that clearly defines your goals and current situation, and then asks you to define the potential solutions and be realistic about your chosen course of action. The steps break down as follows:

• Goal: What do you want?
• Reality: Where are you now?
• Options: What could you do?
• Will: What will you do?

OODA Loop: This acronym stands for observe, orient, decide, and act. This approach is a decision-making cycle that values agility and flexibility over raw human force. It is framed as a loop because of the understanding that any team will continually encounter problems or opponents to success and have to overcome them.

There are also many un-named creative problem solving techniques that follow a sequenced series of steps. While the exact steps vary slightly, they all follow a similar trajectory and aim to accomplish similar goals of problem, cause, and goal identification, idea generation, and active solution implementation.

MacLeod offers her own problem solving procedure, which echoes the above steps:

“1. Recognize the Problem: State what you see. Sometimes the problem is covert. 2. Identify: Get the facts — What exactly happened? What is the issue? 3. and 4. Explore and Connect: Dig deeper and encourage group members to relate their similar experiences. Now you're getting more into the feelings and background [of the situation], not just the facts.  5. Possible Solutions: Consider and brainstorm ideas for resolution. 6. Implement: Choose a solution and try it out — this could be role play and/or a discussion of how the solution would be put in place.  7. Evaluate: Revisit to see if the solution was successful or not.”

Many of these problem solving techniques can be used in concert with one another, or multiple can be appropriate for any given problem. It’s less about facilitating a perfect CPS session, and more about encouraging team members to continually think outside the box and push beyond personal boundaries that inhibit their innovative thinking. So, try out several methods, find those that resonate best with your team, and continue adopting new techniques and adapting your processes along the way. 

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Problem solving techniques: Steps and methods

Posted on May 29, 2019

Constant disruption has become a hallmark of the modern workforce and organisations want problem solving skills to combat this. Employers need people who can respond to change – be that evolving technology, new competitors, different models for doing business, or any of the other transformations that have taken place in recent years.

In addition, problem solving techniques encompass many of the other top skills employers seek . For example, LinkedIn’s list of the most in-demand soft skills of 2019 includes creativity, collaboration and adaptability, all of which fall under the problem-solving umbrella.

Despite its importance, many employees misunderstand what the problem solving method really involves.

What constitutes effective problem solving?

Effective problem solving doesn’t mean going away and coming up with an answer immediately. In fact, this isn’t good problem solving at all, because you’ll be running with the first solution that comes into your mind, which often isn’t the best.

Instead, you should look at problem solving more as a process with several steps involved that will help you reach the best outcome. Those steps are:

• Define the problem
• List all the possible solutions
• Evaluate the options
• Select the best solution
• Create an implementation plan
• Communicate your solution

Let’s look at each step in a little more detail.

1. Define the problem

The first step to solving a problem is defining what the problem actually is – sounds simple, right? Well no. An effective problem solver will take the thoughts of everyone involved into account, but different people might have different ideas on what the root cause of the issue really is. It’s up to you to actively listen to everyone without bringing any of your own preconceived notions to the conversation. Learning to differentiate facts from opinion is an essential part of this process.

An effective problem solver will take the opinions of everyone involved into account

The same can be said of data. Depending on what the problem is, there will be varying amounts of information available that will help you work out what’s gone wrong. There should be at least some data involved in any problem, and it’s up to you to gather as much as possible and analyse it objectively.

2. List all the possible solutions

Once you’ve identified what the real issue is, it’s time to think of solutions. Brainstorming as many solutions as possible will help you arrive at the best answer because you’ll be considering all potential options and scenarios. You should take everyone’s thoughts into account when you’re brainstorming these ideas, as well as all the insights you’ve gleaned from your data analysis. It also helps to seek input from others at this stage, as they may come up with solutions you haven’t thought of.

Depending on the type of problem, it can be useful to think of both short-term and long-term solutions, as some of your options may take a while to implement.

3. Evaluate the options

Each option will have pros and cons, and it’s important you list all of these, as well as how each solution could impact key stakeholders. Once you’ve narrowed down your options to three or four, it’s often a good idea to go to other employees for feedback just in case you’ve missed something. You should also work out how each option ties in with the broader goals of the business.

There may be a way to merge two options together in order to satisfy more people.

4. Select an option

Only now should you choose which solution you’re going to go with. What you decide should be whatever solves the problem most effectively while also taking the interests of everyone involved into account. There may be a way to merge two options together in order to satisfy more people.

5. Create an implementation plan

At this point you might be thinking it’s time to sit back and relax – problem solved, right? There are actually two more steps involved if you want your problem solving method to be truly effective. The first is to create an implementation plan. After all, if you don’t carry out your solution effectively, you’re not really solving the problem at all. 

Create an implementation plan on how you will put your solution into practice. One problem solving technique that many use here is to introduce a testing and feedback phase just to make sure the option you’ve selected really is the most viable. You’ll also want to include any changes to your solution that may occur in your implementation plan, as well as how you’ll monitor compliance and success.

6. Communicate your solution

There’s one last step to consider as part of the problem solving methodology, and that’s communicating your solution . Without this crucial part of the process, how is anyone going to know what you’ve decided? Make sure you communicate your decision to all the people who might be impacted by it. Not everyone is going to be 100 per cent happy with it, so when you communicate you must give them context. Explain exactly why you’ve made that decision and how the pros mean it’s better than any of the other options you came up with.

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How to improve your problem solving skills and build effective problem solving strategies

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Effective problem solving is all about using the right process and following a plan tailored to the issue at hand. Recognizing your team or organization has an issue isn’t enough to come up with effective problem solving strategies. 

To truly understand a problem and develop appropriate solutions, you will want to follow a solid process, follow the necessary problem solving steps, and bring all of your problem solving skills to the table.  

We’ll first guide you through the seven step problem solving process you and your team can use to effectively solve complex business challenges. We’ll also look at what problem solving strategies you can employ with your team when looking for a way to approach the process. We’ll then discuss the problem solving skills you need to be more effective at solving problems, complete with an activity from the SessionLab library you can use to develop that skill in your team.

Let’s get to it! 

What is a problem solving process?

• What are the problem solving steps I need to follow?

Problem solving strategies

What skills do i need to be an effective problem solver, how can i improve my problem solving skills.

Solving problems is like baking a cake. You can go straight into the kitchen without a recipe or the right ingredients and do your best, but the end result is unlikely to be very tasty!

Using a process to bake a cake allows you to use the best ingredients without waste, collect the right tools, account for allergies, decide whether it is a birthday or wedding cake, and then bake efficiently and on time. The result is a better cake that is fit for purpose, tastes better and has created less mess in the kitchen. Also, it should have chocolate sprinkles. Having a step by step process to solve organizational problems allows you to go through each stage methodically and ensure you are trying to solve the right problems and select the most appropriate, effective solutions.

What are the problem solving steps I need to follow? 

All problem solving processes go through a number of steps in order to move from identifying a problem to resolving it.

Depending on your problem solving model and who you ask, there can be anything between four and nine problem solving steps you should follow in order to find the right solution. Whatever framework you and your group use, there are some key items that should be addressed in order to have an effective process.

We’ve looked at problem solving processes from sources such as the American Society for Quality and their four step approach , and Mediate ‘s six step process. By reflecting on those and our own problem solving processes, we’ve come up with a sequence of seven problem solving steps we feel best covers everything you need in order to effectively solve problems.

1. Problem identification 

The first stage of any problem solving process is to identify the problem or problems you might want to solve. Effective problem solving strategies always begin by allowing a group scope to articulate what they believe the problem to be and then coming to some consensus over which problem they approach first. Problem solving activities used at this stage often have a focus on creating frank, open discussion so that potential problems can be brought to the surface.

2. Problem analysis 

Though this step is not a million miles from problem identification, problem analysis deserves to be considered separately. It can often be an overlooked part of the process and is instrumental when it comes to developing effective solutions.

The process of problem analysis means ensuring that the problem you are seeking to solve is the right problem . As part of this stage, you may look deeper and try to find the root cause of a specific problem at a team or organizational level.

Remember that problem solving strategies should not only be focused on putting out fires in the short term but developing long term solutions that deal with the root cause of organizational challenges. 

Whatever your approach, analyzing a problem is crucial in being able to select an appropriate solution and the problem solving skills deployed in this stage are beneficial for the rest of the process and ensuring the solutions you create are fit for purpose.

3. Solution generation

Once your group has nailed down the particulars of the problem you wish to solve, you want to encourage a free flow of ideas connecting to solving that problem. This can take the form of problem solving games that encourage creative thinking or problem solving activities designed to produce working prototypes of possible solutions. 

The key to ensuring the success of this stage of the problem solving process is to encourage quick, creative thinking and create an open space where all ideas are considered. The best solutions can come from unlikely places and by using problem solving techniques that celebrate invention, you might come up with solution gold. 

4. Solution development

No solution is likely to be perfect right out of the gate. It’s important to discuss and develop the solutions your group has come up with over the course of following the previous problem solving steps in order to arrive at the best possible solution. Problem solving games used in this stage involve lots of critical thinking, measuring potential effort and impact, and looking at possible solutions analytically. 

During this stage, you will often ask your team to iterate and improve upon your frontrunning solutions and develop them further. Remember that problem solving strategies always benefit from a multitude of voices and opinions, and not to let ego get involved when it comes to choosing which solutions to develop and take further.

Finding the best solution is the goal of all problem solving workshops and here is the place to ensure that your solution is well thought out, sufficiently robust and fit for purpose. 

5. Decision making 

Nearly there! Once your group has reached consensus and selected a solution that applies to the problem at hand you have some decisions to make. You will want to work on allocating ownership of the project, figure out who will do what, how the success of the solution will be measured and decide the next course of action.

The decision making stage is a part of the problem solving process that can get missed or taken as for granted. Fail to properly allocate roles and plan out how a solution will actually be implemented and it less likely to be successful in solving the problem.

Have clear accountabilities, actions, timeframes, and follow-ups. Make these decisions and set clear next-steps in the problem solving workshop so that everyone is aligned and you can move forward effectively as a group. 

Ensuring that you plan for the roll-out of a solution is one of the most important problem solving steps. Without adequate planning or oversight, it can prove impossible to measure success or iterate further if the problem was not solved. 

6. Solution implementation 

This is what we were waiting for! All problem solving strategies have the end goal of implementing a solution and solving a problem in mind. 

Remember that in order for any solution to be successful, you need to help your group through all of the previous problem solving steps thoughtfully. Only then can you ensure that you are solving the right problem but also that you have developed the correct solution and can then successfully implement and measure the impact of that solution.

Project management and communication skills are key here – your solution may need to adjust when out in the wild or you might discover new challenges along the way.

7. Solution evaluation 

So you and your team developed a great solution to a problem and have a gut feeling its been solved. Work done, right? Wrong. All problem solving strategies benefit from evaluation, consideration, and feedback. You might find that the solution does not work for everyone, might create new problems, or is potentially so successful that you will want to roll it out to larger teams or as part of other initiatives. 

None of that is possible without taking the time to evaluate the success of the solution you developed in your problem solving model and adjust if necessary.

Remember that the problem solving process is often iterative and it can be common to not solve complex issues on the first try. Even when this is the case, you and your team will have generated learning that will be important for future problem solving workshops or in other parts of the organization. 

It’s worth underlining how important record keeping is throughout the problem solving process. If a solution didn’t work, you need to have the data and records to see why that was the case. If you go back to the drawing board, notes from the previous workshop can help save time. Data and insight is invaluable at every stage of the problem solving process and this one is no different.

Problem solving workshops made easy

Problem solving strategies are methods of approaching and facilitating the process of problem-solving with a set of techniques , actions, and processes. Different strategies are more effective if you are trying to solve broad problems such as achieving higher growth versus more focused problems like, how do we improve our customer onboarding process?

Broadly, the problem solving steps outlined above should be included in any problem solving strategy though choosing where to focus your time and what approaches should be taken is where they begin to differ. You might find that some strategies ask for the problem identification to be done prior to the session or that everything happens in the course of a one day workshop.

The key similarity is that all good problem solving strategies are structured and designed. Four hours of open discussion is never going to be as productive as a four-hour workshop designed to lead a group through a problem solving process.

Good problem solving strategies are tailored to the team, organization and problem you will be attempting to solve. Here are some example problem solving strategies you can learn from or use to get started.

Use a workshop to lead a team through a group process

Often, the first step to solving problems or organizational challenges is bringing a group together effectively. Most teams have the tools, knowledge, and expertise necessary to solve their challenges – they just need some guidance in how to use leverage those skills and a structure and format that allows people to focus their energies.

Facilitated workshops are one of the most effective ways of solving problems of any scale. By designing and planning your workshop carefully, you can tailor the approach and scope to best fit the needs of your team and organization. 

Problem solving workshop

• Creating a bespoke, tailored process
• Tackling problems of any size
• Building in-house workshop ability and encouraging their use

Workshops are an effective strategy for solving problems. By using tried and test facilitation techniques and methods, you can design and deliver a workshop that is perfectly suited to the unique variables of your organization. You may only have the capacity for a half-day workshop and so need a problem solving process to match. 

By using our session planner tool and importing methods from our library of 700+ facilitation techniques, you can create the right problem solving workshop for your team. It might be that you want to encourage creative thinking or look at things from a new angle to unblock your groups approach to problem solving. By tailoring your workshop design to the purpose, you can help ensure great results.

One of the main benefits of a workshop is the structured approach to problem solving. Not only does this mean that the workshop itself will be successful, but many of the methods and techniques will help your team improve their working processes outside of the workshop. 

We believe that workshops are one of the best tools you can use to improve the way your team works together. Start with a problem solving workshop and then see what team building, culture or design workshops can do for your organization!

Run a design sprint

Great for: 

• aligning large, multi-discipline teams
• quickly designing and testing solutions
• tackling large, complex organizational challenges and breaking them down into smaller tasks

By using design thinking principles and methods, a design sprint is a great way of identifying, prioritizing and prototyping solutions to long term challenges that can help solve major organizational problems with quick action and measurable results.

Some familiarity with design thinking is useful, though not integral, and this strategy can really help a team align if there is some discussion around which problems should be approached first. 

The stage-based structure of the design sprint is also very useful for teams new to design thinking.  The inspiration phase, where you look to competitors that have solved your problem, and the rapid prototyping and testing phases are great for introducing new concepts that will benefit a team in all their future work. 

It can be common for teams to look inward for solutions and so looking to the market for solutions you can iterate on can be very productive. Instilling an agile prototyping and testing mindset can also be great when helping teams move forwards – generating and testing solutions quickly can help save time in the long run and is also pretty exciting!

Break problems down into smaller issues

Organizational challenges and problems are often complicated and large scale in nature. Sometimes, trying to resolve such an issue in one swoop is simply unachievable or overwhelming. Try breaking down such problems into smaller issues that you can work on step by step. You may not be able to solve the problem of churning customers off the bat, but you can work with your team to identify smaller effort but high impact elements and work on those first.

This problem solving strategy can help a team generate momentum, prioritize and get some easy wins. It’s also a great strategy to employ with teams who are just beginning to learn how to approach the problem solving process. If you want some insight into a way to employ this strategy, we recommend looking at our design sprint template below!

Use guiding frameworks or try new methodologies

Some problems are best solved by introducing a major shift in perspective or by using new methodologies that encourage your team to think differently.

Props and tools such as Methodkit , which uses a card-based toolkit for facilitation, or Lego Serious Play can be great ways to engage your team and find an inclusive, democratic problem solving strategy. Remember that play and creativity are great tools for achieving change and whatever the challenge, engaging your participants can be very effective where other strategies may have failed.

LEGO Serious Play

• Improving core problem solving skills
• Thinking outside of the box
• Encouraging creative solutions

LEGO Serious Play is a problem solving methodology designed to get participants thinking differently by using 3D models and kinesthetic learning styles. By physically building LEGO models based on questions and exercises, participants are encouraged to think outside of the box and create their own responses. 

Collaborate LEGO Serious Play exercises are also used to encourage communication and build problem solving skills in a group. By using this problem solving process, you can often help different kinds of learners and personality types contribute and unblock organizational problems with creative thinking. 

Problem solving strategies like LEGO Serious Play are super effective at helping a team solve more skills-based problems such as communication between teams or a lack of creative thinking. Some problems are not suited to LEGO Serious Play and require a different problem solving strategy.

Card Decks and Method Kits

• New facilitators or non-facilitators 
• Approaching difficult subjects with a simple, creative framework
• Engaging those with varied learning styles

Card decks and method kids are great tools for those new to facilitation or for whom facilitation is not the primary role. Card decks such as the emotional culture deck can be used for complete workshops and in many cases, can be used right out of the box. Methodkit has a variety of kits designed for scenarios ranging from personal development through to personas and global challenges so you can find the right deck for your particular needs.

Having an easy to use framework that encourages creativity or a new approach can take some of the friction or planning difficulties out of the workshop process and energize a team in any setting. Simplicity is the key with these methods. By ensuring everyone on your team can get involved and engage with the process as quickly as possible can really contribute to the success of your problem solving strategy.

Source external advice

Looking to peers, experts and external facilitators can be a great way of approaching the problem solving process. Your team may not have the necessary expertise, insights of experience to tackle some issues, or you might simply benefit from a fresh perspective. Some problems may require bringing together an entire team, and coaching managers or team members individually might be the right approach. Remember that not all problems are best resolved in the same manner.

If you’re a solo entrepreneur, peer groups, coaches and mentors can also be invaluable at not only solving specific business problems, but in providing a support network for resolving future challenges. One great approach is to join a Mastermind Group and link up with like-minded individuals and all grow together. Remember that however you approach the sourcing of external advice, do so thoughtfully, respectfully and honestly. Reciprocate where you can and prepare to be surprised by just how kind and helpful your peers can be!

Mastermind Group

• Solo entrepreneurs or small teams with low capacity
• Peer learning and gaining outside expertise
• Getting multiple external points of view quickly

Problem solving in large organizations with lots of skilled team members is one thing, but how about if you work for yourself or in a very small team without the capacity to get the most from a design sprint or LEGO Serious Play session? 

A mastermind group – sometimes known as a peer advisory board – is where a group of people come together to support one another in their own goals, challenges, and businesses. Each participant comes to the group with their own purpose and the other members of the group will help them create solutions, brainstorm ideas, and support one another. 

Mastermind groups are very effective in creating an energized, supportive atmosphere that can deliver meaningful results. Learning from peers from outside of your organization or industry can really help unlock new ways of thinking and drive growth. Access to the experience and skills of your peers can be invaluable in helping fill the gaps in your own ability, particularly in young companies.

A mastermind group is a great solution for solo entrepreneurs, small teams, or for organizations that feel that external expertise or fresh perspectives will be beneficial for them. It is worth noting that Mastermind groups are often only as good as the participants and what they can bring to the group. Participants need to be committed, engaged and understand how to work in this context. 

Coaching and mentoring

• Focused learning and development
• Filling skills gaps
• Working on a range of challenges over time

Receiving advice from a business coach or building a mentor/mentee relationship can be an effective way of resolving certain challenges. The one-to-one format of most coaching and mentor relationships can really help solve the challenges those individuals are having and benefit the organization as a result.

A great mentor can be invaluable when it comes to spotting potential problems before they arise and coming to understand a mentee very well has a host of other business benefits. You might run an internal mentorship program to help develop your team’s problem solving skills and strategies or as part of a large learning and development program. External coaches can also be an important part of your problem solving strategy, filling skills gaps for your management team or helping with specific business issues. 

Now we’ve explored the problem solving process and the steps you will want to go through in order to have an effective session, let’s look at the skills you and your team need to be more effective problem solvers.

Problem solving skills are highly sought after, whatever industry or team you work in. Organizations are keen to employ people who are able to approach problems thoughtfully and find strong, realistic solutions. Whether you are a facilitator , a team leader or a developer, being an effective problem solver is a skill you’ll want to develop.

Problem solving skills form a whole suite of techniques and approaches that an individual uses to not only identify problems but to discuss them productively before then developing appropriate solutions.

Here are some of the most important problem solving skills everyone from executives to junior staff members should learn. We’ve also included an activity or exercise from the SessionLab library that can help you and your team develop that skill. 

If you’re running a workshop or training session to try and improve problem solving skills in your team, try using these methods to supercharge your process!

Active listening

Active listening is one of the most important skills anyone who works with people can possess. In short, active listening is a technique used to not only better understand what is being said by an individual, but also to be more aware of the underlying message the speaker is trying to convey. When it comes to problem solving, active listening is integral for understanding the position of every participant and to clarify the challenges, ideas and solutions they bring to the table.

Some active listening skills include:

• Paying complete attention to the speaker.
• Removing distractions.
• Avoid interruption.
• Taking the time to fully understand before preparing a rebuttal.
• Responding respectfully and appropriately.
• Demonstrate attentiveness and positivity with an open posture, making eye contact with the speaker, smiling and nodding if appropriate. Show that you are listening and encourage them to continue.
• Be aware of and respectful of feelings. Judge the situation and respond appropriately. You can disagree without being disrespectful.   
• Observe body language. 
• Paraphrase what was said in your own words, either mentally or verbally.
• Remain neutral. 
• Reflect and take a moment before responding.
• Ask deeper questions based on what is said and clarify points where necessary.   

Active Listening   #hyperisland   #skills   #active listening   #remote-friendly   This activity supports participants to reflect on a question and generate their own solutions using simple principles of active listening and peer coaching. It’s an excellent introduction to active listening but can also be used with groups that are already familiar with it. Participants work in groups of three and take turns being: “the subject”, the listener, and the observer.

Analytical skills

All problem solving models require strong analytical skills, particularly during the beginning of the process and when it comes to analyzing how solutions have performed.

Analytical skills are primarily focused on performing an effective analysis by collecting, studying and parsing data related to a problem or opportunity. 

It often involves spotting patterns, being able to see things from different perspectives and using observable facts and data to make suggestions or produce insight. 

Analytical skills are also important at every stage of the problem solving process and by having these skills, you can ensure that any ideas or solutions you create or backed up analytically and have been sufficiently thought out.

Nine Whys   #innovation   #issue analysis   #liberating structures   With breathtaking simplicity, you can rapidly clarify for individuals and a group what is essentially important in their work. You can quickly reveal when a compelling purpose is missing in a gathering and avoid moving forward without clarity. When a group discovers an unambiguous shared purpose, more freedom and more responsibility are unleashed. You have laid the foundation for spreading and scaling innovations with fidelity.

Collaboration

Trying to solve problems on your own is difficult. Being able to collaborate effectively, with a free exchange of ideas, to delegate and be a productive member of a team is hugely important to all problem solving strategies.

Remember that whatever your role, collaboration is integral, and in a problem solving process, you are all working together to find the best solution for everyone. 

Marshmallow challenge with debriefing   #teamwork   #team   #leadership   #collaboration   In eighteen minutes, teams must build the tallest free-standing structure out of 20 sticks of spaghetti, one yard of tape, one yard of string, and one marshmallow. The marshmallow needs to be on top. The Marshmallow Challenge was developed by Tom Wujec, who has done the activity with hundreds of groups around the world. Visit the Marshmallow Challenge website for more information. This version has an extra debriefing question added with sample questions focusing on roles within the team.

Communication  

Being an effective communicator means being empathetic, clear and succinct, asking the right questions, and demonstrating active listening skills throughout any discussion or meeting. 

In a problem solving setting, you need to communicate well in order to progress through each stage of the process effectively. As a team leader, it may also fall to you to facilitate communication between parties who may not see eye to eye. Effective communication also means helping others to express themselves and be heard in a group.

Bus Trip   #feedback   #communication   #appreciation   #closing   #thiagi   #team   This is one of my favourite feedback games. I use Bus Trip at the end of a training session or a meeting, and I use it all the time. The game creates a massive amount of energy with lots of smiles, laughs, and sometimes even a teardrop or two.

Creative problem solving skills can be some of the best tools in your arsenal. Thinking creatively, being able to generate lots of ideas and come up with out of the box solutions is useful at every step of the process. 

The kinds of problems you will likely discuss in a problem solving workshop are often difficult to solve, and by approaching things in a fresh, creative manner, you can often create more innovative solutions.

Having practical creative skills is also a boon when it comes to problem solving. If you can help create quality design sketches and prototypes in record time, it can help bring a team to alignment more quickly or provide a base for further iteration.

The paper clip method   #sharing   #creativity   #warm up   #idea generation   #brainstorming   The power of brainstorming. A training for project leaders, creativity training, and to catalyse getting new solutions.

Critical thinking

Critical thinking is one of the fundamental problem solving skills you’ll want to develop when working on developing solutions. Critical thinking is the ability to analyze, rationalize and evaluate while being aware of personal bias, outlying factors and remaining open-minded.

Defining and analyzing problems without deploying critical thinking skills can mean you and your team go down the wrong path. Developing solutions to complex issues requires critical thinking too – ensuring your team considers all possibilities and rationally evaluating them. 

Agreement-Certainty Matrix   #issue analysis   #liberating structures   #problem solving   You can help individuals or groups avoid the frequent mistake of trying to solve a problem with methods that are not adapted to the nature of their challenge. The combination of two questions makes it possible to easily sort challenges into four categories: simple, complicated, complex , and chaotic .  A problem is simple when it can be solved reliably with practices that are easy to duplicate.  It is complicated when experts are required to devise a sophisticated solution that will yield the desired results predictably.  A problem is complex when there are several valid ways to proceed but outcomes are not predictable in detail.  Chaotic is when the context is too turbulent to identify a path forward.  A loose analogy may be used to describe these differences: simple is like following a recipe, complicated like sending a rocket to the moon, complex like raising a child, and chaotic is like the game “Pin the Tail on the Donkey.”  The Liberating Structures Matching Matrix in Chapter 5 can be used as the first step to clarify the nature of a challenge and avoid the mismatches between problems and solutions that are frequently at the root of chronic, recurring problems.

Data analysis 

Though it shares lots of space with general analytical skills, data analysis skills are something you want to cultivate in their own right in order to be an effective problem solver.

Being good at data analysis doesn’t just mean being able to find insights from data, but also selecting the appropriate data for a given issue, interpreting it effectively and knowing how to model and present that data. Depending on the problem at hand, it might also include a working knowledge of specific data analysis tools and procedures. 

Having a solid grasp of data analysis techniques is useful if you’re leading a problem solving workshop but if you’re not an expert, don’t worry. Bring people into the group who has this skill set and help your team be more effective as a result.

Decision making

All problems need a solution and all solutions require that someone make the decision to implement them. Without strong decision making skills, teams can become bogged down in discussion and less effective as a result. 

Making decisions is a key part of the problem solving process. It’s important to remember that decision making is not restricted to the leadership team. Every staff member makes decisions every day and developing these skills ensures that your team is able to solve problems at any scale. Remember that making decisions does not mean leaping to the first solution but weighing up the options and coming to an informed, well thought out solution to any given problem that works for the whole team.

Lightning Decision Jam (LDJ)   #action   #decision making   #problem solving   #issue analysis   #innovation   #design   #remote-friendly   The problem with anything that requires creative thinking is that it’s easy to get lost—lose focus and fall into the trap of having useless, open-ended, unstructured discussions. Here’s the most effective solution I’ve found: Replace all open, unstructured discussion with a clear process. What to use this exercise for: Anything which requires a group of people to make decisions, solve problems or discuss challenges. It’s always good to frame an LDJ session with a broad topic, here are some examples: The conversion flow of our checkout Our internal design process How we organise events Keeping up with our competition Improving sales flow

Dependability

Most complex organizational problems require multiple people to be involved in delivering the solution. Ensuring that the team and organization can depend on you to take the necessary actions and communicate where necessary is key to ensuring problems are solved effectively.

Being dependable also means working to deadlines and to brief. It is often a matter of creating trust in a team so that everyone can depend on one another to complete the agreed actions in the agreed time frame so that the team can move forward together. Being undependable can create problems of friction and can limit the effectiveness of your solutions so be sure to bear this in mind throughout a project. 

Team Purpose & Culture   #team   #hyperisland   #culture   #remote-friendly   This is an essential process designed to help teams define their purpose (why they exist) and their culture (how they work together to achieve that purpose). Defining these two things will help any team to be more focused and aligned. With support of tangible examples from other companies, the team members work as individuals and a group to codify the way they work together. The goal is a visual manifestation of both the purpose and culture that can be put up in the team’s work space.

Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence is an important skill for any successful team member, whether communicating internally or with clients or users. In the problem solving process, emotional intelligence means being attuned to how people are feeling and thinking, communicating effectively and being self-aware of what you bring to a room. 

There are often differences of opinion when working through problem solving processes, and it can be easy to let things become impassioned or combative. Developing your emotional intelligence means being empathetic to your colleagues and managing your own emotions throughout the problem and solution process. Be kind, be thoughtful and put your points across care and attention. 

Being emotionally intelligent is a skill for life and by deploying it at work, you can not only work efficiently but empathetically. Check out the emotional culture workshop template for more!

Facilitation

As we’ve clarified in our facilitation skills post, facilitation is the art of leading people through processes towards agreed-upon objectives in a manner that encourages participation, ownership, and creativity by all those involved. While facilitation is a set of interrelated skills in itself, the broad definition of facilitation can be invaluable when it comes to problem solving. Leading a team through a problem solving process is made more effective if you improve and utilize facilitation skills – whether you’re a manager, team leader or external stakeholder.

The Six Thinking Hats   #creative thinking   #meeting facilitation   #problem solving   #issue resolution   #idea generation   #conflict resolution   The Six Thinking Hats are used by individuals and groups to separate out conflicting styles of thinking. They enable and encourage a group of people to think constructively together in exploring and implementing change, rather than using argument to fight over who is right and who is wrong.

Flexibility 

Being flexible is a vital skill when it comes to problem solving. This does not mean immediately bowing to pressure or changing your opinion quickly: instead, being flexible is all about seeing things from new perspectives, receiving new information and factoring it into your thought process.

Flexibility is also important when it comes to rolling out solutions. It might be that other organizational projects have greater priority or require the same resources as your chosen solution. Being flexible means understanding needs and challenges across the team and being open to shifting or arranging your own schedule as necessary. Again, this does not mean immediately making way for other projects. It’s about articulating your own needs, understanding the needs of others and being able to come to a meaningful compromise.

The Creativity Dice   #creativity   #problem solving   #thiagi   #issue analysis   Too much linear thinking is hazardous to creative problem solving. To be creative, you should approach the problem (or the opportunity) from different points of view. You should leave a thought hanging in mid-air and move to another. This skipping around prevents premature closure and lets your brain incubate one line of thought while you consciously pursue another.

Working in any group can lead to unconscious elements of groupthink or situations in which you may not wish to be entirely honest. Disagreeing with the opinions of the executive team or wishing to save the feelings of a coworker can be tricky to navigate, but being honest is absolutely vital when to comes to developing effective solutions and ensuring your voice is heard. 

Remember that being honest does not mean being brutally candid. You can deliver your honest feedback and opinions thoughtfully and without creating friction by using other skills such as emotional intelligence. 

Explore your Values   #hyperisland   #skills   #values   #remote-friendly   Your Values is an exercise for participants to explore what their most important values are. It’s done in an intuitive and rapid way to encourage participants to follow their intuitive feeling rather than over-thinking and finding the “correct” values. It is a good exercise to use to initiate reflection and dialogue around personal values.

Initiative 

The problem solving process is multi-faceted and requires different approaches at certain points of the process. Taking initiative to bring problems to the attention of the team, collect data or lead the solution creating process is always valuable. You might even roadtest your own small scale solutions or brainstorm before a session. Taking initiative is particularly effective if you have good deal of knowledge in that area or have ownership of a particular project and want to get things kickstarted.

That said, be sure to remember to honor the process and work in service of the team. If you are asked to own one part of the problem solving process and you don’t complete that task because your initiative leads you to work on something else, that’s not an effective method of solving business challenges.

15% Solutions   #action   #liberating structures   #remote-friendly   You can reveal the actions, however small, that everyone can do immediately. At a minimum, these will create momentum, and that may make a BIG difference.  15% Solutions show that there is no reason to wait around, feel powerless, or fearful. They help people pick it up a level. They get individuals and the group to focus on what is within their discretion instead of what they cannot change.  With a very simple question, you can flip the conversation to what can be done and find solutions to big problems that are often distributed widely in places not known in advance. Shifting a few grains of sand may trigger a landslide and change the whole landscape.

Impartiality

A particularly useful problem solving skill for product owners or managers is the ability to remain impartial throughout much of the process. In practice, this means treating all points of view and ideas brought forward in a meeting equally and ensuring that your own areas of interest or ownership are not favored over others. 

There may be a stage in the process where a decision maker has to weigh the cost and ROI of possible solutions against the company roadmap though even then, ensuring that the decision made is based on merit and not personal opinion. 

Empathy map   #frame insights   #create   #design   #issue analysis   An empathy map is a tool to help a design team to empathize with the people they are designing for. You can make an empathy map for a group of people or for a persona. To be used after doing personas when more insights are needed.

Being a good leader means getting a team aligned, energized and focused around a common goal. In the problem solving process, strong leadership helps ensure that the process is efficient, that any conflicts are resolved and that a team is managed in the direction of success.

It’s common for managers or executives to assume this role in a problem solving workshop, though it’s important that the leader maintains impartiality and does not bulldoze the group in a particular direction. Remember that good leadership means working in service of the purpose and team and ensuring the workshop is a safe space for employees of any level to contribute. Take a look at our leadership games and activities post for more exercises and methods to help improve leadership in your organization.

Leadership Pizza   #leadership   #team   #remote-friendly   This leadership development activity offers a self-assessment framework for people to first identify what skills, attributes and attitudes they find important for effective leadership, and then assess their own development and initiate goal setting.

In the context of problem solving, mediation is important in keeping a team engaged, happy and free of conflict. When leading or facilitating a problem solving workshop, you are likely to run into differences of opinion. Depending on the nature of the problem, certain issues may be brought up that are emotive in nature. 

Being an effective mediator means helping those people on either side of such a divide are heard, listen to one another and encouraged to find common ground and a resolution. Mediating skills are useful for leaders and managers in many situations and the problem solving process is no different.

Conflict Responses   #hyperisland   #team   #issue resolution   A workshop for a team to reflect on past conflicts, and use them to generate guidelines for effective conflict handling. The workshop uses the Thomas-Killman model of conflict responses to frame a reflective discussion. Use it to open up a discussion around conflict with a team.

Planning 

Solving organizational problems is much more effective when following a process or problem solving model. Planning skills are vital in order to structure, deliver and follow-through on a problem solving workshop and ensure your solutions are intelligently deployed.

Planning skills include the ability to organize tasks and a team, plan and design the process and take into account any potential challenges. Taking the time to plan carefully can save time and frustration later in the process and is valuable for ensuring a team is positioned for success.

3 Action Steps   #hyperisland   #action   #remote-friendly   This is a small-scale strategic planning session that helps groups and individuals to take action toward a desired change. It is often used at the end of a workshop or programme. The group discusses and agrees on a vision, then creates some action steps that will lead them towards that vision. The scope of the challenge is also defined, through discussion of the helpful and harmful factors influencing the group.

Prioritization

As organisations grow, the scale and variation of problems they face multiplies. Your team or is likely to face numerous challenges in different areas and so having the skills to analyze and prioritize becomes very important, particularly for those in leadership roles.

A thorough problem solving process is likely to deliver multiple solutions and you may have several different problems you wish to solve simultaneously. Prioritization is the ability to measure the importance, value, and effectiveness of those possible solutions and choose which to enact and in what order. The process of prioritization is integral in ensuring the biggest challenges are addressed with the most impactful solutions.

Impact and Effort Matrix   #gamestorming   #decision making   #action   #remote-friendly   In this decision-making exercise, possible actions are mapped based on two factors: effort required to implement and potential impact. Categorizing ideas along these lines is a useful technique in decision making, as it obliges contributors to balance and evaluate suggested actions before committing to them.

Project management

Some problem solving skills are utilized in a workshop or ideation phases, while others come in useful when it comes to decision making. Overseeing an entire problem solving process and ensuring its success requires strong project management skills. 

While project management incorporates many of the other skills listed here, it is important to note the distinction of considering all of the factors of a project and managing them successfully. Being able to negotiate with stakeholders, manage tasks, time and people, consider costs and ROI, and tie everything together is massively helpful when going through the problem solving process. 

Record keeping

Working out meaningful solutions to organizational challenges is only one part of the process.  Thoughtfully documenting and keeping records of each problem solving step for future consultation is important in ensuring efficiency and meaningful change. 

For example, some problems may be lower priority than others but can be revisited in the future. If the team has ideated on solutions and found some are not up to the task, record those so you can rule them out and avoiding repeating work. Keeping records of the process also helps you improve and refine your problem solving model next time around!

Personal Kanban   #gamestorming   #action   #agile   #project planning   Personal Kanban is a tool for organizing your work to be more efficient and productive. It is based on agile methods and principles.

Research skills

Conducting research to support both the identification of problems and the development of appropriate solutions is important for an effective process. Knowing where to go to collect research, how to conduct research efficiently, and identifying pieces of research are relevant are all things a good researcher can do well. 

In larger groups, not everyone has to demonstrate this ability in order for a problem solving workshop to be effective. That said, having people with research skills involved in the process, particularly if they have existing area knowledge, can help ensure the solutions that are developed with data that supports their intention. Remember that being able to deliver the results of research efficiently and in a way the team can easily understand is also important. The best data in the world is only as effective as how it is delivered and interpreted.

Customer experience map   #ideation   #concepts   #research   #design   #issue analysis   #remote-friendly   Customer experience mapping is a method of documenting and visualizing the experience a customer has as they use the product or service. It also maps out their responses to their experiences. To be used when there is a solution (even in a conceptual stage) that can be analyzed.

Risk management

Managing risk is an often overlooked part of the problem solving process. Solutions are often developed with the intention of reducing exposure to risk or solving issues that create risk but sometimes, great solutions are more experimental in nature and as such, deploying them needs to be carefully considered. 

Managing risk means acknowledging that there may be risks associated with more out of the box solutions or trying new things, but that this must be measured against the possible benefits and other organizational factors. 

Be informed, get the right data and stakeholders in the room and you can appropriately factor risk into your decision making process. 

Decisions, Decisions…   #communication   #decision making   #thiagi   #action   #issue analysis   When it comes to decision-making, why are some of us more prone to take risks while others are risk-averse? One explanation might be the way the decision and options were presented.  This exercise, based on Kahneman and Tversky’s classic study , illustrates how the framing effect influences our judgement and our ability to make decisions . The participants are divided into two groups. Both groups are presented with the same problem and two alternative programs for solving them. The two programs both have the same consequences but are presented differently. The debriefing discussion examines how the framing of the program impacted the participant’s decision.

Team-building 

No single person is as good at problem solving as a team. Building an effective team and helping them come together around a common purpose is one of the most important problem solving skills, doubly so for leaders. By bringing a team together and helping them work efficiently, you pave the way for team ownership of a problem and the development of effective solutions. 

In a problem solving workshop, it can be tempting to jump right into the deep end, though taking the time to break the ice, energize the team and align them with a game or exercise will pay off over the course of the day.

Remember that you will likely go through the problem solving process multiple times over an organization’s lifespan and building a strong team culture will make future problem solving more effective. It’s also great to work with people you know, trust and have fun with. Working on team building in and out of the problem solving process is a hallmark of successful teams that can work together to solve business problems.

9 Dimensions Team Building Activity   #ice breaker   #teambuilding   #team   #remote-friendly   9 Dimensions is a powerful activity designed to build relationships and trust among team members. There are 2 variations of this icebreaker. The first version is for teams who want to get to know each other better. The second version is for teams who want to explore how they are working together as a team.

Time management 

The problem solving process is designed to lead a team from identifying a problem through to delivering a solution and evaluating its effectiveness. Without effective time management skills or timeboxing of tasks, it can be easy for a team to get bogged down or be inefficient.

By using a problem solving model and carefully designing your workshop, you can allocate time efficiently and trust that the process will deliver the results you need in a good timeframe.

Time management also comes into play when it comes to rolling out solutions, particularly those that are experimental in nature. Having a clear timeframe for implementing and evaluating solutions is vital for ensuring their success and being able to pivot if necessary.

Improving your skills at problem solving is often a career-long pursuit though there are methods you can use to make the learning process more efficient and to supercharge your problem solving skillset.

Remember that the skills you need to be a great problem solver have a large overlap with those skills you need to be effective in any role. Investing time and effort to develop your active listening or critical thinking skills is valuable in any context. Here are 7 ways to improve your problem solving skills.

Share best practices

Remember that your team is an excellent source of skills, wisdom, and techniques and that you should all take advantage of one another where possible. Best practices that one team has for solving problems, conducting research or making decisions should be shared across the organization. If you have in-house staff that have done active listening training or are data analysis pros, have them lead a training session. 

Your team is one of your best resources. Create space and internal processes for the sharing of skills so that you can all grow together. 

Ask for help and attend training

Once you’ve figured out you have a skills gap, the next step is to take action to fill that skills gap. That might be by asking your superior for training or coaching, or liaising with team members with that skill set. You might even attend specialized training for certain skills – active listening or critical thinking, for example, are business-critical skills that are regularly offered as part of a training scheme.

Whatever method you choose, remember that taking action of some description is necessary for growth. Whether that means practicing, getting help, attending training or doing some background reading, taking active steps to improve your skills is the way to go.

Learn a process 

Problem solving can be complicated, particularly when attempting to solve large problems for the first time. Using a problem solving process helps give structure to your problem solving efforts and focus on creating outcomes, rather than worrying about the format. 

Tools such as the seven-step problem solving process above are effective because not only do they feature steps that will help a team solve problems, they also develop skills along the way. Each step asks for people to engage with the process using different skills and in doing so, helps the team learn and grow together. Group processes of varying complexity and purpose can also be found in the SessionLab library of facilitation techniques . Using a tried and tested process and really help ease the learning curve for both those leading such a process, as well as those undergoing the purpose.

Effective teams make decisions about where they should and shouldn’t expend additional effort. By using a problem solving process, you can focus on the things that matter, rather than stumbling towards a solution haphazardly. 

Create a feedback loop

Some skills gaps are more obvious than others. It’s possible that your perception of your active listening skills differs from those of your colleagues. 

It’s valuable to create a system where team members can provide feedback in an ordered and friendly manner so they can all learn from one another. Only by identifying areas of improvement can you then work to improve them. 

Remember that feedback systems require oversight and consideration so that they don’t turn into a place to complain about colleagues. Design the system intelligently so that you encourage the creation of learning opportunities, rather than encouraging people to list their pet peeves.

While practice might not make perfect, it does make the problem solving process easier. If you are having trouble with critical thinking, don’t shy away from doing it. Get involved where you can and stretch those muscles as regularly as possible. 

Problem solving skills come more naturally to some than to others and that’s okay. Take opportunities to get involved and see where you can practice your skills in situations outside of a workshop context. Try collaborating in other circumstances at work or conduct data analysis on your own projects. You can often develop those skills you need for problem solving simply by doing them. Get involved!

Use expert exercises and methods

Learn from the best. Our library of 700+ facilitation techniques is full of activities and methods that help develop the skills you need to be an effective problem solver. Check out our templates to see how to approach problem solving and other organizational challenges in a structured and intelligent manner.

There is no single approach to improving problem solving skills, but by using the techniques employed by others you can learn from their example and develop processes that have seen proven results. 

Try new ways of thinking and change your mindset

Using tried and tested exercises that you know well can help deliver results, but you do run the risk of missing out on the learning opportunities offered by new approaches. As with the problem solving process, changing your mindset can remove blockages and be used to develop your problem solving skills.

Most teams have members with mixed skill sets and specialties. Mix people from different teams and share skills and different points of view. Teach your customer support team how to use design thinking methods or help your developers with conflict resolution techniques. Try switching perspectives with facilitation techniques like Flip It! or by using new problem solving methodologies or models. Give design thinking, liberating structures or lego serious play a try if you want to try a new approach. You will find that framing problems in new ways and using existing skills in new contexts can be hugely useful for personal development and improving your skillset. It’s also a lot of fun to try new things. Give it a go!

Encountering business challenges and needing to find appropriate solutions is not unique to your organization. Lots of very smart people have developed methods, theories and approaches to help develop problem solving skills and create effective solutions. Learn from them!

Books like The Art of Thinking Clearly , Think Smarter, or Thinking Fast, Thinking Slow are great places to start, though it’s also worth looking at blogs related to organizations facing similar problems to yours, or browsing for success stories. Seeing how Dropbox massively increased growth and working backward can help you see the skills or approach you might be lacking to solve that same problem. Learning from others by reading their stories or approaches can be time-consuming but ultimately rewarding.

A tired, distracted mind is not in the best position to learn new skills. It can be tempted to burn the candle at both ends and develop problem solving skills outside of work. Absolutely use your time effectively and take opportunities for self-improvement, though remember that rest is hugely important and that without letting your brain rest, you cannot be at your most effective. 

Creating distance between yourself and the problem you might be facing can also be useful. By letting an idea sit, you can find that a better one presents itself or you can develop it further. Take regular breaks when working and create a space for downtime. Remember that working smarter is preferable to working harder and that self-care is important for any effective learning or improvement process.

Want to design better group processes?

Over to you

Now we’ve explored some of the key problem solving skills and the problem solving steps necessary for an effective process, you’re ready to begin developing more effective solutions and leading problem solving workshops.

Need more inspiration? Check out our post on problem solving activities you can use when guiding a group towards a great solution in your next workshop or meeting. Have questions? Did you have a great problem solving technique you use with your team? Get in touch in the comments below. We’d love to chat!

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The Art of Effective Problem Solving: A Step-by-Step Guide

Author: Daniel Croft

Daniel Croft is an experienced continuous improvement manager with a Lean Six Sigma Black Belt and a Bachelor's degree in Business Management. With more than ten years of experience applying his skills across various industries, Daniel specializes in optimizing processes and improving efficiency. His approach combines practical experience with a deep understanding of business fundamentals to drive meaningful change.

Whether we realise it or not, problem solving skills are an important part of our daily lives. From resolving a minor annoyance at home to tackling complex business challenges at work, our ability to solve problems has a significant impact on our success and happiness. However, not everyone is naturally gifted at problem-solving, and even those who are can always improve their skills. In this blog post, we will go over the art of effective problem-solving step by step.

You will learn how to define a problem, gather information, assess alternatives, and implement a solution, all while honing your critical thinking and creative problem-solving skills. Whether you’re a seasoned problem solver or just getting started, this guide will arm you with the knowledge and tools you need to face any challenge with confidence. So let’s get started!

Problem Solving Methodologies

Individuals and organisations can use a variety of problem-solving methodologies to address complex challenges. 8D and A3 problem solving techniques are two popular methodologies in the Lean Six Sigma framework.

Methodology of 8D (Eight Discipline) Problem Solving:

The 8D problem solving methodology is a systematic, team-based approach to problem solving. It is a method that guides a team through eight distinct steps to solve a problem in a systematic and comprehensive manner.

The 8D process consists of the following steps:

• Form a team: Assemble a group of people who have the necessary expertise to work on the problem.
• Define the issue: Clearly identify and define the problem, including the root cause and the customer impact.
• Create a temporary containment plan: Put in place a plan to lessen the impact of the problem until a permanent solution can be found.
• Identify the root cause: To identify the underlying causes of the problem, use root cause analysis techniques such as Fishbone diagrams and Pareto charts.
• Create and test long-term corrective actions: Create and test a long-term solution to eliminate the root cause of the problem.
• Implement and validate the permanent solution: Implement and validate the permanent solution’s effectiveness.
• Prevent recurrence: Put in place measures to keep the problem from recurring.
• Recognize and reward the team: Recognize and reward the team for its efforts.

Download the 8D Problem Solving Template

A3 Problem Solving Method:

The A3 problem solving technique is a visual, team-based problem-solving approach that is frequently used in Lean Six Sigma projects. The A3 report is a one-page document that clearly and concisely outlines the problem, root cause analysis, and proposed solution.

The A3 problem-solving procedure consists of the following steps:

• Determine the issue: Define the issue clearly, including its impact on the customer.
• Perform root cause analysis: Identify the underlying causes of the problem using root cause analysis techniques.
• Create and implement a solution: Create and implement a solution that addresses the problem’s root cause.
• Monitor and improve the solution: Keep an eye on the solution’s effectiveness and make any necessary changes.

Subsequently, in the Lean Six Sigma framework, the 8D and A3 problem solving methodologies are two popular approaches to problem solving. Both methodologies provide a structured, team-based problem-solving approach that guides individuals through a comprehensive and systematic process of identifying, analysing, and resolving problems in an effective and efficient manner.

Step 1 – Define the Problem

The definition of the problem is the first step in effective problem solving. This may appear to be a simple task, but it is actually quite difficult. This is because problems are frequently complex and multi-layered, making it easy to confuse symptoms with the underlying cause. To avoid this pitfall, it is critical to thoroughly understand the problem.

To begin, ask yourself some clarifying questions:

• What exactly is the issue?
• What are the problem’s symptoms or consequences?
• Who or what is impacted by the issue?
• When and where does the issue arise?

Answering these questions will assist you in determining the scope of the problem. However, simply describing the problem is not always sufficient; you must also identify the root cause. The root cause is the underlying cause of the problem and is usually the key to resolving it permanently.

Try asking “why” questions to find the root cause:

• What causes the problem?
• Why does it continue?
• Why does it have the effects that it does?

By repeatedly asking “ why ,” you’ll eventually get to the bottom of the problem. This is an important step in the problem-solving process because it ensures that you’re dealing with the root cause rather than just the symptoms.

Once you have a firm grasp on the issue, it is time to divide it into smaller, more manageable chunks. This makes tackling the problem easier and reduces the risk of becoming overwhelmed. For example, if you’re attempting to solve a complex business problem, you might divide it into smaller components like market research, product development, and sales strategies.

To summarise step 1, defining the problem is an important first step in effective problem-solving. You will be able to identify the root cause and break it down into manageable parts if you take the time to thoroughly understand the problem. This will prepare you for the next step in the problem-solving process, which is gathering information and brainstorming ideas.

Step 2 – Gather Information and Brainstorm Ideas

Gathering information and brainstorming ideas is the next step in effective problem solving. This entails researching the problem and relevant information, collaborating with others, and coming up with a variety of potential solutions. This increases your chances of finding the best solution to the problem.

Begin by researching the problem and relevant information. This could include reading articles, conducting surveys, or consulting with experts. The goal is to collect as much information as possible in order to better understand the problem and possible solutions.

Next, work with others to gather a variety of perspectives. Brainstorming with others can be an excellent way to come up with new and creative ideas. Encourage everyone to share their thoughts and ideas when working in a group, and make an effort to actively listen to what others have to say. Be open to new and unconventional ideas and resist the urge to dismiss them too quickly.

Finally, use brainstorming to generate a wide range of potential solutions. This is the place where you can let your imagination run wild. At this stage, don’t worry about the feasibility or practicality of the solutions; instead, focus on generating as many ideas as possible. Write down everything that comes to mind, no matter how ridiculous or unusual it may appear. This can be done individually or in groups.

Once you’ve compiled a list of potential solutions, it’s time to assess them and select the best one. This is the next step in the problem-solving process, which we’ll go over in greater detail in the following section.

Step 3 – Evaluate Options and Choose the Best Solution

Once you’ve compiled a list of potential solutions, it’s time to assess them and select the best one. This is the third step in effective problem solving, and it entails weighing the advantages and disadvantages of each solution, considering their feasibility and practicability, and selecting the solution that is most likely to solve the problem effectively.

To begin, weigh the advantages and disadvantages of each solution. This will assist you in determining the potential outcomes of each solution and deciding which is the best option. For example, a quick and easy solution may not be the most effective in the long run, whereas a more complex and time-consuming solution may be more effective in solving the problem in the long run.

Consider each solution’s feasibility and practicability. Consider the following:

• Can the solution be implemented within the available resources, time, and budget?
• What are the possible barriers to implementing the solution?
• Is the solution feasible in today’s political, economic, and social environment?

You’ll be able to tell which solutions are likely to succeed and which aren’t by assessing their feasibility and practicability.

Finally, choose the solution that is most likely to effectively solve the problem. This solution should be based on the criteria you’ve established, such as the advantages and disadvantages of each solution, their feasibility and practicability, and your overall goals.

It is critical to remember that there is no one-size-fits-all solution to problems. What is effective for one person or situation may not be effective for another. This is why it is critical to consider a wide range of solutions and evaluate each one based on its ability to effectively solve the problem.

Step 4 – Implement and Monitor the Solution

When you’ve decided on the best solution, it’s time to put it into action. The fourth and final step in effective problem solving is to put the solution into action, monitor its progress, and make any necessary adjustments.

To begin, implement the solution. This may entail delegating tasks, developing a strategy, and allocating resources. Ascertain that everyone involved understands their role and responsibilities in the solution’s implementation.

Next, keep an eye on the solution’s progress. This may entail scheduling regular check-ins, tracking metrics, and soliciting feedback from others. You will be able to identify any potential roadblocks and make any necessary adjustments in a timely manner if you monitor the progress of the solution.

Finally, make any necessary modifications to the solution. This could entail changing the solution, altering the plan of action, or delegating different tasks. Be willing to make changes if they will improve the solution or help it solve the problem more effectively.

It’s important to remember that problem solving is an iterative process, and there may be times when you need to start from scratch. This is especially true if the initial solution does not effectively solve the problem. In these situations, it’s critical to be adaptable and flexible and to keep trying new solutions until you find the one that works best.

To summarise, effective problem solving is a critical skill that can assist individuals and organisations in overcoming challenges and achieving their objectives. Effective problem solving consists of four key steps: defining the problem, generating potential solutions, evaluating alternatives and selecting the best solution, and implementing the solution.

You can increase your chances of success in problem solving by following these steps and considering factors such as the pros and cons of each solution, their feasibility and practicability, and making any necessary adjustments. Furthermore, keep in mind that problem solving is an iterative process, and there may be times when you need to go back to the beginning and restart. Maintain your adaptability and try new solutions until you find the one that works best for you.

• Novick, L.R. and Bassok, M., 2005.  Problem Solving . Cambridge University Press.

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Daniel Croft

Daniel Croft is a seasoned continuous improvement manager with a Black Belt in Lean Six Sigma. With over 10 years of real-world application experience across diverse sectors, Daniel has a passion for optimizing processes and fostering a culture of efficiency. He's not just a practitioner but also an avid learner, constantly seeking to expand his knowledge. Outside of his professional life, Daniel has a keen Investing, statistics and knowledge-sharing, which led him to create the website www.learnleansigma.com, a platform dedicated to Lean Six Sigma and process improvement insights.

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How to Resolve a Values Conflict

Assume one of your top values is Accountability . When your decisions and behaviors support this value, there is a sense of satisfaction, peace, and fulfillment. For example, saying to your boss, “ The project we discussed is now complete, and within the promised timeframe. ”

When this happens, you likely experience a values conflict . Your decisions and behaviors did not support your top value.

Now imagine that your top values are Excellence and Accountability, in that order. If a quality issue occurred that caused a delay in meeting a promised deadline, there might be no values conflict (or much less of one). When you’re demonstrating support for a top value (i.e. Excellence), it’s feels acceptable to sacrifice a secondary value (i.e. Accountability).

This is called a values trade-off and confirms the importance of rank-ordering your top values. By prioritizing your values, it helps you make better decisions, and minimizes that unpleasant experience when one value must be sacrificed over another.

The same is true in organizations. And no matter what the core values are, or their priority order, there will be conflict.

Healthy Conflict vs. Unhealthy Conflict

In such cases, it’s very beneficial to have clearly defined core values. This helps employees work through healthy conflict using the core values as a conflict resolution tool.

Unfortunately for many employees, there’s a lot of unhealthy conflict where they work. A telltale sign of unhealthy conflict is when the discussion is people-centric instead of problem-centric. In such cases it tends to get personal and nasty very quickly. The reason for such unhealthy conflict is common, and avoidable: blaming others for our own problems .

This form of conflict is the reason most people demonstrate a fear of conflict. In addition, the consequences for unhealthy conflict can be severe, from dis-engaged employees to lack of commitment to reduced productivity.

So what can you to about it?

4 Ways to Resolve a Conflict

There are four viable options to resolve any kind of conflict, including a values conflict:

• Ignore it . Sometimes a conflict is so small, it’s almost irrelevant. Any attempt to address it is like making a mountain out of a molehill. In such cases, the best solution is to just ignore it. For example, a shipment arrives 20 minutes later than you promised, but no one seems concerned or makes any fuss about it. Just ignore it.
• Address it . Oft times conflicts can be resolved by simply addressing them directly. In an organization, a values conflict might arise if decisions are made or actions taken that result in compromising a stated value. Having a meaningful and respectful discussion with others impacted may be the simplest way to resolve it. For example: sincerely apologizing for missing a promised delivery date, explaining the steps taken to fix the situation, and the plan to prevent it from happening again.
• Negotiate around it . Sometimes a conflict is more complicated than we initially thought or involves more parties than originally considered. Ideally this is a healthy conflict where you’re just following the process to find the best solution to resolve a gnarly problem, even if the discussion with others is heated at times. What matters most is to stay focused on the problem, not the people involved. For example, the inclusion of a new product feature requested by customers requires sacrificing the long-standing values of simplicity and ease-of-use, that have differentiated the company for years. Should this particular customer request be ignored? Or is it time for the company to shift the priority of differentiating values? There are no easy answers here. It requires the involvement of all stakeholders. But working together, creative solutions can be uncovered that open up new possibilities.
• Mediate through it . There are times a conflict turns out to be quite serious and requires more drastic action. Sometimes there are significant financial implications. Other times it may be bruised egos getting in the way (including our own). Resolving such conflict requires a strong mediator: to listen well, ask thoughtful questions, be able to influence others to compromise, and find the best solution that works for everyone. For example, poor quality output, missed deadlines, low morale, and unhappy customers are a clear indication there are bigger issues at stake. Someone external clearly needs to be brought in to identify the real issues and push for real change.

There are also two other popular ways to deal with conflict, neither of which is useful or effective.

• Deny it . The fear of conflict causes many people to avoid dealing with it – ever. Instead they hope if they continue denying it, it will eventually just go away. Unfortunately, this behavior tends to make things worse, allowing it to become a bigger problem than it was originally.
• Fight it . The other side of fear of conflict is the idea if you attack it you can kill it. But conflict can’t be simply stamped out (that’s called bullying). Even when we think a conflict is dead, issues remain, waiting to be addressed.

What about a values conflict between your personal values and your company’s values? This is a serious and important issue that can’t be addressed in this article (without making it into a book!). However, the short answer is to ask yourself this question: “ Am I in an environment that provides me the opportunity to do my best work, or do I need to plan for a change?”

Bottom line : There are both healthy and unhealthy conflicts. Well-defined core values are a useful tool for employees to work through healthy conflicts. Regardless of the type of conflict, there are effective ways to resolve them.

What are other effective ways to resolve conflict?

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Value Conflict: What It Is and How to Resolve It

A value conflict over sacred issues can be one of the most difficult challenges to overcome in negotiation and conflict resolution. research on value conflict offers strategies for moving beyond entrenched positions..

By PON Staff — on April 9th, 2024 / Conflict Resolution

Some of our most heated negotiations and disputes involve value conflict over our core values, such as our personal moral standards, our religious and political beliefs, and our family’s welfare.

Consider these value conflict examples :

• Business partners clash over the ethical standards they expect each other to uphold.
• A negotiator refuses to do business with a potential counterpart she deems unsavory on moral grounds.
• Parents bar their teenager from attending an event they think might be dangerous.

These types of value conflict , which highlight our norms, beliefs, and identities, can be incredibly difficult to resolve. When our most deeply held beliefs and principles are at stake, we often ratchet up value conflict out of a desire to be heard, refuse to make any concession that would appear to compromise our values, or categorically refuse to negotiate. Drawing on new research, we present three strategies for negotiating value-based conflict.

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1. Assess Whether the Value Is Truly Sacred

Value conflict often arises because one or more of the parties involved consider a value to be sacred and nonnegotiable. In some cases, our values truly are sacred and not open to compromise. In other situations, however, our values turn out to be “pseudo-sacred”—that is, we are willing to negotiate them under certain conditions, notes Harvard Business School professor Max H. Bazerman.

For example, in one study, negotiators with little power were more likely to compromise on a seemingly sacred issue than were negotiators with greater power, Notre Dame University professor Ann E. Tenbrunsel and her colleagues found in their research . A lack of alternatives led low-power negotiators to become more flexible.

Before refusing to budge on an issue you deem sacred, try to envision an outcome that would allow you to abide by the  spirit  of your values even as you make concessions on the specifics. Similarly, if a counterpart insists a particular issue is sacred, you might make a proposal that honors their values while also bringing you closer to agreement.

This doesn’t mean putting price tags on your most cherished beliefs; rather, it means thinking creatively about how to meet broader goals. Imagine, for example, that you adamantly oppose your sibling’s intention to sell some of your late parents’ possessions. But what if you donated your share of the proceeds from the sale to a charity your parents supported? You might prefer this outcome and avoid a protracted value conflict.

2. Offer a Concession on a Core Value

You may be able to induce cooperation from a reluctant counterpart in a value conflict by making a difficult but symbolic concession on a key principle.

In a 2007 study , Jeremy Ginges of the New School for Social Research and his team presented various proposals for resolving the Palestinian-Israeli conflict to citizens residing in the West Bank and Gaza: Jewish-Israeli settlers, Palestinian refugees, and Palestinian student supporters of Hamas. All three groups rejected proposals that would require their group to make a concession on a core issue in exchange for peace. And when each side was also offered significant economic aid, they were repulsed by the idea of trading their sacred values for cash.

However, when asked whether they would accept the peace deal if accompanied by a significant concession from the opposing side on one of  its  sacred values, all three groups became willing to negotiate. The Israeli settlers agreed to make concessions if Hamas accepted Israel’s right to exist. The Palestinian refugees grew more flexible if Israelis would relinquish their claim to the West Bank. And the Palestinian students became ready to bargain if the Israelis were willing to officially apologize for Palestinian suffering in the conflict.

When sacred values are at stake, we are likely to be offended by the suggestion that our support can be “bought.” Proposing a meaningful sacrifice on one of your own core values may demonstrate your seriousness, inspire reciprocation, and avoid a value conflict.

3. Affirm the Other Side’s Positive Qualities

In a value conflict, thinking about qualities you appreciate in your counterpart, such as trustworthiness or deep convictions, can help parties create value, researchers Fieke Harinck of Leiden University in the Netherlands and Daniel Druckman of George Mason University found in their research .

This result dovetails with findings from University of California at Los Angeles professor Corinne Bendersky showing that negotiators can soften their counterpart’s firm stance on a seemingly sacred value by making statements that affirm the counterpart’s status, such as “I have a lot of respect for people like you who stand by their principles.” It seems an opponent’s affirmation of our status buffers us against the identity threat we’d suffer if we compromised on a core issue and makes us more open to value creation in the process.

What other strategies have you found to be effective in resolving value conflict?

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Navigating conflicting value systems: a grounded theory of the process of public health equity work in the context of mental health promotion and prevention of harms of substance use

• Lenora Marcellus 1 ,
• Bernie Pauly 2 ,
• Wanda Martin 3 ,
• Tina Revai 4 ,
• Kathy Easton 5 &
• Marjorie MacDonald 6  

BMC Public Health volume  22 , Article number:  210 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Promoting health equity and reducing heath inequities is a foundational aim and ethical imperative in public health. There has been limited attention to and research on the ethical issues inherent in promoting health equity and reducing health inequities that public health practitioners experience in their work. The aim of the study was to explore how public health providers identified and navigated ethical issues and their management related to promoting health equity within services focused on mental health promotion and preventing harms of substance use.

Semi-structured individual interviews and focus groups were conducted with 32 public health practitioners who provided public-health oriented services related to mental health promotion and prevention of substance use harms (e.g. harm reduction) in one Canadian province.

Participants engaged in the basic social process of navigating conflicting value systems . In this process, they came to recognize a range of ethically challenging situations related to health equity within a system that held values in conflict with health equity. The extent to which practitioners recognized, made sense of, and acted on these fundamental challenges was dependent on the degree to which they had developed a critical public health consciousness. Ethically challenging situations had impacts for practitioners, most importantly, the experiences of responding emotionally to ethical issues and the experience of living in dissonance when working to navigate ethical issues related to promoting health equity in their practice within a health system based in biomedical values.

Conclusions

There is an immediate need for practice-oriented tools for recognizing ethical dilemmas and supporting ethical decision making related to health equity in public health practice in the context of mental health promotion and prevention of harms of substance use. An increased focus on understanding public health ethical issues and working collaboratively and reflexively to address the complexity of equity work has the potential to strengthen equity strategies and improve population health.

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Promoting health equity and reducing health inequities are considered both moral imperatives and ethical endeavors in public health (PH) [ 1 ]. Health inequities are unjust, unfair and result from potentially remediable conditions that impact and are implicated in the development of poor health outcomes [ 2 ]. Promoting health equity requires addressing the conditions that produce health inequities through engaging affected communities and taking action on the social determinants of health [ 1 ].

Historically, bioethics has been dominated by clinical biomedical issues that are concerned with the relationship between individual providers and clients in the provision of acute care and being able to enact right courses of action [ 3 ]. The underpinnings of PH, rooted in social justice, illuminate many ethical tensions in policy and practice related to communities and populations that are not generally identified or of concern in biomedical ethics [ 4 , 5 ]. To date, there has been almost no attention to and research on the ethical issues inherent in reducing health inequities experienced by PH practitioners as they navigate these issues [ 6 ]. For example, there is considerable work related to advocacy for and integration of health equity in various areas of public health practice but little focus on the ethical issues associated with implementation and integration [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. In previous work, we identified and named a range of ethical tensions encountered by public health practitioners working in mental health promotion and prevention of harms of substance use [ 11 ]. The purpose of this article is to report a grounded theory study of PH practitioners and their processes of navigating ethical issues related to health equity in PH practice of mental health promotion and prevention of harms of substance use in Canada.

Dominant health care ethics theoretical perspectives and frameworks are primarily attuned to assessing and addressing individual and biomedical issues [ 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Several authors have pointed out that ethical concerns in PH have not been adequately addressed through dominant bioethical frameworks [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]. Others have noted that PH providers cannot simply adopt the principles of biomedical ethics but require a critical perspective on philosophical and theoretical approaches to dealing with PH ethical concerns [ 19 , 20 ].

There has been growing interest in and expansion of the field of PH ethics as an area of inquiry separate from clinical bioethics [ 14 , 21 , 22 ]. PH ethics is a field of applied ethics distinct from biomedical ethics in that it: 1) focuses on populations rather than individuals; 2) brings equity to the forefront; 3) considers upstream action on the social determinants of health; and 4) aims to prevent illness and disease [ 23 ]. Thus, the ethics of PH is as distinct from traditional bioethics as is the practice of PH from biomedically oriented approaches to care.

From the time of Virchow, known as the founder of the critical public health movement, to the present, PH has placed a strong value on advocacy, attention to inequity, political and structural influences on health, as well as solidarity and interdependence [ 4 , 24 ]. The driving force of PH ethical frameworks are not only the community and population health-oriented nature of PH [ 25 ], but also those of social justice and equity [ 14 ]. Thus, the social justice foundations of PH give rise to a different value system than guiding practice in the overall health care system, which despite being considered universal and publicly funded in Canada, continues to be driven by a rationalized illness orientation with associated values of cure, efficiency and cost-effectiveness [ 26 ]. In turn, this creates many ethical tensions at the PH policy and program level that arise when working within communities and at the population level [ 4 , 5 ]. Thus, the location of the PH system in Canada within the larger biomedically-oriented health care system dominated by individualistic values has created value tensions between PH and health care writ large [ 27 ].

To advance ethical theory building for PH practice, it is critical to ground ethical perspectives in the everyday ethical concerns that arise for practitioners and decision makers [ 28 ]. The goal of this grounded theory study was to describe the basic social process of navigating conflicting value systems, including how PH practitioners identify, make sense of, and respond to ethical issues in their practice related to promoting mental health and preventing harms from substance use. The research questions for this study were: (1) what are the specific ethical issues encountered by PH practitioners in their efforts to reduce health inequities associated with mental health and substance use, and (2) how do PH practitioners navigate and manage these ethical issues in their practice? Our goal is to use insights from this theory in forthcoming work to develop a framework for ethical PH decision making.

Study design

We employed grounded theory methodology for this study because it is useful for exploring, identifying and analyzing complex processes over time, in particular in situations that have not been previously studied or where existing research has left gaps [ 29 , 30 ]. Specifically, we used Charmaz’ [ 31 ] constructivist grounded theory analytic methods. From this perspective, shared understandings of a phenomenon are co-constructed by participants and researchers during the production of and interaction with data throughout the research process.

Setting and context

This study is one of four interrelated studies in the Equity Lens in Public Health (ELPH) program of research [ 32 ]. The purpose of this five-year program of research was to guide and inform learning about the integration of an equity lens in PH in the large geographically diverse province of British Columbia, Canada and to contribute knowledge about health inequities reduction during a time of PH renewal in Canada. As part of this renewal, key strategic documents, including A Framework for Core Functions in Public Health [ 33 ], and the Guiding Framework for Public Health in British Columbia [ 34 ], identified the importance of applying an equity lens to all PH programs and services. While several Canadian provinces have included attention to vulnerable populations or incorporation of health equity into public health programs, the British Columbia framework specifically names the application of an equity lens as cross cutting theme to be addressed in all public health programs. The Core Functions Framework [ 33 ] consisted of 21 core programs in four broad areas: health improvement; disease, injury, and illness prevention; environmental health; and health emergency management. In the Guiding Framework, these 21 programs were integrated into seven visionary goals reflecting broad areas of public health focus: healthy living and healthy communities; maternal, child and family health; positive mental health and preventing substance use harms; communicable disease prevention; injury prevention; environmental health; and public health emergency management. A focused provincial mental health and substance use framework was also subsequently developed with the vision of transforming care systems away from acute crisis-oriented approaches toward an equity and prevention orientation across the life course. For this study, in collaboration with regional health authority and government partners, mental health promotion and prevention of substance use harms were selected as the PH areas of focus for this study to learn about ethical decision making in practice.

Recruitment and participants

In collaboration with health authority partners and through advertising in professional forums, we used purposive and snowball sampling to identify PH practitioners with responsibilities for mental health promotion and/or prevention of harms of substance use in their work. The main inclusion criteria were working in a public health program that had a primary emphasis on mental health promotion or prevention of harms of substance use such as maternal child health programs and harm reduction programs. We aimed to recruit participants who had direct experience with supporting clients in universal or targeted programs intended to reduce health inequities. Participants were invited to contact the research team directly or, through participation in one of the three other ELPH studies, participants were asked if they would be willing to share their contact information to learn more about this study.

There were 32 participants in this study (28 female and 4 male), from all geographical regions in the province ( Fraser Health, Island Health, Vancouver Costal Health, Northern Health, and Interior Health ) as well as the BC Provincial Health Services Authority, which plans and coordinates access to specialized health-care services including mental health and substance use services. Participants held PH roles within harm reduction programs, pre and postnatal support, and HIV and communicable disease programs. These programs were funded and primarily delivered through health authorities which are quasi governmental regional bodies responsible for all of the health care services in the province including public health.

Eleven participants self-identified as working in traditional PH staff roles (e.g. PH workers or nurses) and 21 worked more explicitly in harm reduction and sexually transmitted infection programs. Twenty-five of the participants (78%) identified as Registered Nurses. Overall participants had practiced for an average of 6.05 years (range 6 months to 20 years) in their current position and an average of 10.26 years (range 6 months to 40 years) in PH. All but one participant had completed post-secondary education programs. These demographics reflect the age, gender, and educational characteristics of the general Canadian nursing workforce [ 35 ]

Data collection and analysis

We conducted 29 semi-structured individual interviews (primarily via telephone) and one face to face focus group with three participants between November 2014 and February 2016. Interviews lasted approximately 60 minutes. Semi-structured and open-ended interview questions were used to encourage responses important to the participants. We recorded and transcribed interviews verbatim, and transcripts were verified by the study coordinator. Following each interview, observations and reflections were recorded and integrated into the analysis. Data were analyzed using NVivo© Version 10.

Five of the six study team members (four faculty and one research assistant) read the interviews and generated a set of inductive codes for the coding framework from the first few interviews. The research assistant continued coding the interviews line-by-line. Participant words were retained when appropriate in code names. Analytic distinctions were established through the inductive process of constant comparison, an integral part of the grounded theory analytic process that helps researchers move codes into higher level concepts while staying close to the data. Specifically, we compared incidents within the same interview and compared incidents and statements across interviews. Memoing and diagramming documented the analytic process and supported continued conceptualizing and theorizing. We held in-depth team discussions to further the data analysis through establishing relationships and differences between concepts, ultimately developing a grounded theory [ 31 ].

Rigor in the study

We took detailed notes during data analysis to create an audit trail of our analytic process. The research team used reflexivity to maintain awareness of structural influences and power relations throughout the research process. The sixth member of the team held the role of knowledge user and reviewed the grounded theory and the manuscript and provided feedback on credibility, originality, resonance, and usefulness, hallmarks of quality for constructivist grounded theory [ 31 ].

Grounded theorists assume that participants in the study share a basic social problem with which they are grappling. In this situation, the basic social problem that participants experienced in their health equity work was a set of ethical challenges that arose from the disjuncture they experienced between the values and goals of the healthcare system (including the PH system) and the values, goals, and standards that guided their practice. This problem was then resolved or managed by the participants through engagement in some type of action named as either a basic social process, a social-psychological process, or a social-structural process [ 29 ]. In this study, to address this basic social problem, participants engaged in the basic social process of navigating conflicting value systems in their health equity work in public health (Fig. 1 ).

The process of health equity work in public health: Navigating conflicting value systems

Participants identified coming to recognize a range of ethically challenging situations related to health equity within a system that held values that conflicted with their own. The extent to which an individual practitioner recognized these ethical challenges, however, was dependent on the degree to which they held or embraced a critical PH consciousness. Clearly, the recognition of ethical issues informed the way that they responded emotionally to, made sense of and took action on these issues. These ethically challenging situations, regardless of the extent to which the practitioner held a critical PH consciousness, impacted clients, practitioners and the health system itself through this process. Most significantly for PH practitioners, they experienced dissonance when working to navigate ethical issues related to health equity in their practice in a health system with different values.

Coming to recognize ethically challenging situations

Participants described a range of ethically challenging situations that centered on differing agendas between provincial or regional health systems and PH practice. These were situations in which they experienced value conflicts between system or organizational values and the values of PH. Participants described ethically challenging situations as those that arose when PH values or ethical principles were overlooked, dismissed, eroded or violated. These situations reflected tensions between competing health system and health equity values.

We briefly introduce four core ethical tensions here and describe these in more depth elsewhere [ 11 ]. The tensions were: 1) biomedical versus social determinants of health agenda, 2) systems driven care versus situational care, 3) systemic stigma and discrimination versus respect for persons, and 4) trust and autonomy versus surveillance and control. To varying extents, participants recognized that they were attempting to do health equity work “on the ground” in organizations in which the dominant health system focus was biomedicine with lack of value for PH generally or health equity specifically. They also highlighted how the pressure of meeting systems needs and requirements (manifested by practice structures such as procedures, guidelines, checklists) drove PH work rather than the situational needs of clients. Systemic stigma and discrimination were identified as pervasive barriers within the health care systems, particularly in relation to mental health and substance use, and participants voiced concerns about sending clients to services knowing or not knowing how they would be treated. Lastly, participants identified that they often experienced ethical tensions in situations in which preserving trust and choice came into conflict with requirements for surveillance and responses that emphasized social control rather than social support. They reported having to navigate carefully the issues of confidentiality to ensure public protection and to preserve trust and autonomy.

The extent to which public health providers recognized these tensions as ethical challenges was dependent on the degree to which they held or embraced strong commitments to social justice and health equity, which we have described as a critical PH consciousness. Participants described formative experiences, including how they were parented, their age and involvement in other societal movements, and their exposure to people who created a milieu that contributed to their awareness of social justice issues. One participant described their own process of developing social awareness:

I think as I got into nursing I met – inside and outside of nursing – you know, going to college and university – I met women that were involved in the women’s movement. I shared a place with a group of other women who were very socially active...we were all pretty activist in our hearts…then it’s like a snowball around social justice issues. (S4 - 31)

At that time, she was supported by a progressive manager who encouraged creativity and did not micromanage; thus, she felt an increased sense of autonomy and confidence in speaking out. However, this participant also shared that that their equity perspectives were quite different from many of their peers who were raised in more conservative environments and had more conservative experiences.

The depth of reflection on the situations that participants described was moving, and even motivating at times. In their personal reflections, they described processing these emotional responses as part of how they came to make sense of the situation.

Responding emotionally

Participants described experiencing a range of emotional responses during and after recognizing an ethically challenging situation. In some cases, it took time for them to reflect on what had happened and link what they were feeling to an ethical tension or moral distress or uncertainty. Moral distress occurs when a practitioner knows the right thing to do but is unable to enact an ethical decision due to internal or external constraints [ 36 , 37 ]. This is in contrast to moral uncertainty in which a practitioner may not be aware of the right actions. Primarily participants expressed negative self-oriented emotions, including feeling uncomfortable, uneasy, uncertain, sad and miserable. They worried whether they were doing the right thing and felt personally responsible for the outcomes even though, for the most part, what happened was out of their control.

Well unfortunately with the client, I’m not sure, the client is now missing and I think that the client is probably returned to an exploitative situation because that was the only option. I honestly have to say I probably cried, that happened on a Friday…. I did everything I could, and I just couldn’t, you know. We determined that there was no solution and I probably cried for just hours that weekend, you know. (S4-28)

In addition to self-oriented emotions, participants also identified emotional responses directed at the system. They feared that the equity perspective that would have facilitated access to appropriate resources was losing ground to the values of the dominant biomedical system. This self-reflection not only facilitated identification of emotional responses, but it also initiated a process of thinking through and making sense of the different elements of the ethical situation, including contributing factors, context, and personal perspectives.

Making sense

Making sense refers to the process of how PH practitioners thought and reasoned about the various ethical situations that they encountered. These interpretations then informed the actions that they took or did not take. Participants described three strategies that they employed in making sense: 1) destigmatizing their perceptions, 2) learning to think ethically together; and 3) talking through situations collectively.

Destigmatizing their perceptions

Many participants experienced a steep learning curve when they first started working with populations experiencing systemic and structural vulnerability. Their initial perceptions were often biased and judgmental, based on stereotypes and past personal and practice experiences. Participants described the processes that they used to acknowledge and examine these biases, including framing the issues differently (such as considering the social determinants of health), reflecting on why they felt uncomfortable, and seeking out opportunities to learn from other professionals and those with lived experience. A participant shared the personal story of growth:

I was very judgmental, had a lot of stigma … over the years that was unlocked for me and I forced myself to be a street nurse because I thought “you know [name]… you have way too much stigma and discrimination towards this bunch of people.” So that’s what I did. I forced myself to go into this work to change myself. And over time it did happen, and I began to understand. And I think that’s the crux, and it was for me. And from talking to the students, that they’ve had no exposure to date, they don’t understand, right? And once they hear people’s stories out there, I tell you, they come back with such a different perspective. Such a different perspective. It’s unbelievable. (S4-20)

This participant, a street nurse with their practice focused on supporting marginalized populations characterized by extreme poverty and homelessness, highlights a change in thinking over time, increasing their critical PH consciousness and capacity to think more critically about their practice, through intentional learning facilitated by continual engagement with clients. An important aspect of this process was recognizing the history and context in which an individual, family or community is embedded. When they framed this bigger picture for themselves, they gained insight into the broader context of the situations that they encountered helping them navigate through the issues and identify appropriate actions. Other participants with a more underdeveloped sense of PH, for example those newer to PH, had comments that were more biomedically focused. For example, one participant shared that within their team, understandings of harm reduction varied greatly:

I’ve had colleagues say, “Oh, I had a great harm reduction conversation with this client about cocaine. I told them never to use cocaine, and how bad it is, and how it will mess up their nose, and what their future will be like. (S4-15)

This colleague demonstrated a narrower, biomedically-focused approach to harm reduction, thus providing less opportunity to explore equity-oriented solutions to addressing the harms of substance use.

Learning to think ethically together

Some participants noted that they used or wanted to learn to use the language of ethics to make sense of and bring ethical issues to light. They shared that they often did not use ethical language in conversations with their colleagues but in hindsight saw that they were dealing with ethical concerns:

I always feel I fall short a little bit in these conversations because I think sometimes for me that the ethical uncertainty and ethical distress, they’re terms that I think I experience all the time but it’s hard to language. (S4-08)

They reflected that it would be helpful to be able to articulate what the ethical issues are and how to address them in ways that were not just mechanistic, but were strongly grounded in health equity principles.

Participants also identified the importance of being able to identify core ethical values in their workplace, including health equity and social justice, and infusing these values through their decision making and actions.

I think that… it’s a collective goal of our staff to increase equity to healthcare and better wellbeing for the folks that we work with. I think that we’re practicing in alignment with our values as much as we can. As a supervisor, helping staff to be in as much in alignment with their values is one of the most important things and I see it as vital to staff retention and staff health and their ability to support other people. (S4-08)

Being able to practice in teams in which these shared values were held was seen to promote work satisfaction and retention, maximize the quality of care, and avoid staff burnout. Some participants wondered if PH and street nursing attracted a “certain kind of person” that shared these ethical and political values. Some organizations had more control than others over how to hire people specifically for these expressed interests and commitments, with a greater challenge noted in collective agreement environments.

Talking through situations collectively

The support of like-minded colleagues was noted as being critical for being able to talk through issues, explore options for action and confirm decisions. This support may be formal (e.g., through established communities of practice, professional organizations, reflective supervision, or team debriefing) or informal (e.g., friends who are nurses but not colleagues).

We don’t work in isolation, that’s for sure. We do have colleagues and people that we can talk to within our team, run things by. You know, “what do you think I should do in this case?” And I’ve often heard through talking with colleagues, we’ve often asked that question: “okay, how far do you go with this?” or “well do you really think that’s a good idea?” So those kinds of phrases that let me know that support that I have from my colleagues is excellent. And I really trust their opinion, and I know I’m not alone in doing this work, right? (S4-12)

Alternatively, practitioners lost a significant source of support and education when workplaces and teams were structured in such a way that there was no time or opportunity to consult and engage in dialogue. There was also reduced trust within the team when there was continual change in team composition, membership and leadership, in particular if colleagues were not seen as practicing from the same paradigm:

Not everybody is sympathetic. They can’t understand why they are doing the things they are doing. Yeah, ethically that is another challenge as well, dealing with your peers and dealing with fellow healthcare nurses that are not on the same page (S4-20).

Some participants shared that they had to make decisions about whether it was worth their time or energy to have conversations with or challenge the understanding of certain colleagues. They then could, in fact, feel isolated and in some cases even stigmatized within their teams. Overall, the outcome of this sense making process, whether internal or collective, was for PH practitioners to then feel more confident in making decisions on what actions were appropriate to take to address the situation.

Taking action to address an ethical tension

Taking action refers to the approaches and strategies that PH practitioners used to respond to and resolve the ethical situations they encountered in their practice. Once they recognized and made sense of an ethical situation involving health equity and reflected on and processed their emotional responses, participants acted based on their level of critical PH consciousness and the extent to which they were in a supportive practice environment often having to navigate conflicting value systems. This included: 1) advocating and 2) doing whatever it takes.

The concept of advocacy was framed by participants from systems responsibility and population rights perspectives. Health systems were described as operating from standardized efficiency approaches (i.e., ticking the boxes on a form and saying the job is done) in which there was no place for caring, creativity and individualizing. Advocacy strategies included getting on committees to move issues forward, lobbying for additional resources, channeling venting into action, and keeping an eye open for timely opportunities to insert key equity messages.

I think what we really need to do as healthcare workers, as women, and as people in these jobs, is we need to have, have a bigger political voice. Because nothing’s going to change on the lower levels unless we’re more vocal about it. So for me, it’s hard because I don’t like to speak out to the “up-aboves” and I don’t like to push. But unless we, as groups that have this, or you know, as being a mom myself, for getting people organized together, voting and going to more political action, I don’t think that it’s going to change. (S4-04)

Advocacy was often focused on creating opportunities for the voices of people with lived experiences to be heard and valued at decision-making tables, including creating and resourcing peer advisory committees. One participant described how they integrated client voice into ongoing strategic community planning:

We are about to go into a round table process with [community leaders] to talk about moving forward on establishing supervised consumption services and what that could look like. And a big part of the campaign is we have a peer advisory committee, so we have people with experiential knowledge related to illicit drug use who are involved with the campaign and who we want to foreground their experience and their voices in moving forward on this stuff. You know, the whole “nothing about us without us” concept. (S4-08)

This type of advocacy for experiential voices that are often excluded to be included is consistent with key strategies for promoting health equity through client and community engagement and social inclusion [ 11 ].

Doing whatever it takes

Participants demonstrated through their stories that they were persistent, resilient, creative and sometimes subversive to obtain the resources and supports needed by their clients in spite of conflicting value systems. For example, some participants leveraged their relationships with other programs and agencies and bartered resources. They circumvented organizational policy and role definition barriers. “Work arounds” were related to accessing resources, referring quickly, sharing information about clients across systems, and maximizing clients’ ability to meeting criteria for accessing services such as housing.

I have other methods that I can obtain things, you know. And it’s not illegal just so you know! It’s just people I can call and say “can you send this?” and they do, and we trade things back and forth, or I can go up to the local hospital and say “look, this is what I need. It’s a lot less expensive for me to give 10 of these than it is if we’d have to send the family in through emergency.” So that’s not a threat. When you explain it to somebody like that, they’re like “okay what do you need? (S4-16)

Some participants found themselves in ethically challenging situations in which they either had bend the rules to create trust or subject their clients to greater social control. In this example, the participant chose to work the system rather than disadvantaging the client who may not persist further after experiencing a barrier:

And I’m not your average nurse (laughter). You know, I kind of bend the rules for clients where I can, and I think they really appreciate that. And I think it’s just kind of, you know, whether that’s sending in an STI sample that’s for somebody without a PHN [Personal Health Number] or whatnot. They just really appreciate that kind of thing, and it goes that extra mile. And then you build trust with them, and then they tell their friends about it and all of a sudden you’ve got a bigger marginalized clientele that’s coming in and people start to know you for being a more relaxed nurse. (S4-26)

Taking action was not achieved in discrete actions that were easily laid out in a stepwise process. There were multiple actions and approaches based on how participants made sense of ethically challenging situations that were complex and intertwined in order to navigate conflicting value systems.

Living in dissonance: The impact of navigating conflicting value systems

When PH practitioners recognized and attempted to navigate ethically challenging situations there was an impact or effect on them, and also on their clients and the health system in some way. The result of the process of navigating conflicting value systems was experienced as dissonance by participants, where they knew what was possible in a strong PH system focused on health equity, yet they saw the reality of the bio-medically oriented system in which health inequities and marginalization were experienced by their clients. PH practitioners thus often felt: 1) powerless as they witnessed inequities; 2) feeling like a stranger in a strange land; and 3) like they were living in a middle ground. Ultimately, they felt caught between their employer and their professional obligations and the feeling of responsibility, which ran the risk of leading to burnout.

Witnessing inequities

Participants frequently witnessed and heard stories of health inequities lived by the clients they served and yet had no power or resources to address these inequities. PH practitioners described seeing limited to no systemic response to addressing the determinants of health in a substantive way. It weighed heavily on them when they saw what needed to happen but were not able to do what they knew could make a difference. That, coupled with high workloads, was felt to lead to poorer personal outcomes for participants who experienced burnout.

Well I think that’s… certainly part of the burnout is you go home from work for the day and you think “oh, I didn’t get that done, I didn’t get that done, I haven’t been to that school for 2 weeks, and I need to…” you know? You carry it home with you. As hard as you try not to, you know I wake up in the night thinking about this kid or that kid or that teacher and it takes a lot of energy to put that aside and just be at home. You know, “that’s my job” it’s separated out, compartmentalize. That takes energy. (S4-18)

Participants described feeling a sense of powerlessness in holding the position of continually bearing witness to inequities experienced as mentally, emotionally, and physically exhausting. Compassion fatigue and burnout were readily evident in participant stories.

Feeling like a stranger in a strange land

Depending on the work team and organization, some practitioners felt as if they were standing alone, isolated in their ethical and moral distress, in their work to reduce health inequities. They felt responsible for taking action and being the voice of advocacy on their team. One strategy used by practitioners who felt isolated in their approach to their work was to find other like-minded people external to their organization with whom they could work through ethically challenging situations. For example, one participant noted:

Well it really depends, because I have a little gaggle of friends who are nurses, and some are not, but mostly nurses who I can talk to about this and they agree and I don’t feel like I’m a stranger in a strange land . (S4-02)

Another practitioner also identified the feeling of isolation on the team stating: “But it is quite embarrassing to always be the person bringing it up. Like it’s like beating the dead horse.,,So it’s awkward. But it’s not something that’s okay to just see what happens and ignore it” (S4-15). The impact of being alone or being embarrassed affected the way they reflected on their quality of work life and ability to do their job and thus their willingness to stay in their position.

Living in the middle ground

The final impact of navigating conflicting value systems was to make the decision to settle on something less than their ideal. One participant framed their tactic as resigning to live in the middle ground, having considered the benefits and drawbacks to continuing to practice based on PH values.

I personally I think I’ve gotten to a point in my life where I feel like I’ve sort of made a deal and I live in the middle ground, meaning there are certain limitations to my work that I have to accept if I’m going to work for this organization, which there’s lots of perks, including a nice stable pay cheque, whereas if I quit and work for [another community organization] for example, where you get to be a bit more radical, some of those perks are gone. So, I feel like it’s trying to balance personal responsibilities for my family and my personal integrity and then trying to find a way within [health authority], which is a very hierarchical bureaucracy – and I mean I feel like I work in a good little pocket where we try and subvert some of the policies. (S4-07)

Working out this balance was important for PH practitioners as they came to understand how to survive in conflicting value systems and still maintain enough of a degree of health equity thinking that they could feel they were meeting their ethical obligations. Ultimately, some participants left the workplace when they felt that they were no longer able to make sense of or live ethically with the work that they were doing.

Overall, our findings support research emerging from the evolving field of PH ethics. Specifically, the findings highlight the tension that arises for PH practitioners when the obligation to focus on the health and well-being of populations is situated within health care delivery systems that are primarily structured to focus on individuals and acute care needs [ 14 , 38 ]. The basic social process identified by PH practitioners in this grounded theory study was navigating conflicting value systems to promote health equity in public health. The process of navigating these tensions began with recognition that there was an ethical issue at play. This awareness, and the sense making and action that followed, was contingent on the degree to which an individual had developed critical PH consciousness. The recognition of ethical issues in PH practice spanned the dominant health system values of a biomedical agenda, systems driven care, systemic stigma and discrimination, and surveillance and control. These values did not align with those of the PH practitioner, which included health equity, situational care, respect for persons, and choice and relational autonomy [ 4 ]. Practitioners often had an emotional response to this misalignment, frequently interpreted as an ethical tension or a sense of moral distress. They made sense of the ethical issue through internal and collective reasoning processes, and shifted to action including advocacy through engaging with the system and encouraging participation of people experiencing inequities. The overall impact of navigating conflicting value systems was one of living in dissonance, often caught between what they knew they ought to be doing and what they were expected to do.

The moral foundation of PH practice has been described as determining the balance between what PH is and what PH practitioners think it should be [ 39 ]. In this study, participants demonstrated their moral foundation and ethical awareness through language that aligned with the concept of critical PH consciousness (CPHC), based on Freire’s [ 40 , 41 ] framework of critical consciousness. Freire [ 40 ] posited that learners who connect with their personal, intellectual, and emotional experiences can discuss them with others, resulting in a reflective reading of the world (or conscientization), concentrating on changing societally embedded inequities. Participants in this study varied in the extent to which they demonstrated CPHC. Some PH practitioners expressed a high degree of CPHC, citing a full range of ethical issues encountered in doing health equity work spanning multiple contexts. The depth of reflection on these situations was moving and motivating. Their personal reflections included the identification and processing of emotional responses which contributed to making sense of the situation. Those demonstrating a high degree of CPHC were relentless advocates and did whatever they could to meet the client’s needs, even when it meant circumventing rules and system limitations. Other PH practitioners were less aware of the broad range of ethical issues related to health equity in their work, thus expressing less of a CPHC and holding a more restricted idea of what they viewed as an ethical issue. The degree to which participants held a CPHC was integral to the kind of impacts they identified clients as experiencing, as well as impacts on themselves and others. It also subsequently expanded or limited the possibilities for action that they considered. However, a high degree of CPHC was noted to make them more vulnerable to experiencing moral distress and thus burnout.

PH practitioners’ conceptions of ‘doing good’ did not come solely from abstraction or theory. It appeared that their obligation to act arose from their situated position proximal to service users’ lived experience. We noted that participants with limited direct exposure to lived experiences of marginalization and less awareness of and commitment to equity and social justice were less likely to see inequities as structural and more likely to locate responsibility for inequities within the individual and their behaviour or lifestyle. PH practitioners that had a critical socio-structural understanding of health issues were more likely to have had experience working with marginalized populations or in some cases had their own lived experience of or identification with issues including substance use and mental health. Thus, the capacity to develop CPHC seemed to have proximity, dose, and exposure dimensions.

Practitioners routinely experienced ethical concerns resulting from their daily encounters with clients, yet had few organizational resources available to support their ethical decision making. While there may be ethics consultation support in healthcare organizations, this support was often geared toward individual and biomedical issues with few supports for PH practitioners grappling with everyday ethics in their practice. Ethical framework resources are needed and may be useful to guide reflection in practice. However, traditional biomedical frameworks will not capture such tensions around health equity. New frameworks are needed that specifically reflect PH values. Lee [ 38 ] suggests that even if the PH ethics field has not yet come to a place of agreement about a unifying theory, framework, or set of principles, there is still an immediate need for practice-oriented tools for recognizing ethical dilemmas and supporting consistent and defensible ethical decision making.

Providing time for critical reflection and dialogue is another essential resource in practice and in education to support PH practitioners to develop their CPHC, process their emotional responses, and problem solve ethical challenges. Ethical dialogue with a supportive practice team could serve to both decrease moral distress and facilitate development of CPHC. Hamric and Wocial [ 42 ] describes the creation of moral spaces and development of moral communities to facilitate interprofessional dialogue. Combined with decision making tools or frameworks, this reflection and dialogue can serve to not only alleviate moral distress, but also create avenues for collective social justice action.

Ortmann et al. [ 43 ] suggest that because public health itself is practical, pragmatic, and community oriented, ethical frameworks to guide public health practice must then be culturally, socially and politically aligned, and grounded in the public health values of health equity and social justice. However, the commitment to health equity and social justice has become difficult to sustain for many Canadian PH practitioners over the last two decades as health systems have shifted to corporate models of service delivery and as practice has increasingly become controlled [ 44 , 45 , 46 ]. It appears that in the face of these challenges, PH practitioners felt they had less support for responding to inequities, meeting the unique needs of individuals, or advocating for systemic concerns. Thus, when participants recognized and made sense of ethical issues and then took action on health inequities, they were demonstrating their own professional commitments to social justice rather than enacting organizational commitments to health equity. In other work, we have identified that health equity is often a value in name only and one held by individual practitioners and leaders but not necessarily organizations [ 47 ].

Some participants suggested that the current health and political environment in general is hostile to working toward social change, resulting in some PH practitioners going underground in the form of finding ways to work around the system to attempt advocacy and achieve what they feel is best for the client. “Workarounds”, known as strategies that differ from prescribed procedures taken to temporarily fix or circumvent problems, develop when the conditions and pressures of work in complex systems meet the structural constraints of these systems [ 48 ]. Berlinger has characterized workarounds as ethically significant as they emerge from the tension that arises when complying with rules is impossible to reconcile with the demands of work [ 49 ]. From a complex systems perspective, they reveal the incommensurability between professional values and the demands of health care organizations as workplaces under pressure [ 49 ]. Although advocacy is clearly identified as a PH competency it was felt to be often negated or not encouraged in health care systems, even in PH systems that philosophically should be oriented this way [ 50 , 51 ]. Cohen and Marshall [ 52 ], in their scoping review of public health advocacy, found that the literature reflected a neoliberal preoccupation with individual responsibilities for health, thus reproducing rather than resisting corporate politics.

In addition to advocacy, the Core Competencies for Public Health Practice in Canada [ 51 ] are grounded in the fundamental values of health equity and social justice with an assumption that all health professionals share and can operationalize these values, despite differences in identity, social location, and cultural background among practitioners themselves. Furthermore, PH practitioners who are more engaged with traditional epidemiology and virology, may embrace biomedical ethics more than those whose work is in social epidemiology [ 53 ]. Alternatively, PH practitioners have clear real-life commitments to social justice and health equity, and may therefore have had greater opportunity to develop CPHC and have the capabilities for enacting or doing social change.

Overall, the process of navigating conflicting value systems required PH practitioners to have a high level of ethical awareness to understand the systemic challenges of complex healthcare delivery, as well as address the societal challenges of stigma and discrimination that accompanied mental health and substance use concerns. In this study, participants articulated the distress and high emotional costs that came with this awareness. Similar to other research on moral distress in health, they expressed frustration and powerlessness [ 54 , 55 ]. Unintended consequences for the PH practitioner of not resolving these tensions may include disenfranchisement, disengagement, attrition, decreased quality of care, and reduced population health impacts [ 54 , 55 ].

The participants in this study, whose practice focused on promoting mental health and reducing the harms of substance use, were for the most part clearly committed to equity and social justice and had developed the ability to vision and effect social change in a strategic way. However, they did not appear to draw on a shared language or coherent theory or framework to identify, make sense of and act on the ethically challenging situations they faced in their work. Additionally, the organizations and systems within which they worked were usually not designed or resourced to support the work of social change. Beyond inclusion of concepts such as advocacy in core competency frameworks, explicit ethical guidance for PH, in particular at the direct care level, is lacking [ 50 , 51 , 56 , 57 , 58 ]. The resources that are available tend to be framed around the biomedical concepts of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice [ 17 ]. Although health equity and social justice are core values of public health, there is not yet consensus on a practice-oriented ethical framework that integrates these differences into guidance for decision-making guidance [ 59 ].

Health equity work is not an abstraction for PH practitioners as they have acquired experiential knowledge about the messiness, challenges, and successes of this work, especially in the fields of mental health and substance use. For example, although there is a wealth of research that has exposed the systemic stigma in acute health care settings and the ways in which health care providers are complicit in reinforcing stigma, there is still little evidence available on how PH practitioners navigate systemic stigma [ 60 , 61 ]. An increased focus on understanding the ethical issues and working collaboratively and reflexively to address the complexity of equity work has the potential to generate new solutions and/or strengthen equity strategies.

Strengths and Limitations

A key strength of this study was that participant experiences reflected a wide range of organizational and geographical contexts across the Canadian province of British Columbia. Conversely, British Columbia represents one specific provincial political and economic healthcare jurisdictional perspective, so findings will need careful consideration when being translated to different contexts. Ethical issues were limited to those identified related to mental health promotion and prevention of harms of substance use practice. While these are two practice areas generate substantial ethical concerns in part due to the stigma and discrimination associated with these issues, it is important to recognize that ethical issues and trade offs will manifest differently in different areas of public health. Furthermore, these findings reflect the experiences of a mostly female, mental health and substance use-oriented public health workforce. While this grounded theory may hold promise for application across the many functions of PH, it is unlikely that any one PH ethics framework will be applicable across all PH ethical challenges. We recommend future research to study the applicability of this grounded theory across the diverse PH core functions and the specialized practitioners associated with these functions.

Enacting PH values is vital when working in areas where reducing health inequities is the goal. Lee and Zarowsky [ 39 ] suggest that because these values differ from those of biomedicine, the processes and tools that are needed to make ethically-supported decisions also need to differ. We have aimed to contribute to the understanding of how PH practitioners, through promotion of and commitment to health equity, negotiate and advocate within health and social systems to assist clients in meeting their needs related to the social determinants as well as advocate for inclusion of their voice within health systems. Kass [ 14 ] states that “public health ethics is, ultimately, a practical field” (p. 239). The PH practitioner who values collectivism and solidarity, and is working toward social justice, is one who is more likely to experience ethical tensions and dissonance in their practice. They may benefit from an ethical framework that can guide them in their everyday practice, firmly grounded in the core values of PH.

This study also contributes to knowledge of how health care providers in PH are finding ways to empower themselves. However, while health systems may purport to hold goals of health equity, valuing health equity, and taking action to promote it remain challenging [ 62 ]. These findings point to the need for organizational strategies and supports that are attentive to listening and seeing moral distress as an opportunity for systems reform specifically related to promoting health equity in organizations. Health equity is, after all, a stated goal of health systems as well as public health [ 63 ].

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to the sensitive and confidential nature of the data.

Abbreviations

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Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the participants who contributed their insights and perspectives to this research as well as our provincial and national research partners. We acknowledge with deep respect that this research was conducted on the unceded territories of multiple First Nations across British Columbia.

The ELPH project was funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) Operating Grant: Programmatic Grants to Tackle Health and Health Equity, through the CIHR Institutes of Aboriginal Health and Institutes of Population and Public Health (FRN 116688) and the Public Health Agency of Canada. During the time of this research: Marjorie MacDonald was supported by a Canadian Institutes of Health Research Applied Public Health Chair Award (FRN# 92365); Bernie Pauly has been funded by Island Health as the Island Health Scholar in Residence since July 2016. Funding bodies had no role in the design of the study, collection, analysis, or interpretation of data, nor in writing the manuscript.

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BP and MM designed the overall study. BP, MM, LM, WM, TR were involved in conducting interviews and analysis. KE, BP, MM, LM, WM, and TR engaged in interpreting the analysis to conceptualize the grounded theory. LM drafted the manuscript and KE, MM, LM, WM, and TR provided feedback on the manuscript and read and approved the final manuscript.

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This study received ethical approval from the University of Victoria, University of Saskatchewan (REB# H11-03359) and reviewed and approved by UBC Behavioral Research Ethics Board (includes the Provincial Health Services Authority), Northern Health Authority, Interior Health Authority, Fraser Health Authority, and Vancouver Island Health Authority. The "Board of Record" is the Research Ethics Board delegated by the participating REBs involved in a harmonized study to facilitate the ethics review and approval process. Written consent was obtained from study participants. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.

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Marcellus, L., Pauly, B., Martin, W. et al. Navigating conflicting value systems: a grounded theory of the process of public health equity work in the context of mental health promotion and prevention of harms of substance use. BMC Public Health 22 , 210 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12627-w

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