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It can be difficult to know how to write numbers in academic writing (e.g. five or 5 , 1 million or 1,000,000 ). This section gives some guidelines on when to use words to write numbers, and when to use numerals . There are also some exceptions to the rule which are considered, i.e. times when you might expect to use words but should instead use numerals. There is also a checklist at the end, that you can use to check the use of numbers in your own writing.
In general, words should be used for zero to ten , and numerals used from 11 onwards. The same rule should be applied to ordinal numbers, i.e. use words for first, second up to tenth, and numbers plus 'th' (or 'st') from 11th onwards. However, it is always best to check what the accepted practice is at your university (or in your department/on your course), and remember that some common referencing systems have their own, different requirements, as follows.
Before looking at when to use numerals (which is almost all other situations, see next), it is useful to look at important exceptions.
(1) When the number begins a sentence , you should use words , whatever the size of the number (though if possible, rewrite the sentence so the number is not at the beginning).
(2) When expressing part of a very large round number , e.g. million, billion, you should use words for that large number part (it is common to use abbreviations m for million and bn billion ).
Conversely, numerals should be used rather than words, whatever the size of the number, when large and small numbers are combined , since this makes comparisons easier.
Numerals are used for almost all other situations. These include the following.
The following are a few other points to remember when using numbers.
American Psychological Association (2019a) Numbers Expressed in Words . Available at: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers/words (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).
American Psychological Association (2019b) Numbers Expressed in Numerals . Available at: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers/numerals (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).
Harvard Wiki (2019) Numbers . Available at: https://wiki.harvard.edu/confluence/display/HSG/Numbers . (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).
University of Bristol (2015) Using numbers . Available at: http://www.bristol.ac.uk/arts/exercises/grammar/grammar_tutorial/page_33.htm (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).
University of New England (nd) Numbers in academic writing . Available at: https://aso-resources.une.edu.au/academic-writing/miscellaneous/numbers/ (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).
University of Oxford (2015) Style Guide . Available at: https://www.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/oxford/media_wysiwyg/University%20of%20Oxford%20Style%20Guide.pdf (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).
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Below is a checklist for using numbers in academic writing. Use it to check your writing, or as a peer to help.
Words have been used for , and numerals for numbers 11 and above (unless there are different requirements e.g. ). | ||
Numbers (written as numerals) are used to . | ||
Very are expressed using . | ||
If , numerals are used throughout. | ||
Numerals have been used for . |
Read more about using complex grammar in the next section.
Go back to the previous section about describing data .
Author: Sheldon Smith ‖ Last modified: 16 January 2022.
Sheldon Smith is the founder and editor of EAPFoundation.com. He has been teaching English for Academic Purposes since 2004. Find out more about him in the about section and connect with him on Twitter , Facebook and LinkedIn .
Compare & contrast essays examine the similarities of two or more objects, and the differences.
Cause & effect essays consider the reasons (or causes) for something, then discuss the results (or effects).
Discussion essays require you to examine both sides of a situation and to conclude by saying which side you favour.
Problem-solution essays are a sub-type of SPSE essays (Situation, Problem, Solution, Evaluation).
Transition signals are useful in achieving good cohesion and coherence in your writing.
Reporting verbs are used to link your in-text citations to the information cited.
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Numbers are an imperative part of academic writing , serving as vital tools to represent quantitative data, statistical data, or measures in an accurate and precise manner. Numbers are used across various fields, including sciences, humanities, and business. However, adherence to specific rules is necessary in terms of using numbers effectively in academia, which vary depending on the style guide followed. This article will provide insights into how numbers are used appropriately.
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The APA Style is one of the most widely used academic writing styles and is largely adopted by the behavioral and social sciences. A number can be written both numerically or in words within this style.
Typically, a number from one to nine should be written out as words, while numbers from 10 and above should be written out numerically. This general rule also applies to ordinals (first, 10th). Some exceptions do apply, as found next in this article.
Other writing styles utilize different number rules. The Chicago style , for instance, requires numbers to be written out as words up to 100. The MLA style spells out all numbers that can be written within one or two words (three, one hundred, etc.).
Exceptions to the general rule above apply in the following cases:
1. All numbers should be represented numerically when they are detailing an exact unit of measurement.
2. Write out numerals as words when they begin a sentence, except when dealing with specific years.
3. A number should be written out when dealing with fractions, set expressions, or other known numeric titles.
When dealing with percentages in the APA Style, use numerals followed by the percent sign % , instead of “percent” or the abbreviations, “pct.”, “pct,”, or “pc”.
The same rule when beginning sentences with numerals applies to percentages, i.e., they should be written out as words when they start a sentence.
Reporting statistics in APA and papers that deal with technical numerical language in qualitative research have their own rules.
Here, all data is written in numerals to remain consistent and easily digested. This applies to the main body, tables, and figures sections of a paper.
Other statistical conventions include:
Always use numerals for units of measurement.
Numerals should be used for precise ages, timescales, dates, score lines, points of scale, and monetary sums.
Imprecise ages and generalizations are not numbered but written out.
Longer numbers have their own set of rules. A period should be used to indicate a decimal point.
Commas are to be used to separate large figures every three digits after 1,000.
For sums exceeding 6 numerals, like 1 million and 1 billion, use a combination of numerals and written language.
As a general rule of thumb, numbers up to nine should be written out in the APA Style, while anything exceeding 10 should appear as numerals.
Dates are always written as numerals.
They are written out when they begin a sentence, except for dates and technical data.
The APA Style states that the symbol “%” should be used after numerals, while “percent” should be used for written-out figures.
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You may have noticed a theme when it comes to the English language: most rules are not standardized. This (somewhat frustrating) fact is especially true when it comes to spelling out numbers. Should you write them out in words or leave them as numerals? To write numbers properly, you will also need to identify potential differences between major style guides (such as MLA , APA , and Chicago , to name a few) because these guides often outline different rules for using numbers in writing.
To make it easier, let's use an example. Say you're working on a paper evaluating the importance of the local public library in your community. The document will make use of small numbers, large numbers, decades, and statistics. Each type of number may follow a different rule.
Thankfully, when using numbers in writing, you can count on a few conventions that apply to most situations; just be sure to consult your specific style guide if one has been assigned. If you don't have time to review each number yourself, a professional editor or proofreader can ensure that your numbers are written correctly.
A simple rule for using numbers in writing is that small numbers ranging from one to ten (or one to nine, depending on the style guide) should generally be spelled out. Larger numbers (i.e., above ten) are written as numerals.
For example, instead of writing "It cost ten-thousand four-hundred and sixteen dollars to renovate the local library," you would write, "It cost $10,416 to renovate the local library."
The reason for this is relatively intuitive. Writing out large numbers not only wastes space but could also be a major distraction to your readers.
Here is a rule that you can truly rely on: always spell out numbers when they begin a sentence, no matter how large or small they may be.
Incorrect: 15 new fiction novels were on display.
Correct: Fifteen new fiction novels were on display.
If the number is large and you want to avoid writing it all out, rearrange the sentence so that the number no longer comes first.
Revised: There were 15 new fiction novels on display.
Another important factor to consider is whether you are working with a whole number or a decimal. Decimals are always written as numerals for clarity and accuracy.
To revisit our library example, perhaps circulation statistics improved in 2015. If a number falls in the range of one to ten and is not a whole number, it should be written as a numeral.
Incorrect: The circulation of library materials increased by four point five percent in 2015.
Correct: The circulation of library materials increased by 4.5% in 2015.
When two numbers come next to each other in a sentence, be sure to spell out one of these numbers. The main purpose of this rule is to avoid confusing the reader.
Incorrect: There were 12 4-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.
Correct: There were 12 four-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.
Correct: There were twelve 4-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.
Decades or centuries are usually spelled out, especially if the writing is formal.
Incorrect: The library was built in the '50s.
Correct: The library was built in the fifties.
If you are referring to a specific year (e.g., 1955), use the numeral.
Always strive for consistency, even if it overrides a previous rule. For example, if your document uses numbers frequently, it is more appropriate for all numbers to remain as numerals to ensure that usage is uniform throughout. Similarly, if a single sentence combines small and large numbers, make sure that all the numbers are either spelled out or written as numerals.
Incorrect: The library acquired five new mystery novels, 12 new desktop computers, and 17 new periodicals.
Correct: The library acquired 5 new mystery novels, 12 new desktop computers, and 17 new periodicals.
Let's complicate things a bit, shall we?
If your work must follow the rules of a specific style guide, understand that various guides all have rules for spelling out numbers that may differ slightly from the rules listed above. For example, MLA style indicates that writers may spell out numbers if they are not used too frequently in the document and can be represented with one or two words (e.g., twenty-four, one hundred, three thousand ). APA style advises that common fractions (e.g., two-thirds ) be expressed as words. A number of specific rules for spelling out numbers are outlined in Section 9.1 of the Chicago Manual of Style.
Your ultimate authority will always be a style guide, but in the absence of one, following the rules outlined above will help you stay consistent in your use of numbers in writing.
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Although usage varies, most people spell out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words and use figures for numbers that are three or more words long. Note: If you are using a specific citation style, such as MLA or APA , consult the style manual for specific formatting instructions.
Here are some examples of specific situations:
Days and Years
Time of Day
Identification Numbers
Page and Division of Books and Plays
Decimals and Percentages
Large Round Numbers
Repeat numbers in commercial writing.
Use numerals in legal writing.
Numbers in series and statistics should be consistent.
Write out numbers beginning sentences.
Use a combination of figures and words for numbers when such a combination will keep your writing clear.
Writing advice from the harvard college writing center tutors, one hundred percent or 100% tips for writing numbers..
by Raymond DeLuca, English Grammar and Language Tutor
Students bring all sorts of different essays to the Writing Center, and each discipline has its own conventions when it comes to writing numbers. People are always surprised to learn that, yes, there are good and not so good ways to write numbers in English. So, this information will save you a headache. After all, it is not the best use of your time when writing an essay (especially when it’s due in a few hours) to get stuck thinking, well, is it “3” or “three”?
Just as there are different citation styles for citing sources in different academic fields, there are also different conventions for writing numbers. Each of the most common citation styles—MLA, APA, and Chicago– offers slightly different rules for writing numbers. You should always make sure you know what style and citation guidelines you should be following for a specific assignment. If you are writing a non-technical paper and can choose your style, I recommend following the MLA guidelines, which make a lot of sense and are commonly used in cases where you’re not using a lot of numbers.
Rule #1: When should you write out numbers and when should you use the number?
For papers in the humanities and in some social sciences, you will often use either the MLA or Chicago citation styles. In those styles, when you are writing a non-technical paper, you should write out numbers less than one hundred, using a dash for two-digit numbers: eight, fifteen, forty-five, sixty-two, eighty-seven, etc., etc. And, for numbers over one hundred: 1,435; 2,870; 5,740; 11,480. Someone here is bound to ask: “Well, does that mean one trillion should be written as 1,000,000,000,000?” No, of course not. If the number (even if it’s above one hundred) can be easily expressed in words, then keep it in words: four hundred, eight thousand, three billion, nine quintillion, etc.
If you’re using APA style, you should generally only write out numbers 1-9 and use numerals for everything else. But there is an exception: If you are using a number at the beginning of the sentence, you should write it out.
Rule #2 What about percentages?
Just like with regular numbers, different style guides express different preferences for percentages. I like the MLA style, which advises that for a percentage less than one hundred, you should write it in words: two percent, seventy-six percent, ninety-nine percent, but, for a percentage greater than one hundred, write it in numerals: 110 percent, 500 percent, 999 percent. Besides that, as you can see, in non-technical writing, it is better to use the word “percent” rather than the percent sign, “%.” It’s ugly.
In this case, Chicago and APA style both call for using use numbers in percentages.
Rule #3: What about years?
MLA, Chicago, and APA style all say that years are better written in numerals, not words: 1967, not “nineteen sixty-seven.” (Sometimes students write out the years to pad their paper’s word count; it’s not a good look! Everyone can see what you’re doing.) It’s also considered poor style to start a sentence with a year, i.e., “2020 has been a bad year.” You could rephrase that, writing instead: “Many people thought 2020 would be a better year.”
Rule #4: What about decades?
If you’re talking about a series of events that occurred in a certain decade, say, from 1980 – 1989, you can refer to that period in three different ways: the eighties, the ‘80s, or the 1980s. But stay clear of the “nineteen eighties.”
Rule #5: If you ever find yourself writing about a score or a court decision or a ratio, you should stick with numerals (even if said numbers are less than one hundred). For example, “The Red Sox were up 4-2 before losing 6-4,” or “The contentious 5-4 Supreme Court ruling says…”
These are obviously not the only situations you will encounter when you need to write a number, but these rules will help clear up some of the most common issues I’ve seen in student writing. Numbers can be as easy as one, two, three. If you find yourself writing a science or an econometrics paper, you may have to use way more numbers than you would otherwise, and you will need to make sure you are following the guidelines in your field. Generally, though, these five suggestions are good to keep in mind.
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Microsoft Word can automatically keep track of your chapter, section, and sub-section numbering for you. Using these numbering schemes will also allow your figure/diagram/table/equations to be automatically numbered, as well.
In this part of the Guide, you'll learn:
Important Note: Not everyone needs this type of numbering; if your discipline doesn’t require it, skip this section!
Word can automatically number sections (Chapter 1, 1.1, 1.2, etc.) of your document and include the chapter number in the captions (Figure 1.2, 2.2, etc.).
Note: If you have any problems with word automatically adding outline numbering to parts of your front matter, simply delete it. Your chapter numbers will reset to show the correct number of chapters.
In some cases, you may find that Word has added "Chapter X" before some of your Heading 1 sections that aren't chapters (like Acknowledgements or Bibliography). All you need to do is go to each of those sections, place your cursor after "Chapter X", and press Backspace to delete it.
You have a lot of control over numbering. for example.
It's easy to inadvertently create multiple numbering schemes in a document and not realize it. So it's always best to start by placing your cursor in one of your chapter headings (Heading 1). That ensures that you're making changes to the active scheme.
How to properly format numbers in academic essays – a comprehensive guide.
When writing academic essays, it is crucial to follow certain guidelines to ensure your work is clear, accurate, and professional. One area that often causes confusion is the use of numbers. Should you write numbers out in full or use numerals? Are there specific rules for when to use each format? In this article, we will explore the best practices for using numbers in academic writing to help you convey your ideas effectively.
One of the primary rules to keep in mind when using numbers in academic essays is consistency. Choose a style guide, such as APA or MLA, and stick to its guidelines throughout your paper. This will help maintain a uniform appearance and make your work easier to read. Additionally, consider the context in which you are using numbers. Are you discussing statistics, measurements, or dates? Each of these may require a different approach to ensure clarity and accuracy.
Another important aspect of using numbers in academic writing is knowing when to write them out in full and when to use numerals. In general, numbers zero to nine are typically written out in full (e.g., three, seven), while numerals are used for numbers 10 and above (e.g., 15, 42). However, there are exceptions to this rule, so be sure to consult your style guide for specific cases.
Numbers play a crucial role in academic essays as they provide a concrete and quantitative basis for arguments and evidence. When used appropriately, numbers can add credibility and precision to your writing, making your arguments more convincing and compelling.
By including specific numerical data, such as statistics, percentages, or numerical examples, you can enhance the clarity and accuracy of your statements. Numbers can help quantify the magnitude of a problem, demonstrate trends over time, or compare different scenarios effectively.
Additionally, numbers can enhance the reader’s understanding of complex concepts and ideas by providing a clear and measurable context. They can also help you make your arguments more persuasive and impactful by presenting evidence in a concise and structured manner.
Overall, using numbers in academic essays is essential for presenting factual information, supporting your arguments with evidence, and making your writing more precise and effective. Properly integrating numbers into your writing can significantly strengthen your academic work and contribute to its overall quality.
When writing academic essays, it is important to follow specific formatting guidelines for numbers to ensure clarity and consistency throughout your paper. Here are some key rules to keep in mind:
1. Spell out numbers one to nine: In general, spell out numbers from one to nine (e.g., “two apples”, “seven participants”) to improve readability and avoid confusion.
2. Use numerals for numbers 10 and above: Use numerals for numbers 10 and above (e.g., “12 years old”, “22 participants”) to maintain consistency in your writing.
3. Use numerals for measurements and percentages: Always use numerals for measurements (e.g., “5 meters”, “10 kilograms”) and percentages (e.g., “25%”) to provide accurate and precise information.
4. Use commas for numbers with four or more digits: Use commas to separate thousands, millions, etc., in numbers with four or more digits (e.g., 1,000, 10,000,000).
5. Be consistent in using numerical formats: Maintain consistency in how you present numbers within your essay. For instance, if you start a list with numerals, continue using numerals for the rest of the list.
When writing an academic essay, it is important to know how to properly use numerals. Here are some guidelines to follow:
1. Use numerals for numbers 10 and above: When expressing numbers 10 and above, use numerals. For example, “There were 15 participants in the study.”
2. Spell out numbers below 10: For numbers below 10, spell them out. For example, “There were seven different hypotheses tested in the study.”
3. Use numerals for units of measurement and time: Use numerals when expressing units of measurement (5 grams) and time (6 hours).
4. Consistency is key: Be consistent in your use of numerals throughout the essay. If you start with numerals, continue to use numerals for similar types of information.
5. Follow style guidelines: Some academic disciplines have specific style guidelines for the use of numerals. Make sure to follow the guidelines provided by your institution or the journal you are submitting to.
By following these guidelines, you can ensure that your use of numerals in your academic essay is clear and consistent.
When writing numbers in academic essays, it is important to follow the style guide provided by your institution or the specific guidelines of the publication you are submitting your work to. In general, numbers from one to nine are typically written out as words (e.g., “two” or “seven”), while numbers 10 and above are written as numerals (e.g., 10 or 27). However, there can be exceptions to this rule depending on the style guide being used.
It is also a good practice to spell out ordinal numbers (e.g., first, second, third) rather than using numerals (e.g., 1st, 2nd, 3rd) in academic writing. This helps maintain consistency and clarity throughout your essay. Additionally, when a sentence begins with a number, it is generally recommended to write it out as a word to avoid starting a sentence with a numeral.
Remember to always check the specific style guide you are required to follow for any variations or exceptions when writing numbers in your academic essays. Consistency and accuracy are key to conveying your ideas clearly and professionally.
When writing academic essays, it is essential to maintain consistency in the usage of numbers throughout the document. This consistency applies to both the style and format of numbers used in the text. Here are some guidelines to ensure proper usage:
By maintaining consistency in number usage, you can improve the readability and professionalism of your academic writing. Paying attention to these details demonstrates your attention to accuracy and precision in your work.
When using numbers in academic essays, it is essential to prioritize clarity to ensure that your reader can easily follow your arguments and understand your points. Here are some tips to enhance the clarity of your numerical expressions:
Ensure that you maintain a consistent format when presenting numbers. Whether you choose to use words or numerals, stick to one style throughout your essay to avoid confusion. | |
Round off large numbers or measurements to make them more reader-friendly. For example, instead of writing “7,613,598,” consider writing “approximately 7.6 million.” | |
When introducing statistics or numerical data, always provide context to help your reader understand the significance of the numbers. Explain the relevance of the data and how it supports your argument. | |
Avoid excessive decimal places when dealing with numerical values. Stick to a reasonable number of decimal places to prevent overwhelming your reader with unnecessary precision. |
By following these tips, you can effectively enhance the clarity of your numerical expressions in academic essays and improve the overall readability of your work.
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Former President Donald Trump, the Republican presidential candidate in November, says he knows nothing about Project 2025 Presidential Transition Project , a detailed political plan by the conservative think tank The Heritage Foundation that proposes radical changes in the federal government.
“I have no idea who is behind it,” Trump wrote in a Truth Social post July 5. “I disagree with some of the things they’re saying, and some of the things they’re saying are absolutely ridiculous and abysmal."
Read more: How Project 2025 could affe c t lives of students ; Heritage Foundation president says the second American Revolution will be bloodless " if the left allows it to be ."
“Anything they do, I wish them luck, but I have nothing to do with them,” Trump wrote.
While the Trump campaign has its own plan, called Agenda47 , Trump has a history with many of the Project 2025 contributors. At least 31 of the project's 38 creators – writers, editors or directors – were connected with the Trump administration.
What is project 2025.
Project 2025 is one of many how-to guides for a new Republican administration. Under federal law, the Biden administration must cooperate with Trump's team now as it prepares for a potential transition. Those efforts will speed up after Election Day should the Republicans win the White House.
" Mandate for Leadership, The Conservative Promise, Project 2025 " is the Heritage Foundation's blueprint for a second Trump administration. More than 100 conservative groups were consulted.
It includes significant changes in the federal government, a database of potential administrative employees and training to help them carry out those changes out, and a plan of action for Trump's first 180 days in office.
"It is not enough for conservatives to win elections," the project site states. "If we are going to rescue the country from the grip of the radical Left, we need both a governing agenda and the right people in place, ready to carry this agenda out on day one of the next conservative administration."
President Joe Biden and other Democrats have said the plan, which would expand presidential powers, " will destroy America ."
The plan recommends the reinstatement of Schedule F , an executive authority that would change the classification of as many as 50,000 federal workers to political appointees in civil service.
Trump imposed Schedule F on Oct. 21, 2020. Biden repealed it on Jan. 22, 2021.
Other suggestions in the document include :
Trump accepted guidance from the Heritage Foundation in the first year of his administration. The administration used 64% of the policy recommendations found in the foundation's " Mandate for Leadership " publications, according to foundation officials.
Even if Trump wins the election, it remains to be seen how many of the Project 2025 recommendations his administration will adopt. Any real policy will come from agencies in his new administration, and through legislation written by members of Congress.
Aside from Project 2025, the Heritage Foundation is a " revolving door for Trump officials ," according to The Washington Post, which noted that the foundation is a sponsor of the Republican National Convention.
If Trump wins in November, many of those connected to Project 2025 " would likely help fill out his administration," Reuters reported.
SOURCE USA TODAY Network reporting and research; Heritage Foundation; Reuters
As the new Democratic standard bearer, Vice President Kamala Harris has described her contest with former President Donald Trump in blunt terms — tough prosecutor versus civil and criminal defendant .
“I took on perpetrators of all kinds, predators who abused women, fraudsters who ripped off consumers, cheaters who broke the rules for their own game,” Harris said at a rally in Wisconsin on Tuesday. “So hear me when I say I know Donald Trump’s type.”
But critics say that Harris’ record as a prosecutor, first as the district attorney in San Francisco and later as the California attorney general, reveals a political chameleon rather than a tough-on-crime top cop, according to interviews with current and former law enforcement leaders across the state, civil rights advocates and politicians.
In a statement, Harris campaign spokesperson James Singer said, “During her career in law enforcement, Kamala Harris was a pragmatic prosecutor who successfully took on predators, fraudsters, and cheaters like Donald Trump.”
Harris has written two books about her time as a prosecutor and attorney general. In her 2009 book, “Smart on Crime: A Career Prosecutor’s Plan to Make Us Safer,” published near the end of her tenure as DA, Harris described herself as a prosecutor who was “tough on crime by being Smart on Crime,” said she promoted programs to fix recidivism and made “improving my office’s felony conviction rates my number one priority.”
Five years later, after the fatal police shooting of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, in 2014, which vaulted the Black Lives Movement onto the national stage and made criminal justice reform a top issue, Harris embraced the calls for change.
In her 2019 memoir, “The Truths We Hold: An American Journey,” published while she was senator, Harris described herself as a “progressive prosecutor.”
“I knew I was there for the victims. Both the victims of crimes committed and the victims of a broken criminal justice system,” Harris wrote. “For me, to be a progressive prosecutor is to understand — and act on — this dichotomy.”
Trump and his allies are now trying to emphasize the “progressive” part of Harris’ identity. On Tuesday, the former president attacked Harris as a “radical left person” and blamed current crime in the city on her tenure as district attorney.
“Really, what you should do is take a look at San Francisco now compared to before she became the district attorney, and you’ll see what she’ll do to our country,” Trump said.
Harris, the daughter of an economist and a scientist , was born in Oakland, grew up in Berkeley and graduated from Howard University in 1986. She then attended the University of California law school in San Francisco, then known as Hastings, graduating in 1989, according to her congressional biography , and immediately began working as a prosecutor. She first worked at the Alameda County District Attorney’s office, prosecuting child sexual assault cases and later moved to the San Francisco City Attorney’s Office, which provides legal services to the city and represents it in civil claims; she served as head of the office’s division on children and families.
Louise Renne, who as San Francisco city attorney at the time was Harris’ boss, said she hired Harris because she was known for being “tough on the law” as well as “compassionate and kind,” Renne told NBC News in an interview this week.
In 2003, after working five years in San Francisco, Harris was elected the city’s first Black, South Asian and female district attorney.
During her seven years in that office, Harris began formulating a reputation of being a careful prosecutor committed to holding individuals who commit serious crimes accountable and helping nonviolent offenders turn their lives around.
Lateefah Simon, who started the office’s first youth offender re-entry division under Harris, praised her approach.
“She’s the only district attorney that I would ever work for to this day, because I believed the ethics that she put into the office,” said Simon, who is now running for Congress in the Bay Area as a Democrat. “She tried to create an office that was fair and balanced.”
Four months after Harris was sworn in, a gang member shot and killed police Officer Isaac Espinoza in April 2004. She declined to charge the gunman with a capital offense, sparing him from the death penalty. Harris’ decision rankled California’s political leadership.
During Espinoza’s funeral, Sen. Dianne Feinstein, D-Calif., slammed Harris’ decision. “This is not only the definition of tragedy, it’s the special circumstance called for by the death penalty law,” Feinstein said at the time.
Throughout her tenure as district attorney, Harris focused on securing convictions. Felony conviction rates rose from 52% to 71%, and gun crime convictions rose to 92% in the first five years she was in office, according to her book.
“We are sending three times as many offenders to state prison [as] we were in 2001, three years before I took office,” Harris wrote in her 2009 book.
She also increased convictions for drug sellers, from 56% in 2003 to 74% in 2008, Harris noted. At the same time, Harris also implemented the Back on Track program, which provided nonviolent offenders — many of whom were low-level drug dealers — with the chance to receive a high school diploma, job training and access to available work, instead of prison sentences.
“The imperative today is both to go after the worst criminals and also to redirect the future of lower level offenders,” wrote Harris in her 2009 book.
Her relationship with progressives grew strained. She pushed for the prosecution of truancy cases — which resulted in the parents of children who were habitually absent from school being prosecuted and forced to pay fines of up $2,500 and potentially serving up to a year in jail. Some critics said the policy disproportionately affected Black families.
A Harris campaign aide said the policy was effective: "Truancy dropped by 33 percent because of the policy and it also helped people in the community — this wasn’t one or two days; this was kids missing 60 to 80 days out of a 180-day school year."
Harris also clashed with the San Francisco Board of Supervisors over a policy related to undocumented immigrants . In 1989, the board made San Francisco a “sanctuary city,” which meant that local police were generally not allowed to share any information with federal immigration agencies that they had obtained from interactions with undocumented people.
Harris, along with then- San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom , later supported a policy that would require law enforcement to notify U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement if an undocumented juvenile immigrant was arrested under suspicion of committing a felony.
David Campos, who has served on the San Francisco Board of Supervisors as well as the Police Commission, said he and other progressives have not always agreed with Harris, but supports her bid for the presidency.
“She will be able to bring forward an experience, that perspective, that points to results where she was able to thread that needle between being tough on crime and also being reform-minded when it comes to criminal justice,” said Campos, who is now the vice-chair of the California Democratic Party.
A Harris campaign aide said, "If you’re angering the far left and the far right, you’re probably doing something right."
Several years after Harris was elected state attorney general in 2010, California voters passed a ballot measure that enacted sweeping sentencing reforms across the state. In an effort to relieve overcrowding in the state's prison, the proposition reclassified a list of felonies as misdemeanors, including certain drug crimes and theft — including shoplifting of property valued at less than $950.
The attorney general’s office under Harris released a summary of the law , called Proposition 47, which predicted that prison and jail populations would decrease while funding for truancy reduction programs and mental health services would rise. It also predicted that the state criminal justice system would save hundreds of millions of dollars due to the changes, and local prosecutors and sheriffs would have reduced workloads.
As of last week, prison officials reported, there were 92,480 people locked up in California’s prison systems, down from a height of more than 156,000 inmates during the early 2010s before the law was passed. But as NBC News reported last year , California’s reforms created a prison-to-homelessness pipeline, as counties were overwhelmed with an influx of returning inmates.
Violent crime, meanwhile, has increased across the state. The state attorney general’s office reported that from 2014 to 2023, violent crime had risen by more than 30% — including jumps in rapes, aggravated assaults and murders.
Although Harris didn’t take a formal position on the measure, Republicans accused her of misrepresenting Proposition 47 to the public. Steve Cooley, who served as the Los Angeles County district attorney from 2000 to 2012, blamed the rise in crime on Harris and the referendum.
“The damage has been untold and, in a sense, irreparable,” said Cooley, who ran as a Republican against Harris for attorney general. “It was beyond a bait and switch. It was fraud by misrepresentation.”
Critics also blame a rise in retail theft in California on Proposition 47. They say the reforms enable serial shoplifters to cycle in and out of police custody with little accountability. Even if they are repeatedly arrested, they are only charged with misdemeanors as long as the goods are valued at less than $950.
Frustration over shoplifting is now driving voters to try to amend the law. In November, California residents will decide whether to amend Proposition 47 to allow people with two theft convictions to be charged with a felony after being caught stealing a third time. It would also permit judges to sentence repeat “hard drug” offenders to prison instead of jail.
Douglas Eckenrod, a former deputy director of parole for the California prison system, who is now running for sheriff as a Republican in Sedona, Arizona, said Harris was too lenient on criminals.
“Kamala Harris is not a hard-liner [on crime],” Eckenrod said. “Prop 47 couldn’t happen without the AG’s office support. Her support of it was literally critical.”
In 2017, Harris left her post as California’s attorney general after being elected to the U.S. Senate.
Harris’ relationship with both police officers and police reform activists has been fraught.
When she ran for attorney general in 2010, the San Francisco police union president did not back her, citing her refusal to seek the death penalty in the killing of Officer Espinoza. “That is a relationship that is never going to be OK,” union boss Gary Delagnes told SF Weekly at the time.
Harris also attracted criticism from those on the left. Civil rights attorneys and police reform advocates lambasted her for failing to charge police officers who they said had used excessive force in deadly confrontations.
John Burris, an Oakland-based civil rights attorney who has sued police departments and officers across the state, said he couldn’t recall a police violence case that Harris, as San Francisco district attorney and later as California attorney general, chose to prosecute. But he added, prosecutors during that era rarely challenged police officers.
“It’s no secret that prosecuting police in shooting cases is an uphill battle for the most part,” Burris said. “I thought that she appreciated those issues, even though I didn’t necessarily agree with the ultimate decision.”
Harris also rarely used a state law, enacted in 2001, that allows the attorney general to investigate problematic local law enforcement agencies for widespread abuses. In December 2016, weeks before she was sworn in as senator, Harris announced that her office would investigate the Kern County Sheriff’s Office and the Bakersfield Police Department over allegations of excessive force and serious misconduct.
A spokesperson for California Attorney General Rob Bonta, a Democrat, defended her record and said in a statement to NBC News that Harris also opened an investigation into the Stockton School District and its school police department. The California Department of Justice later found that the Stockton school district had referred a disproportionate number of Black, Latino and disabled students to law enforcement.
The spokesperson also noted that Harris launched an open data initiative that releases the number of law enforcement officers killed or assaulted on the job, the number of people who die in custody, and the number of arrests and bookings. She also announced new requirements for reporting officer-involved shootings and use of force incidents.
Despite complaints that she failed to hold police accountable for abusive behavior, Harris said in her 2019 memoir that she supported the mission of Black Lives Matter. She credited the protests for motivating her to make several policy changes.
Harris wrote that she required officers in California to attend anti-bias training and ordered some state-level officers to start to wear body cameras.
“I was able to do it because the Black Lives Matter movement had created intense pressure,” Harris wrote. “By forcing these issues onto the national agenda, the movement created an environment on the outside that helped give me the space to get it done on the inside.”
CORRECTION: A previous version of this article misstated where Harris grew up. She grew up in Berkeley, not Oakland (where she was born).
Alexandra Chaidez is an associate producer with the NBC News Investigative Unit
Simone Weichselbaum is a national investigative reporter for NBC News, focusing on local and federal law enforcement issues. She previously was a police reporter for The Marshall Project, the New York Daily News and the Philadelphia Daily News. She holds a graduate degree in criminology from the University of Pennsylvania.
Andrew Blankstein is an investigative reporter for NBC News. He covers the Western U.S., specializing in crime, courts and homeland security.
Sergio Martínez-Beltrán
Jasmine Garsd
Vice President Kamala Harris, center, along with Department of Homeland Security Secretary, Alejandro Mayorkas, Rep. Veronica Escobar, a Democrat from Texas, and Sen. Dick Durbin, a Democrat from Illinois, tour a U.S. Customs and Border Protection facility in El Paso, Texas, U.S., in June 2021. Bloomberg/via Getty Images hide caption
As Vice President Kamala Harris works to secure the presidential nomination of the Democratic Party next month, her role on immigration policy is now in the spotlight.
Minutes after the President Joe Biden announced he was dropping out of the race and was endorsing Harris, Republicans started attacking her record on immigration and border policy.
“Joe Biden has now endorsed and fully supports his ‘Borders Czar’ Kamala Harris to be the Democrat candidate for president,” Gov. Greg Abbott, R-Texas, posted on X . “I think I will need to triple the border wall, razor wire barriers and National Guard on the border.”
Conservatives have often referred to Harris as the Biden administration’s "Border Czar," incorrectly claiming she was tasked with repairing the border.
“Kamala had one job,” said Nikki Haley earlier this month at the Republican National Convention. “One job. And that was to fix the border. Now imagine her in charge of the entire country.”
In reality, that was not Harris’ job.
She was tasked by Biden in 2021 to examine the root causes of migration from Central America, including poverty, violence, and corruption. At that time, unauthorized migration came primarily from Mexico and Central America.
She was never tapped to head immigration policy, which is the responsibility of Homeland Security Secretary Alejandro Mayorkas, who oversees all agencies in charge of the enforcement of immigration laws.
Three years later, this role could be Harris’ Achilles' heel. Her role in pushing for Biden’s immigration proposals have disenchanted Democrats and immigrant rights groups.
“I do think there is an opportunity here for Vice President Harris to have a more hopeful message around immigration than even the Biden administration has had in the past,” said Adriel Orozco, a senior policy counsel with the American Immigration Council.
Biden’s policy proposals have included severely restricting most asylum claims at the border and expediting the removal of unauthorized migrants, something immigrant rights groups have opposed.
Suyapa Portillo, a professor of Chicano/a-Latino/a Transnational Studies at Pitzer College, says Harris should try to separate herself from the Biden administration’s “slow move towards immigration reform,” and from the message of deterrence that “represents that conservatism from the Biden administration and the Democratic Party — the old guard.”
Vice President Kamala Harris speaks from the South Lawn of the White House in Washington on Monday during an event with NCAA college athletes. This was her first public appearance since President Joe Biden endorsed her to be the next presidential nominee of the Democratic Party. Susan Walsh/AP hide caption
If Harris secures the presidential nomination, she will be facing a very different immigration landscape than back in 2021, when she was tasked with addressing its root causes.
Last year, unauthorized crossings at the U.S.-Mexico border hit an all-time high. In December 2023, the number of encounters reached nearly 250,000, according to U.S. Customs and Border Protection.
For the last four months, the number of migrants trying to cross illegally has dramatically dropped. That’s due in part due to Mexico’s enforcement, and Biden’s policies, which include severely restricting most asylum claims at the border .
But migration has diversified in the last few years. There is an unprecedented crisis of global displacement. When Harris was elected in 2020, 90% of immigration hailed from Mexico and Central America, according to an analysis by the Migration Policy Institute .
In 2023, only 49 percent of the encounters were with migrants from those four countries.
Today, immigrants arriving at the US Mexico border are fleeing from the crisis in Venezuela, the war in Ukraine and cartel violence in Ecuador, just to name a few.
Harris’ record on immigration has been marred by policy blunders.
Her first international trip as vice president made clear her approach on immigration: addressing root causes to stop illegal migration.
In the summer of 2021, she traveled to Guatemala to meet with then-President Alejandro Giammattei. In a speech, she said that the Biden administration was committed to helping Guatemalans find “hope at home.”
But she also warned prospective migrants.
“I want to be clear to folks in this region who are thinking about making that dangerous trek to the United States-Mexico border,” Harris said. “Do not come. Do not come.”
Those three words: Do not come, were seen by many as a blunder . Latino advocates criticized the statement as paternalistic and tone-deaf, given the violent crises rattling the region.
For many immigrant advocates, that statement continues to haunt Harris’ candidacy.
“She needs to separate from Biden,” Portillo says. “She needs to speak to TPS holders and DACA holders for a plan for legalization, and a border plan that does not include throwing children in jail.”
But Harris has maintained that deterrence is essential: last year she announced $950 million in pledges from private companies to support Central American communities.
Judith Browne Dianis, the executive director of the D.C.-based civil rights organization Advancement Project, says Harris will now have to explain how she would tackle immigration if she were elected president.
“Is it a humanitarian response, or is there a criminalization response?” Dianis says. “We don’t need more criminalization. We don’t need a border wall. We need to get to the root causes. We need to make sure that people are taken care of.”
In early June 2021, Harris came under fire for not visiting the border. In an interview with NBC News , she was asked about Republican critiques.
“And I haven’t been to Europe,” Harris fired back. “I mean, I don’t understand the point that you are making.”
Her response was criticized by conservatives as disconnected and flippant towards border communities and agencies which have felt overwhelmed by the influx of migrants in recent years.
Harris’ first trip to the border came later that month, to El Paso, Texas. At a press conference there, she stated that migration “cannot be reduced to a political issue. We’re talking about children, we’re talking about families, we are talking about suffering.”
Earlier this year, Harris backed a Biden-endorsed bipartisan bill on border enforcement.
The measure would have added immigration detention beds, increased the number of U.S. Customs and Border Protection personnel and asylum officers, and funded technology to detect fentanyl smuggling at the Southern border. It passed in the Senate but failed to move forward after former President Donald Trump urged House Republicans to kill it.
But for many immigration advocates, Harris is their candidate.
Kerri Talbot, the executive director of the national advocacy organization Immigration Hub, called Harris a “strong defender and champion of American families, including their immigrant family members” in a statement Sunday.
“We have no doubt that she can step up to the challenge, counter Trump and JD Vance’s rhetoric and dark vision for democracy, and protect the progress we’ve made while delivering transformative change for our immigration system,” Talbot said.
But Harris involvement with immigration goes way beyond her vice presidency, and her actions show a shift in policies.
When she was the district attorney in San Francisco, she backed a city policy that turned over to federal immigration authorities migrant juveniles suspected of committing a felony. In 2019, Harris’ campaign told CNN “this policy could have been applied more fairly.”
But as California’s attorney general, she had a different stance. In a 2015 interview with CBS Los Angeles, Harris said, “Unfortunately, I know what crime looks like. I know what a criminal looks like who's committing a crime. An undocumented immigrant is not a criminal.”
Harris became U.S. senator from California in 2017.
She was part of a Senate hearing on the Trump administration’s highly controversial separation policy, in which undocumented migrant children were separated from their parents at the U.S.-Mexico border, as a form of immigration deterrence. She questioned Trump officials, and said separating families can cause “irreparable harm.”
In 2019, she and several other Democratic senators reintroduced the Reunite Every Unaccompanied Newborn Infant, Toddler and Other Children Expeditiously (REUNITE) Act , “to expedite the reunification of separated immigrant families and promote humane alternatives for asylum-seeking immigrant families.”
When she ran for president in 2019, Harris unveiled an immigration plan that called for a path to citizenship for recipients of Deferred Action on Childhood Arrivals program, best known as DACA.
That’s similar to what the Biden-Harris campaign promised when they run in 2020. However, none of that has happened during the administration.
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Reporting by Trevor Hunnicutt in Wilmington, Nandita Bose and Jeff Mason; Additional reporting by Jarrett Renshaw, Steve Holland, Susan Heavey, Doina Chiacu, Kat Stafford, Moira Warburton, Bo Erickson and Joseph Campbell; Writing by Joseph Ax and Mary Milliken; Editing by Scott Malone, Howard Goller and Stephen Coates
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COMMENTS
Revised on July 23, 2023. Numbers can be written either as words (e.g., one hundred) or numerals (e.g., 100). In this article we follow the guidelines of APA Style, one of the most common style guides used in academic writing. In general, words should be used for numbers from zero through nine, and numerals should be used from 10 onwards.
In numbers greater than 1,000, use commas to separate groups of three digits except in page numbers, binary code, serial numbers, temperatures, acoustic frequencies, and degrees of freedom. Do not add apostrophes when writing a plural of a number (the 2000s, the 70s). Use a numeral in these cases: a number 10 or higher anywhere in the paper
academic writing. You need to know and use the conventions for writing numbers correctly when you are writing and proofreading your work. 1. When to write numbers in words • Write in words one or two-word numbers, rounded numbers and ordinal numbers For general academic writing, you need to write these numbers in words: all numbers under one
When using numbers larger than 1000, be sure to format them all in the same way. For example, 156000, 156,000, and 156 000 are all acceptable, but use only one format in your document. Be consistent with the inclusion or omission of a leading zero before decimals (i.e., 0.05 or .05, but not both). Also, do not mix the use of a decimal point (0. ...
Numbers. Numbers are used in all sorts of scholarly works. For example, writers may report numerical information about participants (number of participants, demographic information such as age, etc.) as well as the results of statistical analyses. Even writers who are not conducting empirical research often use statistical information to ...
4. How to write numbers correctly • Use particular conventions if you are required to write digits . a. In general, use commas between groups of three digits in numbers of 1,000 or more (e.g., 1,360; 566,420; 10,235,362). b. To create a plural, add an 's' (e.g., 20s, 5s). • Use particular conventions if you are required to write numbers ...
Numbers and Statistics Guide Numbers see Publication Manual Sections 6.32-6.35 for guidelines on using numerals vs. words • Use numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.) for the following: ° numbers 10 and above; see exceptions in the next section ° numbers used in statistics (e.g., 2.45, 3 times as many, 2 x 2 design) ° numbers used with units of ...
Here are a few more rules concerning numbers to adhere to as you follow APA style: If you are using two modifiers against a noun, use a combination of both numerals and words. Three 5-point scales. If you're unsure which modifier to write and which to express numerically, try it both ways.
If you are going to take this approach then you should include a hyphen when writing numbers with two words, e.g. twenty-seven. For larger numbers, it is acceptable to use either numerals or words depending on context (e.g. a thousand people/1,000 people), but you should always use numerals in technical writing, e.g. 200,000 km.
Never start a sentence with a numeral; either write it as words or recast sentence. Numbers that are results of calculations or measurements appear as numerals. Values with units (1 minute) appear as numerals. Two adjacent numbers: spell out one of them (twelve 3 m beams, twenty-three 10 g samples) Numerals are used when a number less than 10 ...
Formatting numbers. A zero before decimals should either be consistently added or not. For example, either p > 0.05 or p > .05 is okay, but you cannot have both styles in one manuscript. As for how many digits should be detailed, in general, most statistics are reported to two decimal places (p < 0.01); however, there are times when three ...
The following are a few other points to remember when using numbers. Consistency. You should be consistent in how you write numbers; for example, if write a figure like 7bn in one place, do not write a figure like 5 billion in another. Use of commas. When giving numerals of 1,000 or larger, use commas for each thousand, e.g. 5,500, 8,326,500.
To obtain the times symbol, use the "insert symbol" function in MS Word or PowerPoint, or type \times in LaTeX. To avoid awkward breaks that maroon the number at the end of a line of text (e.g., 7 mm) and the unit at the beginning of the next line, as in this example, train yourself to type a nonbreaking space between all numbers and units.
The APA Style is one of the most widely used academic writing styles and is largely adopted by the behavioral and social sciences. A number can be written both numerically or in words within this style. Typically, a number from one to nine should be written out as words, while numbers from 10 and above should be written out numerically.
The most generally accepted rules for writing out numbers in non-scientific and non-technical contexts are as follows: Spell out all numbers between zero and ten. When numbers are used to start a sentence, they should always be spelled out. Example: Twenty-four thousand applications were submitted in 2018.
This article discusses the use of abbreviations and numbers in academic writing. ... In the Results section of a typical research paper, you may find it convenient to begin sentences with numbers, as in "15% of the plants survived" or "48% of the patients recovered." In such cases, either spell out the numbers, as in "Fifteen per cent ...
A simple rule for using numbers in writing is that small numbers ranging from one to ten (or one to nine, depending on the style guide) should generally be spelled out. Larger numbers (i.e., above ten) are written as numerals. For example, instead of writing "It cost ten-thousand four-hundred and sixteen dollars to renovate the local library ...
1 Answer to this question. Answer: While writing numbers in a research paper, it is best practice to write small numbers from one to ten in words and bigger numbers in figures, for the ease of reading. Moreover, it also depends on the style guide you are using. For example, the APA style guide recommends writing small numbers from one to nine ...
Repeat numbers in commercial writing. The bill will not exceed one hundred (100) dollars. Use numerals in legal writing. The cost of damage is $1,365.42. Numbers in series and statistics should be consistent. two apples, six oranges, and three bananas. NOT: two apples, 6 oranges, and 3 bananas. 115 feet by 90 feet (or) 115' x 90'.
I like the MLA style, which advises that for a percentage less than one hundred, you should write it in words: two percent, seventy-six percent, ninety-nine percent, but, for a percentage greater than one hundred, write it in numerals: 110 percent, 500 percent, 999 percent. Besides that, as you can see, in non-technical writing, it is better to ...
You can, for example, change the period in between the level and sub-level numbers to a dash or anything you want by making the change in the "Enter formatting for number" (C) field. In the "Follow number with:" field (D), you may also see that a tab follows the number. We suggest you change that to a space.
Here are some key rules to keep in mind: 1. Spell out numbers one to nine: In general, spell out numbers from one to nine (e.g., "two apples", "seven participants") to improve readability and avoid confusion. 2. Use numerals for numbers 10 and above: Use numerals for numbers 10 and above (e.g., "12 years old", "22 participants ...
While the Trump campaign has its own plan, called Agenda47, Trump has a history with many of the Project 2025 contributors.At least 31 of the project's 38 creators - writers, editors or ...
When you read it, you will see Donald Trump intends to cut Social Security and Medicare. He intends to give tax breaks to billionaires and big corporations and make working families foot the bill ...
The spokesperson also noted that Harris launched an open data initiative that releases the number of law enforcement officers killed or assaulted on the job, the number of people who die in ...
Vice President Harris was tasked to address the roots of mass migration to the U.S. Some of her actions have sparked backlash from across the political spectrum.
U.S. Vice President Kamala Harris secured support Monday from a majority of delegates to the Democratic National Convention, likely ensuring she will become the party's nominee for president next ...