case study on public administration in the philippines

Public Administration in the Philippines: Overcoming Conflict and Post-Conflict Challenges

• First Online: 09 September 2021

Cite this chapter

• Alex B. Brillantes Jr 4 &
• Maria Pilar Lorenzo 5  

Part of the book series: Governance and Public Management ((GPM))

416 Accesses

Philippine Public Administration, as a discipline and a practice, has played a key role in institution building and capacity development over the years. This has been true even during conflict and Post-Conflict periods. The chapter delves into how conflict situations have affected Philippine Public Administration by discussing it through an inter-state and intra-state conflict that the country has been confronted with through different periods of its history. The first case discusses the various public reorganization and civil service initiatives within the ambit of the inter-state backdrop of post-World War II reconstruction. The second case tackles how public administration mechanisms and institutions have been designed and set up as a response to an intra-state conflict in the Southern Philippines, more popularly known as the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region, that has seen armed struggle since the 1970s brought about by the Muslim minorities’ rebellion against the central government.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime
• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Islamic Public Administration in Europe

The Federal Republic of Nigeria

Historical development and future prospects of comparative public administration.

Abinales, P. N. (2000). Making Mindanao: Cotabato and Davao in the Formation of the Philippine Nation-State . Ateneo de Manila University Press.

Google Scholar  

Brillantes, A. B., & Lorenzo, M. P. (2021). Philippine Public Administration: 5Es and an A. In A. Farazmand (Ed.). Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31816-5_4134-1

Brillantes, A., & Perante-Calina, L. (2015). Dynamics, Issues and Concerns of the Philippine Politico-administrative System: Decentralization and Reorganization, Comparative Politics in ASEAN. In ASEAN and Asia Studies Center National Institute of Development Administration, Information for National Library of Thailand, ASEAN and Asia Studies Center, National Institute of Development Administration (Ed.), Comparative Politics in ASEAN (pp. 353–400). Semadhama.

Brillantes, A., Raquiza, M. V., & Lorenzo, M. P. (2019). Social Equity in the Philippines: A Continuing But Elusive Promise. In J. Morgen (Ed.), Social Equity in the Asia-Pacific Region: Conceptualizations and Realities (pp. 187–213). Palgrave Macmillan.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Brillantes, A. B. (2005). Institutional and Politico-Administrative Responses to Armed Conflicts. Philippine Journal of Public Administration, 49 (1–2), 1–39.

Buendia, R. (2006). Mindanao Conflict in the Philippines: Ethno-Religious War Or Economic Conflict? In A. Croissant, B. Martin, & S. Kneip (Eds.), The Politics of Death: Political Violence in Southeast Asia (pp. 147–187). Lit Verlag Berlin.

Bustos, F. U. (1993). Economic Brief No. 15. The Philippine Privatization Program . East-West Center.

Cariño, L. V. (1988). The Land and the People. In R. P. Guzman & M. A. Reforma (Eds.), Government and Politics of the Philippines (pp. 3–17). Oxford University Press.

Corpuz, O. D. (1965). The Philippines . Prentice-Hall.

Endriga, J. N. (1979). Historical Notes on Graft and Corruption in the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Public Administration, 23 (3–4), 241–254.

Fabella, A. (1978). Organizing for Development: A Presentation Prepared for the Interim Batasang Pambansa (Or Interim National Assembly). Philippine Journal of Public Administration, 21 (1), 383–409.

Genato-Rebullida, L. (1988). Reorganizing the Executive Branch of Government for Political Development: The Philippine Experience. Philippine Journal of Public Administration, 32 (1–2), 105–134.

Gonzalez, J., & Deapera, L. (1987). A Review of Philippine Reorganization. Philippine Journal of Public Administration, 31 (3), 257–278.

Gutierrez, B. (2019). Fast Facts on the Bangsamoro Organic Law. Retrieved April 20, 2020, from https://pia.gov.ph/features/articles/1018364

Helak, M. M. (2017). World War II in the United States Colony of the Philippines: Beyond the Bataan Death March and Douglas MacArthur. Inquiries Journal, 9 (3), 1–21.

Herbert, S. (2019). Conflict Analysis of the Philippines. K4D Helpdesk Report 648 . Institute of Development Studies.

José, R. T. (2001). War and Violence, History and Memory: The Philippine Experience of the Second World War. Asian Journal of Social Science, 29 (3), 457–470.

Article   Google Scholar  

Mangahas, J. V., & Tiu Sonco, J. O. (2016). Civil Service System in the Philippines. In E. M. Berman (Ed.), Public Administration in Southeast Asia: Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Macao (pp. 423–462). CRC Press.

McKenna, T. (1998). Muslim Rulers and Rebels: Everyday Politics and Armed Separatism in the Southern Philippines . University of California Press.

Book   Google Scholar  

Morea, G. J. (2008). From Enduring Strife to Enduring Peace in the Philippines. Military Review, 88 (3), 192–202.

Muslim, M. A. (1994). The Moro Armed Struggle in the Philippines: The Nonviolent Autonomy Alternative . Mindanao State University.

National Economic and Development Authority. (2016). Ambisyon Natin 2040: A Long-term Vision for the Philippines . Republic of the Philippines.

Philippine Constitution. (1987). Art. X, § 15.

Salas, R. (1969). Orientation for Government Reorganization. In J. V. Abueva (Ed.), Perspectives in Government Reorganization . College of Public Administration, University of the Philippines.

Viloria, A. A. (1961). Reorganization in the Philippine National Government Prior to 1954. Philippine Journal of Public Administration, 5 (1), 31–51.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

University of the Philippines National College of Public Administration, Quezon City, Philippines

Alex B. Brillantes Jr

Ghent University, Gent, Belgium

Maria Pilar Lorenzo

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alex B. Brillantes Jr .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Faculty of Economics and Administration, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic

Juraj Nemec

University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa

Purshottama S Reddy

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Brillantes, A.B., Lorenzo, M.P. (2021). Public Administration in the Philippines: Overcoming Conflict and Post-Conflict Challenges. In: Nemec, J., Reddy, P.S. (eds) Public Administration in Conflict Affected Countries. Governance and Public Management. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74966-8_10

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74966-8_10

Published : 09 September 2021

Publisher Name : Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-74965-1

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-74966-8

eBook Packages : Political Science and International Studies Political Science and International Studies (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

The Voice of Political Science around the World

Corruption and Implementation: Case Studies in Philippine Public Administration

By : Vicente Chua Reyes, Jr.

Release date: Jan 2009

National College of Public Administration and Governance, University of the Philippines, Diliman Quezon City

Number of pages: 283

ISBN: 978-971-8567-69-2

More About this Book

Connect with Us

Membership and Account Related Inquiries [email protected]

World Congress and IPSA Events Requests regarding the 2025 IPSA World Congress should be made to [email protected] General inquiries about IPSA events can be made to [email protected]

IPSA Awards [email protected]

General inquiries [email protected]

Webmaster    [email protected]

Case Study (2013): Promoting Good Local Governance through Performance-Based Grants in the Philippines

The Government of the Philippines decided the best way to encourage openness was to reward it. Their push for good local governance incentivises the two pillars of strong, responsive government – good performance and good housekeeping – and makes the award process open and transparent.

In line with the Aquino Administration’s aims for good governance, the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) launched two programs that seek to promote and incentivize it at the local level: the Seal of Good Housekeeping and the Performance Challenge Fund.

https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B471ujVfgLNMT1ktbzBuT1U1Z1U

No comments yet

Leave a reply cancel reply.

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

This site uses cookies.

Click here for more information about the Open Government Partnership's terms of use.

• Previous Chapter
• Next Chapter

The study and practice of public administration in the Philippines have largely been influenced by Western theory and practice. Through the years, Philippine public administration has had its share of an "identity crisis." This chapter discusses the evolution of public administration in the Philippines and includes the following sections. a) historical context and evolution of public administration in the Philippines; b) scope and role of public administration institutions and processes: executive and bureaucracy; legislature; local governments and decentralization, civil society participation in governance; c) issues and concerns: corruption, continuous reorganization; devolution and federalism; role of capacity building institutions and schools of PA; and d) directions for reform: reorganization and institutional reform; leadership; mindsets, values, and restoration of ethics and accountability; citizens' engagement; a vision for PA and SDGs, Ambisyon Natin 2040, and role of capacity building institutions and PA schools.

You are not authenticated to view the full text of this chapter or article.

Access options

Get access to the full article by using one of the access options below.

Other access options

Institutional Login

Log in with Open Athens, Shibboleth, or your institutional credentials

Personal login

Log in with your Elgar Online account

Table of Contents

• Asian Politics and Policy
• Public Management
• Asian Politics
• Public Administration and Management
• Public Policy

• [81.177.182.154]
• 81.177.182.154

Character limit 500 /500

Grand corruption scandals in the Philippines

Public Administration and Policy: An Asia-Pacific Journal

ISSN : 2517-679X

Article publication date: 8 April 2020

Issue publication date: 2 July 2020

The purpose of this article is to analyse the weaknesses of governance institutions in constraining grand corruption arising from the government procurement of large foreign-funded infrastructure projects in the Philippines. The weaknesses are revealed in the description and analysis of two major scandals, namely, the construction of the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant during the Marcos era and the National Broadband Network project of the Arroyo presidency.

Design/methodology/approach

This research employs a historical and comparative case approach to explore patterns of grand corruption and their resolution. Primary and secondary data sources including court decisions, congressional records, journal articles and newspaper reports are used to construct the narratives for each case.

Top-level executive agreements that do not require competitive public bidding provide an opportunity for grand corruption. Such agreements encourage the formation of corrupt rent-seeking relationships involving the selling firm, brokers, politicians and top-level government executives. Closure of cases of grand corruption is a serious problem that involves an incoherent and politically vulnerable prosecutorial and justice system.

Originality/value

This paper aims to contribute to research on grand corruption involving the executive branch in the Philippines, particularly in the procurement of large, foreign-funded government projects. It examines allegations of improprieties in government project contracting and the politics of resolving corruption scandals through the justice system.

• Grand corruption scandals
• Bataan Nuclear Power Plant
• NBN–ZTE scandal
• Infrastructure projects
• Philippines

Batalla, E.V.C. (2020), "Grand corruption scandals in the Philippines", Public Administration and Policy: An Asia-Pacific Journal , Vol. 23 No. 1, pp. 73-86. https://doi.org/10.1108/PAP-11-2019-0036

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2019, Eric V.C. Batalla

Published in Public Administration and Policy . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this license may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Introduction

Grand corruption scandals are a regular occurrence in the Philippines, tainting many presidential administrations ( Mathews and Wideman, 1977 ; Mydans, 1988 ; Coronel and Tordesillas, 1998 ; Rimando, 2000 ; Hutchcroft, 2008 ). Grand corruption refers to the “abuse of high level power that benefits the few at the expense of the many” ( Transparency International, 2016 ). Corruption at this level usually involves large sums of financial and state resources.

Popular thinking in recent years has attributed grand corruption simply to regime types (authoritarian vs democratic). This thinking is flawed. Corruption at various levels of government is rampant in weak or inferior democracies than in well-developed ones, leading to the belief that having a democracy alone does not guarantee effective control of corruption ( UNODC, 2019 ; Kukutschka, 2018 ). Similarly, the level of corruption varies across authoritarian systems, with monarchies and single-party systems tending to be less corrupt than military and personalistic regimes; in fact, as Kukutschka ( 2018 , p. 4) points out, “a small number of non-democratic countries perform relatively well in international corruption indices.” In either democratic or authoritarian systems, the commission of grand corruption is typically driven by personalistic and patronage-clientelistic motivations that benefit rulers and the dominant political elite, political parties and allies, cronies and friends, as well as families and relatives ( David-Barrett and Fazekas, 2019 ; Chang and Golden, 2010 ).

In the Philippines, grand corruption knows no political regime; its occurrence has been observed in both authoritarian and democratic governments. Thus, instead of simply regime type, it could be argued that it is the continued weakness of governance institutions that allows the culture and agency of corruption to thrive and persist, even at the highest levels of government. Despite the proliferation of anti-corruption laws, a perennially weak accountability environment and the ineffectiveness of the country's anti-corruption agencies encourage strategic rent-seeking by private firms and individuals through deception and bribes (or income transfer) to government officials. Furthermore, an inefficient prosecutorial and judicial system, often subservient to political power, encourages corruption by failing to punish crimes of powerful individuals and firms. All this constitutes the collective inability of institutional and agency constraints to overpower the forces that create, adapt and maintain the opportunities for corruption.

The scandals that affect many Philippine presidential administrations reflect this inability of both state and society to curb opportunities for grand corruption. Scandal, according to Lowi ( 1988 , p. vii) is “corruption revealed;” it is “breach of virtue exposed.” In his analysis of scandals, Lowi ( 1988 , p. viii) argues that the exposé of corruption (the first news break or the substantive scandal) is often followed by a more controversial cover-up phase or the procedural scandal. The cover-up extends the scandal's media coverage and further erodes a political administration's integrity and legitimacy. Hence, the unpacking of a corruption scandal could be guided by an examination of its substantive and procedural stages. The analysis should also cover the scandal's resolution or closure.

Following the theme of this special issue of Public Administration and Policy , this article examines and compares two corruption scandals involving large infrastructure projects of government, namely, the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant (BNPP) of the Marcos era and the National Broadband Network (NBN) project of the Arroyo presidency. These two projects are amongst the most controversial political corruption scandals during the last 50 years. Their comparison enhances the understanding of grand corruption in government-initiated projects involving foreign government and corporate entities. To construct the narratives of each case, primary and secondary sources are utilized, including court decisions, laws published in the Official Gazette , Senate committee reports, journal articles, biographies and newspaper reports. The following sections provide descriptive accounts of the BNPP and NBN scandals, followed by the comparative analysis and conclusion.

The BNPP scandal

In July 1973, based on a feasibility study conducted by the International Atomic Energy Association (IAEA), President Ferdinand Marcos announced his decision to build the country's first nuclear power plant in the Bataan province. Soon after the announcement, the National Power Corporation (NPC), as the main implementing agency, began the work of undertaking the necessary technical studies as well as negotiate with vendor and financing institutions.

General Electric (GE) was the first to respond and worked with NPC for months to secure the contract. On 14 June 1974, GE presented a 200-page prospectus to the NPC and Presidential Executive Secretary Alejandro Melchor, Jr. who also served as the NPC director. Accordingly, on that very day, the NPC formally approved the Westinghouse offer ( Dumaine, 1986 ). The NPC approval was in accordance with Marcos' decision during a cabinet meeting on 6 June to give the contract to Westinghouse ( PCGG vs Desierto et al. , 2003 ).

Westinghouse out-manoevered GE by employing Herminio Disini as its special sales representative. Disini was a golfing buddy of the president and was married to Imelda Marcos' cousin and family physician. Through his close presidential connection, Disini was able to build a vast business empire in a short span of time after the imposition of martial rule. His Herdis Management and Investment Corporation (Herdis), which was established in 1969 with a bank loan of only US$3,500, was ranked 15th amongst the country's top 1,000 corporations in 1976, with consolidated assets amounting to US$140 million ( Manapat, 1991 , p. 316). At the time of its divestment in 1981, the Herdis group included more than 30 companies under its umbrella.

In April 1974, Westinghouse sent a turn-key proposal to Marcos. A month later, a company delegation went to the Philippines to brief the president on the proposal to supply two 620-MW pressured water reactors for a reported cost of US$500 million. NPC general manager Ramon Ravanzo claimed that during the meeting Westinghouse only provided standard advertising brochures without any detailed costs and specifications ( Butterfield, 1978 ).

Immediately following Marcos's approval, Melchor signed a letter of commitment giving approval for Westinghouse and NPC to firm up the project contract. However, contract negotiations dragged on for more than a year. One of the issues raised by NPC was that many contract provisions were “onerous, unacceptable, or inconsistent with the turn-key approach to project implementation” ( PCGG vs Desierto et al. , 2003 ).

In November 1975, the final negotiated contract was transmitted to Solicitor General Estelito Mendoza for review. Mendoza recommended the rejection of the contract because of those provisions deemed onerous and disadvantageous to the government. Notwithstanding Mendoza's objections, Marcos ordered the NPC to sign the contract with Westinghouse ( PCCG vs Desierto et al. , 2003 ). In February 1976, close to two years after the approval of the Westinghouse proposal, the two parties formally signed the final contract. The U.S. government, through its Export–Import Bank, provided project financing with a US$272.2 million loan and a guarantee of an additional US$367.2 million for NPC bonds.

The final contract revealed three significant changes from the original 1974 proposal. First, the total project cost reached US$1.1 billion for one reactor compared to the original estimate of US$500 million for two reactors. Of the revised total project cost, Westinghouse would share US$677.1 million (or 61% of total cost) and NPC US$432.3 million.

Second, the parties agreed to transfer the site from Bagac, which was found to be more vulnerable to tidal waves, to Morong, which was 18 metres above sea-level but nearer a volcano. The site transfer led the parties to design a facility that could withstand an earthquake with a magnitude of 7.9 on the Richter scale. Safety considerations for the site transfer raised the cost of the original contract.

Lastly, the contract changed the scope of work for Westinghouse. Initially, it was understood that Westinghouse would only provide design engineering and project construction management services. However, in January 1975, on the basis of an Aide Memoire from Westinghouse, Marcos ordered the NPC to leave the business of construction to Westinghouse “since the concept is totally turnkey” ( Republic of the Philippines vs. Herminio T. Disini et al. , 2012 , p. 37).

Commissions and other income

It is not clear how much commissions Disini and by extension, Marcos received from Westinghouse. Subsequent reports citing bankers and former Disini associates indicated varying amounts, ranging from a few million dollars to more than US$50 million. Initially refusing to disclose information for proprietary reasons, Westinghouse eventually revealed that Disini received commissions of at least US$18 million for the period 1976–1982 ( Beaver, 1994 ; PCGG vs Desierto et al. , 2003 ). As sums were paid to him, no bribery of top-level Philippine government officials (including Marcos) was proven, which might have otherwise made Westinghouse legally liable under the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977.

Disini's profit from the BNPP project was not limited to commissions. His companies also engaged in underwriting insurance, construction, distribution of Westinghouse products and services as well as the setting up of communications for the power plant project ( Matthews and Wideman, 1977 ). Further, Disini intervened to make Citicorp the lead manager of the syndicated loan partly financing the BNPP despite a presidential decree that originally gave the role to American Express Bank ( Butterfield, 1978 ). The presidential committee on the BNPP formed in January 1988 by President Corazon Aquino alleged that Disini and Westinghouse influenced Marcos to displace the American Express Bank in November 1974 in favour of Citicorp ( Tiglao, 1992 ).

Media exposé and response

More than a year after the contract signing, a series of reports from the Washington Post followed by the New York Times , criticized Disini's Marcos connection as well as his involvement in the BNPP. In an interview with the Washington Post in December 1977, Marcos reportedly said that the decision to buy the Westinghouse plant was made based on a report by foreign technical consultants and that was before Disini's involvement with Westinghouse.

That explanation did not stop U.S. media criticisms of corruption and rising crony capitalism, as represented by the BNPP, as well as the spectacular rise of the Disini business empire through presidential influence. In response, Marcos ordered the Ministry of Energy and Ministry of Justice to investigate Disini's involvement in the award to Westinghouse ( Butterfield, 1978 ). He also directed the government takeover of three Disini firms, in which the government had substantial financial exposure. Then Press Secretary Francisco Tatad explained that the takeovers were done not because of any wrongdoing by Disini but because the government had large investments in the three companies ( Mathews and Wideman, 1978 ).

In 1981, in the midst of an international recession and piling debt, many crony empires, including Herdis, collapsed. This led Marcos to order the government bailout and takeover of 13 major Herdis companies and transferred them to the government-owned National Development Company ( Branigin, 1984 ). In 1982, Disini fled to Austria, a country without an extradition treaty with the Philippines. There, he allegedly acquired citizenship and a castle. He passed away in 2014 ( ABS-CBN News , 2014 ).

Increased project costs

While plant construction was undergoing in March 1979, a nuclear disaster struck in the United States at Three Mile Island (TMI). The TMI accident caused a partial nuclear meltdown, therefore raising alarm worldwide about the safety of nuclear energy. Consequently, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC) issued guidelines for the upgrading of plant design and equipment requirements as well as other disaster preventive measures ( USNRC, 2018 , pp. 2-3).

In response, Marcos in June 1979 ordered a stop to BNPP construction activities. By virtue of Executive Order No. 539, he established a presidential commission to enquire into the safety of the BNPP. The commission, otherwise known as the Puno Commission because it was headed by then Justice Minister Ricardo Puno, submitted its report in November 1979, recommending the continuation of plant construction subject to the incorporation of additional safety features in the revised design ( Republic of the Philippines, 1980 , p. 1).

For its part, in August 1980, the Philippine Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), the country's nuclear regulatory body, submitted its own re-evaluation study, which recommended the lifting of the construction suspension order. The PAEC further required the NPC to address 33 regulatory guides, nine TMI-related requirements and two IAEA concerns ( Republic of the Philippines, 1980 , p. 2). Based on the recommendations of the Puno Commission and PAEC, Marcos directed the NPC to resume construction of the BNPP.

These developments arising from the TMI accident ultimately resulted in a sharp spike in project cost mainly due to interest charges, inflation, foreign exchange losses and costs of additional safety requirements. According to former Energy Minister Geronimo Velasco, the incremental costs shouldered by the NPC following the recommendations amounted to US$844 million, which included safety upgrades (US$100 million), cost escalation (US$292 million), financing charges (US$373 million) and other contract scope changes (US$79 million). Consequently, by 1984, the revised BNPP project cost estimate reached US$1.95 billion ( Velasco, 2006 , p. 111).

The BNPP was completed in mid-1985 and was prepared to operate in December. However, political considerations led Marcos to postpone operations until after the 1986 snap elections. By early 1986, the total project cost had risen to US$2.1 billion, or a billion dollars more than the original contract price in 1976. It took more than 20 years before the Philippines could fully settle the NPC's BNPP financial obligations. Based on the Bureau of Treasury's statistics on debt service for the period 1986–2007, Table 1 shows that the country paid a total sum of PhP62.4 billion for the nuclear power plant (or about US$3 billion based on the February 1986 average exchange rate of PhP20.46 per US dollar). Of the total amount of payment, PhP18.88 billion were for interest (which ended in 2003) and PhP43.56 billion were for principal amortization (which ended in 2007).

Recovery of ill-gotten wealth

Days after Marcos' ouster in February 1986, Corazon Aquino issued Executive Order No. 1, creating the Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG) to recover the ill-gotten wealth of the Marcos family and associates. The PCGG found plausible documentary evidence left behind by Marcos in connection with the BNPP project. In July 1987, it filed a civil complaint against Disini, Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos, and former Herdis group president, Rodolfo Jacob. The complaint, known as Civil Case No. 13, alleged that the co-defendants colluded unlawfully to acquire and accumulate ill-gotten wealth ( Republic of the Philippines vs. Disini et al. , 2012 ).

Later that year, the Aquino government sued Westinghouse and its engineering subcontractor, Burns and Roe, for bribery, fraud and racketeering before a federal district court in New Jersey ( Butterfield, 1988 ). The government demanded US$6.6 billion in compensation from the two firms. Westinghouse, however, convinced the court that the case should stay pending arbitration by the International Chamber of Commerce in Switzerland, as provided in the BNPP contract ( Republic of the Philippines vs. Westinghouse Electric Corporation , 1989 ).

In 1991, the Swiss arbitration panel cleared Westinghouse of bribery charges ( United Press International , 1991 ). In May 1993, the federal court jury in New Jersey also reached a verdict exonerating the two American companies. In 1995, while cases in Switzerland and in a U.S. appellate court were ongoing, the Ramos government decided for a US$100 million out-of-court settlement with Westinghouse. Based on that agreement, the Philippine government would receive US$40 million in cash and two combustion engines worth US$30 million each. By virtue of this out-of-court settlement, all other pending cases against Westinghouse on the BNPP project were dropped ( Asian Wall Street Journal , 1995 ).

In contrast, the civil suit against Disini dragged on for a longer time. Legal tactics and jurisdictional conflict among the PCGG and Office of the Ombudsman (OMB) delayed settlement by the Sandiganbayan , the country's anti-graft court. It took 25 years before the court could resolve Civil Case No. 13 ( Republic of the Philippines vs. Disini et al. , 2012 ; PCGG vs Desierto et al. , 2003 ).

During the early course of its investigation, the PCGG successfully convinced former Herdis executives to be whistle-blowers. These included former Herdis president Rodolfo Jacob, former Asia Industries president Jesus Vergara, former vice president Angelo Manahan and former legal vice president and cousin, Jesus Disini. Jacob had claimed that Disini's commissions were deposited in his personal Swiss bank accounts and not to Herdis' accounts. Disini's cousin, Jesus, also testified that Marcos owned two-thirds of Herdis ( ABS-CBN News , 2009 ).

Surprisingly in 1997, the OMB then headed by Ananiano Desierto cleared Disini of graft charges for lack of prima facie evidence ( PCGG vs Desierto et al. , 2003 ). The PCGG appealed the OMB's decision before the Supreme Court. Six years later, the Supreme Court reversed the 1997 OMB order and directed the OMB to file in the appropriate court the appropriate criminal charges. Thus, in 2004, then Ombudsman Simeon Marcelo filed two criminal cases against Disini, one for bribery and the other for violation of Section 4(a) of the Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act, which prohibits a private individual from exploiting close personal ties with a public official in order to gain some pecuniary or material advantage. Consequently, Disini was arrested but was later released on PhP54,000 bail.

In 2012, the Sandiganbayan ruled against Disini, ordering the return to the government his commissions, deemed as ill-gotten wealth, amounting to US$50,562,500 ( Republic of the Philippines vs Disini et al. , pp. 50-51; Salaverria, 2012 ). However, despite establishing the fact that Marcos and Disini were close associates (and relatives by affinity) and that Marcos acted in favour of Disini as Westinghouse's special agent, the court could not find preponderant evidence that the Marcoses received any commissions from the deal. Recovery of the Disini commissions has been made even more uncertain after his death in 2014.

The NBN–ZTE scandal

The government's deal in 2007 with the Zhongxing Telecommunications Equipment (ZTE) Company, a Chinese state-controlled firm, is another political controversy arising from a dubious big-item procurement – the NBN project. It is a complicated case arising from the quarrel for profit and commissions between two competing groups with powerful political sponsors. One group was ZTE, backed by top government officials identified with President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (GMA) and her husband, First Gentleman (FG) Mike Arroyo ( SBRC, 2009 , p. 1). At the time of the scandal, the unpopular GMA administration was already beleaguered by other election-related controversies, such as the Hello Garci scandal and the Fertilizer Fund Scam.

The other group was led by Jose “Joey” de Venecia III, son of House Speaker Jose de Venecia (JDV). De Venecia's group, Amsterdam Holdings, Inc. (AHI) submitted an unsolicited bid for a Build–Operate–Transfer (BOT) scheme, purportedly at no cost to the government. Before the scandal, Speaker JDV was allied to GMA. Associated with the House Speaker was National Economic Development Authority (NEDA) Secretary Romulo Neri ( SBRC, 2009 , p. 1).

On 21 April 2007, the government through the Department of Transportation and Communication (DOTC) headed by Secretary Leandro Mendoza signed a supply contract with ZTE for the NBN project. A week after, newspaper columnist Jarius Bondoc revealed the involvement of an unnamed official of the Commission on Elections (Comelec) in the allegedly overpriced deal ( ABS-CBN News , 2009 ). That official was later identified as Comelec Chairman Benjamin Abalos, Jr., who lobbied for the ZTE deal. Later, Joey De Venecia led in exposing anomalies in the deal.

On 11 September 2007, acting on a complaint from a House representative, the Supreme Court issued a temporary restraining order for the project. A week later, the Senate Committee on Accountability of Public Officers and Investigations Committee (or the Senate Blue Ribbon Committee [SBRC]) began a two-year investigation of possible ethical violations. Later that month, President Arroyo suspended the NBN project and then, on 2 October during her state visit to China, cancelled the ZTE contract ( SBRC, 2009 , p. 32).

Despite the contract's cancellation, the SBRC decided to continue its investigation. Two years later, it recommended further investigation with the view of filing graft charges against the president and her spouse, House Speaker de Venecia and his son, Comelec chairman Abalos, NEDA Secretary Romulo Neri, some whistle-blowers and other government officials involved ( SBRC, 2009 , pp. 110-118).

Since the initial exposé broke out in late April 2007, the Arroyo government attempted to minimize the scandal's impact by moving certain officials and personalities involved in the deal ( SBRC, 2009 , pp. 32, 57). In August, NEDA Secretary Neri was transferred to the Commission on Higher Education. His friend and technical adviser, Rodolfo Lozada, was sent to Hong Kong to avoid testifying before the Senate. In October 2007, amidst the Senate inquiry, Abalos resigned from his post as the Comelec chair.

Allegation of overpricing

ZTE's NBN deal with the government was negotiated within the framework of the Philippine–China Economic Partnership, which was established in June 2006 as a result of China's diplomatic offensive in Southeast Asia. Based on this agreement, the Philippine government signed an memorandum of understanding with ZTE, allowing the latter to invest in information technology projects in the Philippines, including the NBN project ( SBRC, 2009 , pp. 15-16). On 7 August, ZTE formally submitted to the Commission on Information and Communications Technology (CICT) its proposal to supply equipment and services for the NBN. The CICT was the agency under the DOTC tasked to review the NBN's proposals. In September 2006, China's Export–Import Bank indicated its intention to fund the project as a loan to the Philippines. The loan component ran contrary to GMA's initial preference for a BOT scheme, as expressed in NEDA's November 2006 Board meeting ( SBRC, 2009 , p. 22).

The two proposals bore different implications in terms of ownership and control. AHI's BOT scheme meant that the private company would run the enterprise until its agreed date of transfer to the government. In contrast, the ZTE proposal meant that the broadband network would be owned and operated by the Philippine government while the procurement of equipment, services, and financing would come from China ( People of the Philippines vs. Arroyo et al. , 2016 , p. 15). The DOTC later rejected the AHI's proposal because according to Secretary Mendoza, AHI was insufficiently capitalized to undertake a massive government project ( SBRC, 2009 , p. 54). As such, the ZTE was the only proposal left for consideration in the NBN project.

The design and cost of the original ZTE proposal submitted to the CICT was not clearly established during the Senate investigation or during the Sandiganbayan trial. Witness testimonies at the Senate revealed different design coverages and costs ranging from US$262 million to US$289 million. A revised ZTE proposal, incorporating the DOTC's suggestions of increased coverage and technical requirements, was endorsed by the NEDA at a contract price of US$379 million. In a NEDA board meeting, GMA ordered the modification of the proposal and removal of overlapping components of the NBN project with the Department of Education's Cyber Education Project ( People of the Philippines vs. Arroyo et al. , 2016 , p. 14). The purported final contract price signed in April 2007 by DOTC and ZTE was US$329 million.

Unethical acts

The SBRC report suggested several improprieties committed by government officials and private individuals in the deal. At the centre of the political controversy were Comelec Chair Abalos and FG Arroyo, alleged brokers who received commissions for their services. Both Abalos and Arroyo, as a private individual though married to the president, had no official capacity to intervene in the deal. A Senate witness identified other brokers particularly Ruben Reyes, a private businessman and alleged close friend of GMA's brother ( SBRC, 2009 , p. 62; Sabangan, 2008 ).

Testimonial evidence established Abalos' lobbying and bribery attempts. Neri had informed GMA of the Abalos bribe offer to him, to which the president advised non-acceptance ( SBRC, 2009 , p. 49). De Venecia also claimed a US$10 million bribe offer from Abalos for withdrawal of the AHI proposal. But de Venecia's insistence to pursue his proposal later led Mike Arroyo to demand that he withdrew from the project ( SBRC, 2009 , pp. 38-39, 42).

The SBRC report also found it improper for the president to be playing golf and having lunch at ZTE's Shenzhen headquarters in November 2006 since the company was lobbying for a contract. It further pointed out the president's tolerance of corruption, as she knew about Abalos' bribe offer to Neri as well as other irregularities in the broadband contract ( SBRC, 2009 , pp. 90-91).

The SBRC believed that Speaker JDV and his son likewise committed unethical practices ( SBRC, 2009 , pp. 113, 115). Speaker JDV tried to distance his involvement from the project by telling the SBRC that his presence in Shenzhen was due to the invitation of the president (SBRC Report, 2009, p. 76). Nevertheless, he showed his hand at influencing government by inviting the DOTC Secretary Mendoza for breakfast at his home. It was there that JDV introduced Mendoza to his son, Joey and informed Mendoza of Joey's DOTC project ( SBRC, 2009 , p. 48). The SBRC argued that both he and his son attempted to commit graft since by law, relatives of the House Speaker up to the third civil degree, were not supposed to intervene or engage in a business, transaction or contract with the government.

Ombudsman politics and court decision

Before the SBRC hearings ended in August 2009, the OMB released the results of its own investigation. The OMB cleared GMA and her husband but recommended the filing of administrative and criminal charges against Abalos and Neri. Ombudsman Merceditas Gutierrez was Mike Arroyo's schoolmate in one of the country's prestigious universities. Prior to her appointment as Ombudsman, she was GMA's former justice secretary.

After Benigno Aquino III assumed the presidency in 2010, the winds of Philippine politics shifted. The persecution of GMA and other government officials began. The House of Representatives impeached Ombudsman Gutierrez and she resigned in April 2011 before the conviction trial at the Senate. She was succeeded by former Supreme Court associate justice Conchita Carpio-Morales. It should be noted that, contrary to tradition, it was the retiring Carpio-Morales who swore in Aquino as president and not then Supreme Court Chief Justice Renato Corona. Corona, whom Aquino resented for accepting GMA's midnight appointment as chief justice, was later impeached ( Batalla et al. , 2018b , p. 133).

In December 2011, on the basis of a formal complaint by representatives of certain left-wing groups, the Ombudsman filed charges against the Arroyo spouses, Comelec Chair Abalos and former DOTC Secretary Mendoza for conspiring to commit illegal acts that culminated in the signing of the NBN–ZTE contract. The charge against GMA et al. was for violation of Section 3(g) of the Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act. Specifically, the provision of the law prohibited public officials from “entering, on behalf of the Government, into any contract or transaction manifestly and grossly disadvantageous to the same, whether or not the public officer profited or will profit thereby” ( Republic Act No. 3019, 1960 ). The Ombudsman argued that the contract was “grossly and manifestly disadvantageous” to the government because (1) the actual cost of the ZTE proposal was US$130 million and therefore overpriced at the signed contract price of US$329 million; (2) the ZTE project covered only 30% of the country compared to the AHI's proposal of 80% coverage and (3) the project was to be financed by a loan from China versus the AHI's BOT proposal which would not entail any cost to government ( People of the Philippines vs. Arroyo et al. , 2016 , p. 2). In hindsight, the claims advanced by the Ombudsman in its case reflected the bias favouring the previous Senate testimonies of de Venecia and others in the opposition.

In late 2011, GMA and Abalos were charged and jailed for electoral fraud. Then in March 2012, on the basis of the Ombudsman's charges related to the NBN–ZTE project, the Sandiganbayan issued warrants of arrest for Mike Arroyo and Mendoza. Both men were freed after posting bail on the day of their arrest.

On 1 March 2016, the government prosecution finished presenting its case before the Sandiganbayan . Soon after, the accused asked the court to allow them to file a demurrer to evidence. A demurrer to evidence is a motion to dismiss the case for insufficiency of evidence. On 24 June 2016, the Sandiganbayan granted the request and as provided by the rules of criminal procedure, gave Arroyo et al. 10 days to file demurrers to evidence. Consequently, the accused individuals separately filed their motions for dismissal.

On 25 August 2016, the Sandiganbayan issued its resolution exonerating the Arroyo spouses, Abalos and Mendoza for lack of evidence to establish allegations of overpricing, the existence of a conspiracy and the disadvantages of the ZTE–NBN contract ( Macapagal-Arroyo vs. People of the Philippines and Sandiganbayan , 2016 ). Apparently, the OMB erred in its reliance on the evidence provided by the opposition during GMA's term.

Comparing the two scandals

The weaknesses of Philippine governance institutions to curb grand corruption in government procurement projects during the past half-century could be gathered from a comparison of the two scandals. Both scandals share a number of elements from the process of contracting to their resolution.

First, an opportunity for corruption existed based on executive agreements that did not undergo competitive public bidding. Although transpiring under different political regimes, one autocratic and the other democratic, the BNPP and ZTE projects were both based on top-level agreements with foreign entities that made contracting less transparent to the public.

Second, that executive agreements could be made without competitive public bidding encouraged the formation of corrupt rent-seeking relationships at the top levels of government. The two megaprojects revealed the importance of brokers and political sponsors–promoters in such relationships. Particularly, they were crucial to easing out the competition and successfully closing deals between the rent-seeking firm and the government.

Third, the lack of transparency in government contracting made the projects susceptible to public allegations of improprieties, which served to bolster the political opposition. Foreign media exposed the anomalous BNPP contract, which drummed up local opposition not only for the corruption but also for the nuclear plant's potential harm to public safety and the environment. In the ZTE case, the media exposé alerted the public of allegations of over-pricing due to huge commissions. Negative public opinion to the project of an already politically beleaguered Arroyo presidency prompted an inquiry from the Senate leading to the project's cancellation.

The fourth element relates to the erratic behaviour and questionable competence of prosecutorial agencies dealing with grand corruption, particularly the OMB and PCGG. The PCGG was able to gather voluminous evidence against the Marcoses and their cronies. However, important pieces of evidence were not properly handled as attested by the testimonies of PCGG personnel in Republic of the Philippines versus Disini et al. (2012) . The court found no convincing proof of Marcos' ownership of the Herdis companies or his financial gain from the Westinghouse deal.

Similarly, the two cases raise questions concerning the OMB's competence and behaviour. In 1997, Ombudsman Desierto dropped the graft charges against Disini for lack of prima facie evidence, despite the PCGG evidence. On appeal by the latter, the Supreme Court in 2003 ruled that the Ombudsman exercised grave abuse of discretion. Thus, it reversed Desierto's decision and directed the OMB to file the appropriate criminal charges against Disini ( PCGG vs Desierto et al. , 2003 ). Consequently, the new Ombudsman at the time of the Supreme Court decision filed graft charges against the Marcos crony. In 2012, the Sandiganbayan ruled in favour of the government.

In 2009, Ombudsman Gutierrez dropped charges against GMA in connection with the NBN–ZTE project because of her immunity from being sued as the president. She also cleared GMA's husband. In 2012, when the prevailing political fervour was against the former president, her successor Ombudsman Carpio-Morales, hastily filed charges against the Arroyos, Abalos and Mendoza. Insufficient evidence to graft charges led to the Sandiganbayan ' s exoneration of the accused in August 2016. In an earlier court decision, the Supreme Court also acquitted Arroyo for lack of evidence in a plunder case involving the alleged misuse of intelligence funds of the Philippine Charity Sweepstakes Office ( Macapagal-Arroyo vs People of the Philippines , 2016 ). The petition was filed in July 2012 by Carpio-Morales.

A politically subservient or accommodating judiciary might be argued to be the fifth element in the legal settlement of both corruption scandals. The Sandiganbayan and the Supreme Court decided on the Disini case during President Benigno Aquino's term. Aquino was of course against Marcos and his cronies. It was also during his term that criminal charges were filed against GMA. The Sandiganbayan ' s ruling on the ZTE case, issued in the early days of the Duterte presidency, favoured the Arroyos and other co-accused. In her 9 July 2019 farewell dinner speech as Congress representative and House Speaker, GMA thanked Duterte, whose presidency “provided the atmosphere in which the Court had the freedom to acquit” her of the “trumped-up charges” of his predecessor ( Panganiban, 2019 ). Her remark was suggestive of the political malleability of the courts.

Sixth, both projects contained the element of foreign government participation, therefore entailing diplomatic considerations. In this regard, the government had to take utmost care of relevant, confidential information in order to prevent scandals from erupting and harming diplomatic relations. It was therefore possible that discovered irregularities made it difficult for the governments involved to publicly acknowledge or outrightly denounce the projects. In the BNPP project, the U.S. government was involved directly through the project loan financing provided by the U.S. Export–Import Bank. It was also involved indirectly through the support of its nuclear export industry and support of private banks. In the NBN project, direct Chinese government participation came through the ZTE, a state-controlled firm, and the China Export–Import Bank for loan financing.

Finally, after the initial media exposés, the Marcos and Arroyo governments failed to effectively contain the scandals from further prolongation or escalation. To dismiss the Disini connection in the Westinghouse deal, Marcos explained that the decision was based on an earlier report of foreign consultants. Further, in reaction to the U.S. media pressure, Marcos immediately ordered the investigation of the Westinghouse deal and the government takeover of Disini companies, which were symbolic gestures to affirm his integrity. To be sure, authoritarian rule prevented the discovery of other incriminating evidence on the legal improprieties of the BNPP contract. However, no amount of damage control could erase the image of the BNPP project as a symbol of Marcos' corruption.

The Arroyo government's damage control included the cancellation of the NBN–ZTE contract as well as the suppression of key witnesses (e.g. Neri) from disclosing sensitive information to the public. However, such measures only fuelled further public suspicions and strengthened the justification for the SBRC's prolonged investigation of the scandal.

What obviously contrasts the two projects is that the ZTE contract never pushed through unlike the BNPP, whose liabilities had to be settled for decades. The ZTE project cancellation was the product of the system of checks and balances in post-Marcos democracy, with pressure exerted by the mass media, Congress, the courts and public opinion. However, this system of checks and balances has not guaranteed the absence of grand corruption in the country.

Despite the Government Procurement Reform Act of 2003, which mandates that all government projects to undergo competitive public bidding, the apparent loophole revealed by the ZTE–NBN experience was the government-to-government agreement, which provided an exception to the general rule. This point raised contrasting legal opinions yet to be resolved ( Suplico vs NEDA , 2008 ). That rules could be changed and broadly interpreted to favour particularistic interests does not bode well for the promotion of a culture of accountability and integrity in government in the Philippines.

The BNPP and NBN–ZTE scandals illustrate cases of corrupt relationships formed at the highest levels of government in contracting large infrastructure projects in the Philippines. Such projects, extending to national roadworks and other major undertakings, are often susceptible to political interference for the private gain of public officials ( Batalla et al. , 2018a ).

The constancy of grand corruption scandals in the Philippines suggests deeper problems in politics and society. First, many government institutions remain malleable to negative external influences. This is because the bureaucracy, lacking in both capacity and autonomy, has long been “subordinated to particularistic elite interests” ( Hutchcroft, 1998 , p. 26). Despite governance reforms through decades of restored democracy, many government institutions are still easily influenced by powerful vested interests.

Second, strong incentives to commit graft persist. Such incentives are not only exclusive to politicians, political appointees and professional bureaucrats but also to foreign governments, private firms and individual brokers. The persistence of corruption incentives in many government institutions draws from underdeveloped governance measures, the prevailing culture of corruption, low civil service wages and the low risk of detection with a promise of high returns ( Quah, 2013 , pp. 127-132).

Finally, there is the perceived failure of closure to past scandals by the justice system, as there continues to be a “low risk” of punishment ( Quah, 2013 , p. 129). With the exception of the conviction of President Estrada for plunder (though later pardoned by Arroyo), no other high-ranking official above the position of provincial governor has ever been convicted of corruption ( Bolongaita, 2010 ). At best, high-ranking officials accused of corruption have been shamed and jailed. Some senators including Juan Ponce Enrile, Ramon Revilla Jr. and Jose Ejercito Jr. were jailed in connection with the Napoles pork barrel scam but have been either released on bail or acquitted of plunder charges. The failure of closure of past scandals encourages corrupt practices by top officials, who regard government as a lucrative source of private wealth and power. The scandals provide a constant reminder of the long unattended opportunity of effectively reforming the political system.

National Power Corporation-Philippine Nuclear Power Plant interest payments and principal amortization, 1986–2007 (in million pesos)

Note(s) : Data on government payments for the BNPP prior to 1986 not available

Source(s) : The author's calculations are based on the online statistics on national government debt service provided in the Bureau of the Treasury (2020)

ABS-CBN News ( 2009 ), “ After 22 years, govt ends presentation of case vs Marcos, Disini ”, 16 February, available at: https://news.abs-cbn.com/nation/02/15/09/after-22-years-govt-ends-presentation-case-vs-marcos-disini ( accessed 3 September 2019 ).

ABS-CBN News ( 2014 ), “ BNPP broker Herminio Disini passes away ,” 16 June, available at: https://news.abs-cbn.com/business/06/16/14/bnpp-broker-herminio-disini-passes-away ( accessed 20 August 2019 ).

Asian Wall Street Journal ( 1995 ), “ Westinghouse, Philippines sign settlement on plant ”, 16 October , p. 2 .

Batalla , E.V.C. , Torneo , A. and Magno , F. ( 2018a ), “ A survey of political interference patterns and modalities in national roadworks in the Philippines ”, Asia Pacific Social Science Review , Vol. 18 No. 3 , pp. 57 - 71 .

Batalla , E.V.C. , Romana , M.S. and Rodrigo , K. ( 2018b ), “ The judiciary under threat, ”, in Thompson , M.R. and Batalla , E.V.C. (Eds), Routledge Handbook on the Contemporary Philippines , Chapter 10, Routledge , London , pp. 130 - 143 .

Beaver , W. ( 1994 ), “ Nuclear nightmares in the Philippines ”, Journal of Business Ethics , Vol. 13 No. 4 , pp. 271 - 279 .

Bolongaita , E. ( 2010 ), An Exception to the Rule? Why Indonesia's Anti-corruption Commission Succeeds where Others Don't – a Comparison with the Philippines' Ombudsman , U4 Issue, August, No. 4 , Chr Michelsen Institute , Bergen .

Branigin , W. ( 1984 ), “ Crony capitalism' blamed for economic crisis ”, Washington Post , 16 August , available at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1984/08/16/crony-capitalism -blamed-for-economic-crisis/d99e8760-087d-4d25-ad66-3d324150dc4d/ ( accessed 22 July 2019 ).

Bureau of the Treasury ( 2020 ), National Government Debt Service, Historical Series , Manila , available at: https://www.treasury.gov.ph/?page_id=4221 ( accessed 6 January 2020 ).

Butterfield , F. ( 1978 ), “ Marcos, facing criticism, may end $1 Billion Westinghouse contract ”, New York Times , 14 January , available at: https://www.nytimes.com/1978/01/14/archives/marcos-facing-criticism-may-end-1-billion-westinghouse-contract.html ( accessed 21 August 2019 ).

Butterfield , F. ( 1988 ), “ Westinghouse, Jersey firm sued by the Philippines ”, New York Times , 2 December , available at: https://www.nytimes.com/1988/12/02/business/westinghouse-jersey-firm-are-sued-by-the-philippines.html ( accessed 3 September 2019 ).

Chang , E. and Golden , M. ( 2010 ), “ Sources of corruption in authoritarian regimes ”, Social Science Quarterly , Vol. 91 No. 1 , pp. 1 - 20 .

Coronel , S. and Tordesillas , E. ( 1998 ), “ Grandmother of all scams ”, Part 3, Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism , 20 March , available at: https://old.pcij.org/stories/the- grandmother-of-all-scams-3/ ( accessed 11 November 2019 ).

David-Barrett , E. and Fazekas , M. ( 2019 ), “ Grand corruption and government change: an analysis of partisan favouritism in public procurement ”, European Journal of Criminal Policy and Research , 16 June , doi: 10.1007/s10610-019-09416-4 ( accessed 6 January 2020 ).

Dumaine , B. ( 1986 ), “ The $2.2 billion nuclear fiasco ”, Fortune , 1 September , available at: https://archive.fortune.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/1986/09/01/67989/index. htm ( accessed 19 August 2019 ).

Hutchcroft , P. ( 1998 ), Booty Capitalism: The Politics of Banking in the Philippines , Cornell University Press , Ithaca, NY .

Hutchcroft , P. ( 2008 ), “ The Arroyo imbroglio in the Philippines ”, Journal of Democracy , Vol. 19 No. 1 , pp. 141 - 155 .

Kukutschka , R.M.B. ( 2018 ), “ Anti-corruption strategies for authoritarian states ”, U4 Helpdesk Answer , 2018:7 , 20 May , pp. 1 - 18 , available at: https://www.u4.no/publications/anti-corruption-strategies-for-authoritarianstates.pdf ( accessed 7 January 2020 ).

Lowi , T. ( 1988 ), “ Foreword ”, in Markovits , A.S. and Silverstein , M. (Eds), The Politics of Scandal: Power and Process in Liberal Democracies, Holmes and Meier , New York, NY , pp. vii - xii .

Macapagal-Arroyo, G.M. vs People of the Philippines ( 2016 ), “ Supreme court, G.R. no. 220598 ”, 19 July .

Manapat , R. ( 1991 ), Some Are Smarter than Others: The History of Marcos' Crony Capitalism , Aletheia Publications , New York, NY .

Mathews , J. and Wideman , B. ( 1977 ), “ Martial law benefits Marcos' friends ”, Washington Post , 19 December , available at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1977/12/19/martial-law-benefits-marcos-friends/38bfac37-6c3d-4b5c-9e50-6864629680ef/ ( accessed 21 August 2019 ).

Mathews , J. and Wideman , B. ( 1978 ), “ Marcos orders seizure of wealthy friends' companies ”, Washington Post , 18 January , available at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1978/01/18/marcos-orders-seizure-of-wealthy-friends-companies/5cec6171-4a3f-bba3-bef235c90eb2/ ( accessed 21 August 2019 ).

Mydans , S. ( 1988 ), “ In post-Marcos Philippines, corruption still a way of life ”, New York Times , 17 October , available at: https://www.nytimes.com/1988/10/17/world/in-post-marcos-philippines -corruption-still-a-way-of-life.html ( accessed 11 November 2019 ).

Panganiban , A.V. ( 2019 ), “ Judicial subservience and independence ”, Philippine Daily Inquirer , 15 September , p. A13 .

People of the Philippines vs. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, Jose Miguel Arroyo, Benjamin Abalos, Sr. and Leandro Mendoza ( 2016 ), “ SB-11 CRM-0467 ”, 25 August .

Presidential Commission on Good Government (PCGG) vs. Desierto, Ananiano, Herminio T. Disini, Paciencia Escolin-Disini, Angel E. Disini, Liliana L. Disini, and Lea Disini ( 2003 ), “ Supreme Court G.R. No. 132120 ”, 10 February .

Quah , J.S.T. ( 2013 ), Curbing Corruption in Asian Countries: An Impossible Dream? , ISEAS Publishing , Singapore .

Republic Act No. 3019 ( 1960 ), “ Anti-graft and corrupt practices act ”, Official Gazette , available at: https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1960/08/17/republic-act-no-3019/ ( accessed 4 September 2019 ).

Republic of the Philippines ( 1980 ), Letter of Instructions No. 1065 , Manila , 15 September, available at: https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/downloads/1980/09sep/19800915-LOI-1065-FM.pdf ( accessed 15 September 2019 ).

Republic of the Philippines vs. Disini, Herminio et al. ( 2012 ), “ Sandiganbayan, Civil Case No. 0013 ”, 11 April .

Republic of the Philippines vs. Westinghouse Electric ( 1989 ) , “ U.S. District Court for the District of New Jersey, 714 F. Supp. 1362 (D.N.J. 1989) ”, 18 May, available at: https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/714/1362/2258760/ ( accessed 21 September 2019 ).

Rimando , L. ( 2000 ), “ Estrada, Villar and stock market—something in common? ”, ABS-CBN News , 24 April , available at: https://news.abs-cbn.com/nation/04/24/10/estrada-villar-and-stock-market%E2%80%94something-common ( accessed 11 November 2019 ).

Sabangan , A.R. ( 2008 ), “ NBN-ZTE's gang of four ”, GMA News Online , 13 March , available at: https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/content/84644/nbn-zte-s-gang-of-four/story/ ( accessed 4 September 2019 ).

Salaverria , L. ( 2012 ), “ Sandiganbayan orders Marcos crony to return $50-M loot in nuclear plant deal ”, Philippine Daily Inquirer , 13 April , available at: https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/175813/ sandiganbayan-orders-marcos-crony-to-return-50-m-loot-in-nuclear-plant-deal#ixzz5uMzLke00 ( accessed 20 August 2019 ).

Senate Blue Ribbon Committee (SBRC) ( 2009 ), “ NBN-ZTE, committee report no. 743 ”, Senate of the Philippines , 11 November, available at: https://www.senate.gov.ph/lisdata/1293411633!.pdf ( accessed 4 September 2019 ).

Suplico, R. vs. National Economic Development Authority, Department of Transportation and Communications, and ZTE Corporation, Amsterdam Holdings, and All Persons Acting in their Behalf ( 2008 ), “ Supreme Court G.R. No. 178830 ”, 14 July .

Tiglao , R. ( 1992 ), “ Reasons of state: Citicorp report ignored by Philippine government ”, Far Eastern Economic Review , Vol. 155 No. 10 , 12 March , p. 47 .

Transparency International ( 2016 ), “ What is grand corruption and how can we stop it ”, 21 September, available at: https://www.transparency.org/news/feature/what_is_grand_corruption_and_ how_can_we_stop_it ( accessed 6 January 2020 ).

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) ( 2019 ), “ Corruption and democracy ”, Anti-Corruption Module 3: Corruption and Comparative Politics , December , available at: https://www.unodc.org/e4j/en/anti-corruption/module-3/keyissues/corruption-and-democracy.html ( accessed 7 January 2020 ).

United Press International ( 1991 ), “ Westinghouse cleared of bribing Marcos ”, 20 December, available at: https://www.upi.com/Archives/1991/12/20/Westinghouse-cleared-of-bribing-Marcos/2805693205200/ ( accessed 21 September 2019 ).

United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC) ( 2018 ), “ Three mile Island accident ”, Backgrounder, Office of Public Affairs , June , available at: https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML0402/ML040280573.pdf ( accessed 24 August 2019 ).

Velasco , G. ( 2006 ), Trailblazing: The Quest for Energy Self-Reliance , Anvil, Manila .

Further reading

Batalla , E.V.C. ( 2015 ), “ Treading the straight and righteous path: curbing corruption in the Philippines ”, Asian Education and Development Studies , Vol. 4 No. 1 , pp. 51 - 75 .

Butterfield , F. ( 1986 ), “ Filipinos say Marcos was given millions for '76 nuclear contract ”, New York Times , 17 March , available at: https://www.nytimes.com/1986/03/07/world/filipinos-say-marcos-was-given-millions-for-76-nuclear-contract.html ( accessed 3 September 2019 ).

Acknowledgements

The author thanks Professor Jon Quah for his editorial initiative and support for this work. Thanks are also due to Emil Bolongaita and Cleo Calimbahin for their useful comments and suggestions.

Corresponding author

About the author.

Eric V.C. Batalla is Professor at the Political Science Department, De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines. He is co-editor of the Routledge Handbook of the Contemporary Philippines (2018) and the author of several journal articles and book chapters on regional and Philippine politics, corruption and economic development.

Related articles

All feedback is valuable.

Please share your general feedback

Report an issue or find answers to frequently asked questions

Contact Customer Support

(Stanford users can avoid this Captcha by logging in.)

• Send to text email RefWorks EndNote printer

Corruption and implementation : case studies in Philippine public administration

Available online, at the library.

Green Library

More options

• Find it at other libraries via WorldCat
• Contributors

Description

Creators/contributors, contents/summary, bibliographic information, browse related items.

• Stanford Home
• Maps & Directions
• Search Stanford
• Emergency Info
• Terms of Use
• Non-Discrimination
• Accessibility

© Stanford University , Stanford , California 94305 .

Public Administration in the Philippines: Meeting the Challenges of Government and Governance DANILO DE LA ROSA REYES

74 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

Public Administration in the Philippines : Meeting the Challenges of Government and Governance DANILO DE LA ROSA REYES

Public Administration1 was introduced in the community. Its vibrancy was given much impetus Philippines at a time of internal strife, transition with the increase of academic institutions offering and reconstruction. It emerged during a difficult formal collegiate and post-graduate programs period marked by unrest and rebellion in the and courses in Public Administration. These aftermath of the Second World War, and with the institutions are based not only in Metro Manila and country gripped and confronted with the nearby environs but even in far-flung regions and burgeoning agenda of rehabilitation and localities where institutions of higher learning, consolidation. Its entry into the country as a formal particularly state colleges and universities, have field of study is generally associated with the gradually recognized the viability of Public establishment of the Institute of Public Administration programs. Administration (IPA) then based at the University The expansion of academic programs in Public of the Philippines in Padre Faura, Manila. This was Administration is also enhanced by the remarkable the offshoot of recommendations of the Bell growth of research activities which, by and large, Mission, a survey team sent to the Philippines in also helped developed the publication of 1950 to study and recommend measures to indigenous literature that depicts, examines, and rehabilitate the country following the devastation explains the depths and realities of the Philippine of the war. With independence obtained from the administrative system. These initiatives have United States in 1946, the Philippines proceeded generated knowledge and viewpoints that are to uphold and pursue a democratic political system localized and localizing, providing more relevant inherited from and patterned after the American materials for better appreciation of the vagaries of model. phenomena obtaining in the Philippine From this institutional base, Public administrative system. Administration as a disciplinary enterprise grew An equally encouraging development in as a legitimate field of study, acknowledged and Philippine Public Administration is the recognized as part of the larger academic and establishment of local and international scholarly discipline in the social science institutions and linkages that help propagate 75 Public Administration in the Philippines: Meeting the Challenges of Government and Governance

administrative studies, whether focusing on the and efficiency in Government…and take steps to Philippine system or seeking to develop improve training facilities for technicians in the comparative perspectives towards building Philippines” (Bell et al., 1950, p. 6; also cited in administrative knowledge anchored on shared Reyes, 1999, pp. 248-249). experiences in different socio-political and cultural The Report also “deplored the low salaries settings. Such institutions as the Association of paid government employees in comparison with Schools of Public Administration in the those obtainable in the private sector,” and Philippines, the Philippine Society for Public likewise noted the difficulty of “attracting to the Administration, and the Eastern Regional public service many able men whose training and Organization for Public Administration, among experience were desperately needed…” The others, have served to consolidate the strength of Report also decried “the lack of facilities for the Public Administration as a field of study in the training of subordinate employees for supervisory country. positions as one of the pressing problems in government administration” (Bell Report 1950, as THE INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: cited in Alfonso, 1972, p. 275).2 PIONEERING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION STUDY The findings and recommendations of the Bell IN THE PHILIPPINES Report provided for the establishment of IPA which was then set up as an integral unit of the As in other countries, the war devastated the University of the Philippines in June 1952. The IPA Philippine economy and brought about was created based on a technical assistance widespread poverty. Living conditions in the contract entered into between the University of the country following the war were desolate, and Philippines and the University of Michigan to further aggravated by brewing peasant and serve as a training center for government (Ricote, agrarian unrest. The end of the war created 2008, 2005; Reyes, 2010, 1999, 1995a, 1995b, 1979; discontinuities in the social and political order and Ocampo, 1993; Cariño, 1993; Alfonso, 1972; Ramos, escalated in its wake a powerful communist 1957; Lederle & Heady, 1955). insurgent rebellion. Manila, the country’s capital, Ramos points out succinctly that the Institute was left in total ruins. The economy was at a was “established in 1952 to be a center for research, standstill, prompting American senator Millard information and professional training in public Tydings to declare it, next to Warsaw in Poland, administration” (Ramos, 1957, p. 2). Alfonso as “the most completely devastated capital city in echoes and expands these later, saying that the the world” (as cited in Shalom, 1986, p. 33). Institute was conceived as “a center for research, This milieu of distress and conflict was further academic and in-service training, and consultation reinforced and compounded by a bureaucracy services in public administration” (Alfonso, 1972, traumatized by war, “characterized by low p. 276, ital. mine). Upon its inception, it was thus prestige, incompetence, meager resources, and a tasked with the conduct of in-service training for large measure of cynical corruption” (Corpuz, civil servants, the felt need then following the 1957, p. 222). In an effort to rebuild the nation, the effects on the civil service by the war and of the Philippine government sought the assistance of the Japanese occupation. In a survey of the growth of United States, which promptly dispatched an schools of Public Administration in the Economic Survey Mission headed by Daniel W. Philippines, Nieves in fact opines that in the early Bell to the Philippines in 1950. years of the discipline’s inception, the term That mission accordingly submitted its report, “institute” was adopted “perhaps to emphasize the now known as the Bell Report, and recommended training rather than the academic function” among others, “that public administration be (Nieves, 1972, p. 340). improved and reorganized so as to insure honesty 76 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

The entry of Public Administration into the Before the expiration of the technical assistance veins of academic scholarship, as well as into the contract with the University of Michigan in 1956, realms of professional and extension services in IPA was able to formulate curricula for both the Philippines, was marked by auspicious and bachelor and master’s degree programs in Public ominous beginnings (Reyes, 1995a). It was Administration. In the second semester of auspicious because it emerged in the country as a academic year 1952-1953, the first graduate courses full-fledged field of study, separate and distinct in Public Administration were offered by the from its acknowledged and putative mother Institute. The enrolment in these programs rose discipline, Political Science, as was the case in the “from 68 students during the first semester of 1953- United States. As a result, unlike its American 54 to ‘well over 200’ per semester by 1955" (Lederle counterpart, it did not have to struggle for & Heady, 1955, p. 13, as cited in Ocampo, 1993, acceptance in establishing its legitimacy as an p. 6). independent field of study. It was, for all intents In time, IPA was renamed as the Graduate and purposes, brought and shipped into Philippine School of Public Administration in 1963 as an shores, packaged and assembled as a finished academic unit now formally part of the University product by professors and scholars from the of the Philippines. In 1966, it became the School of University of Michigan (Reyes, 2010, 1979; Public Administration but was again renamed as Ocampo, 1993; Cariño, 1993; Ramos, 1957; Lederle the College of Public Administration the following & Heady, 1955). year (Nieves, 1972, p. 340; Alfonso, 1972, p. 276fn).3 On the other hand, its coming was ominous In 1998, the Board of Regents of the University of because the discipline emerged during a difficult the Philippines recognized it as a “national time of reconstruction and rehabilitation, college” and added the word “governance” to burdened by dislocation and internecine conflict become what is now the National College of Public (Reyes, 1995). The discipline was brought into the Administration and Governance or NCPAG country during a period of uncertainty where an (Cariño, 2007). unstable government grappling with unrest and Cariño explains that the designation of the UP rebellion, and where too, the delivery of basic and College of Public Administration as the “national essential public services had been compromised college” derives from the fact that its forerunner, by the lack of resources and the problematic of an the IPA, “has been the first institution of higher incompetent civil service for which Public learning in the Philippines and in Asia” (Cariño, Administration was precisely called upon to help 2007, p. 685).4 The IPA, now the NCPAG, is thus correct. The discipline also had to contend with generally regarded as the pioneering institution meager resources in the conduct of academic in the teaching, study, and research of Public research which under conditions of financial stress Administration in the Philippines. This pioneering and deprivation, would be nothing short of a and guiding spirit has been kindled through the luxury. years as academic programs in Public By the late 1950s, the in-service training Administration multiplied and developed in program of IPA had trained over 300 training various educational institutions in the Philippines. officers who in turn went about to conduct echo EXPANDING HORIZONS: ACADEMIC training courses that reached some 120,000 civil PROGRAMS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION servants between 1959 and 1961 (Ocampo, 1993, IN THE PHILIPPINES p. 9). The Institute grew and expanded from its in-service training and consultancy moorings and subsequently developed its academic program Based on a survey of schools offering Public offering postgraduate degrees in Public Administration programs undertaken by Nieves Administration. in 1972, fifteen schools in the Philippines had Public Administration in the Philippines: Meeting the Challenges of Government and Governance 77

degree programs in Public Administration at that The establishment in 1979 of the Association time. Of these academic institutions, two were state of Schools of Public Administration in the universities, i.e., University of the Philippines (UP) Philippines, Inc. or ASPAP under the leadership and the Mindanao State University (MSU), while of UP-CPA further enhanced the opening of more one was a city university, the Pamantasan ng degree programs in Public Administration. About Lungsod ng Maynila (PLM). The remaining 12 that time too, the UP-CPA embarked on were private universities and colleges (Nieves, developing faculty in educational institutions at 1972, p. 338). the regional and provincial areas by entering into Following the lead of the then IPA, the Araneta agreements whereby UP-CPA faculty were sent to University Extension in Caloocan City began regional and provincial schools to handle post- offering undergraduate programs in 1958 followed graduate courses in Public Administration. by a master’s degree program in 1965. Around this Known as the “flying professors,” this team time, academic institutions in Greater Manila Area of faculty members travelled by plane or by bus to established their own degree programs in Public remote colleges and universities to handle Administration in both the undergraduate and graduate courses on weekend schedules so as not graduate levels. These institutions were Centro to conflict with their academic duties at UP-CPA Escolar University (CEU), 1965; Philippine which was then still based in Padre Faura, Manila. Women’s University (PWU), 1965; Feati In time, as graduates of these regional programs University, 1965; University of Santo Tomas (UST), multiplied, recipient colleges and universities were 1965; University of Manila , 1965; Manuel L. able to build their own faculty to handle collegiate Quezon University (MLQU), 1966; and Lyceum of and post-graduate courses. It also did not come as the Philippines, 1966. CEU began offering doctoral a surprise to have curricula in these partner programs in Public Administration in 1969, a year colleges and universities patterned after that of the after the UP College of Public Administration (UP- UP-CPA including syllabi, readings and course CPA) began its own doctoral degree program. requirements, among others. Cariño describes this Nine of the schools offered graduate degrees while as follows: 11 have undergraduate programs. …Technical assistance from the College included At the regional level, five schools offered outside academic overload for faculty members and undergraduate degrees in 1972. These were Luzon ranking REPS (Research, Extension and Colleges, 1967; Lyceum of Baguio, 1967; University Professional Staff), sharing of syllabi and of Baguio, 1967; University of Pangasinan, 1968; distributing handouts at cost to these other and the Mindanao State University, 1971 (Nieves, schools. [Raul] De Guzman institutionalized this 1972). As derived from Nieves (1972), Annex A helping relationship in several ways: entering into presents this distribution and the period when memoranda of agreement or consortium each of these identified institutions began their arrangements with the schools which requested Public Administration degree programs. continuing assistance…. More than a decade later, the number of The 1970s were famous for the army of institutions offering degree programs in Public “flying professors” teaching during weekends in Administration tripled. In 1986, Raul de Guzman, as many as seven universities in any one semester. one of the pioneers in the discipline who served They abated after [Dean] de Guzman’s term, one of the longest terms as Dean of the UP-CPA, partly because many faculty members of those asserted that there were more than sixty units had already graduated from the UP-CPA institutions then offering the degree all over the and were ready to handle the courses themselves, country (de Guzman, 1986, p. 380, as reprinted in partly because the faculty preferred alternative Bautista et al., 2003, p. 8, and cited in Ricote, 2008, uses for their time (in research and consultancy), p. 169).5 and partly because the MM (Master of 78 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

Management) programs and the ASPAP were in pioneer institution specializing in Public place… (Cariño, 1993, p. 26). Administration in the Philippines, it was natural The results were dramatic. In time, the number for the UP-CPA, now NCPAG, to spearhead and of institutions in Metro Manila and at the regional take the lead in propagating the discipline in the level that offer Public Administration grew. In country. 2004, fifty-two years since the discipline was In almost sixty years, several institutions, both brought to the Philippines, 263 schools, colleges private and public, have been established to and universities had opened and maintained promote teaching, training, and research in Public degree programs in Public Administration at the Administration. Perhaps, the most significant of undergraduate, graduate, and post graduate level these, and which this paper would classify as an according to data from the Commission on Higher institution, is the publication of the Philippine Education, 2003-2004 (as cited in Ricote, 2008, Journal of Public Administration (PJPA) in 1957. p. 170). These reflect, more or less, the growing The PJPA can perhaps lay claim to being one of interest in the study of Public Administration the oldest, if not the oldest, continuing academic (Annex B). journals in the Philippines. It is an institution The degree offerings found in these because it served and continues to serve as the institutions, whether in the collegiate or post- primary arm for the publication of papers by graduate level, may vary in nomenclature or faculty members in the College as well as those degree titles—Public Administration, Public from other local and international institutes, Management or Public Affairs—but they convey colleges, universities, and by researchers, students the same meaning, the same subject matter, and and practitioners in public administration, the the same area of study; that is, administrative profession and the discipline. In over fifty years, study. The programs may pursue different areas the PJPA has had its ups and downs, but has of specialization or subfields of study, but they continued to be an important forum for the remain within the framework of Public dissemination of knowledge, and more Administration, adapted and adjusted to significantly, the exchange of views, experiences, prevailing concerns and conditions. and ideas of both public administration Obviously, the growth in academic programs practitioners and academics and scholars of the indicates considerable interest and attention to the discipline. discipline comparable to such “popular,” well In 1960, IPA also helped established the established fields as Economics, History, Eastern Regional Organization for Public Sociology, Psychology, or Political Science. As it Administration (EROPA), an international body is, Public Administration remains today a dynamic composed of states, institutions, and individual and progressive academic discipline that ranks members from all over Asia and the Pacific region. respectably well with other older fields in the social EROPA has its headquarter-secretariat in sciences in the Philippines. the Philippines while research and training centers are found in member-institutions in the region. INSTITUTION BUILDING, LINKAGES These centers are the Local Government Center AND NETWORKS in Tokyo, the EROPA Development Management Center in South Korea, and the EROPA Training With the then IPA in the lead and succeeded Center in India. EROPA continues today as a body later by its institutional incarnations, Public that promotes the study, teaching, and training of Administration was also enriched by the Public Administration and has likewise establishment and building of institutions and established its own publication, the Asian Review networks that advanced and strengthened not only of Public Administration (ARPA).6 the discipline, but the profession as well. As the 79 Public Administration in the Philippines: Meeting the Challenges of Government and Governance

The Philippine Executive Academy was issues such as poverty alleviation, peace likewise created in 1962 as a unit of IPA but administration, human rights…” (Ricote, 2008, p. separated from the College in 1973. Likewise, 174). In 2007, the Philippines hosted the annual another unit that was established and which international conference of NAPSIPAG with the evolved from “under the CPA’s wings,” as theme, “Public Administration and Governance at Ocampo would put it, was the Institute of the Forefront of Change: Dimensions, Dynamics, Planning, constituted in 1965. The Institute later Dysfunctions and Solutions.” became the Institute of Environmental Planning In support of the profession, the Philippine and presently the School of Urban and Regional Society for Public Administration (PSPA) was also Planning, an integral unit of UP Diliman (Ocampo, organized composed of academicians and 1993, p. 13). practitioners. The PSPA continues to operate as a But if there is one important indicator of the professional organization in support of the vitality of the discipline, it would be the discipline. organization of ASPAP as mentioned earlier. DIRECTIONS AND INITIATIVES IN ASPAP today remains a strong network with an RESEARCH PROGRAMS institutional membership of almost 120 schools, colleges, universities, and academic institutions offering Public Administration and management Over the years, the discipline of Public programs at the graduate and undergraduate Administration and its scholars, researchers, levels nationwide. The network is clustered into practitioners, and even students have been sixteen chapters which include the National committed to the development of the discipline by Capital Region (NCR), the Autonomous Region of undertaking diligent and zealous research projects. Muslim Mindanao (ARMM), the Cordillera If teaching is the heart of an academic discipline, Administrative Region (CAR), and the Caraga research should be its soul. Research initiatives Region in Mindanao. The ASPAP Secretariat is seek to uncover new knowledge on the dynamics likewise based at UP-NCPAG. ASPAP has of public administration practices, processes, and continued to undertake projects that promote the realities in the Philippines. discipline through seminar-workshops on For one, the coming of the discipline in the pedagogical methods, continuing lectures and Philippines was characterized by the dearth of forums on trends in the discipline, as well as administrative literature and researchers relied collaborative partnerships in research and other mostly on materials imported from American projects in governance. Today, the association is mentors who brought the discipline into the considered as the major organization in the country. Through the years, however, research Philippines spearheading and leading efforts efforts have produced localized publications that towards the development and improvement of would invariably reflect and capture the Public Administration and governance education idiosyncrasies—the ethos and the vagaries—of in the country (Ricote, 2008). Philippine administrative culture. In 2004, another institution was organized at The discipline embarked on studies towards the international level to promote the discipline. providing extension and professional services. It This is the Network of Asia-Pacific Schools and also engaged in researches and consultancies that Institute of Public Administration and Governance did not only provide advice and guidance in the (NAPSIPAG). Like EROPA, NAPSIPAG is a development and strengthening of administrative collaborative venture that seeks “to respond to the organization and management, but also in the needs of public administration and governance formulation of policies and laws. These professionals in the region to explore innovations, experiences contributed to the building of new breakthroughs, best practices and solutions to knowledge derived and generated from actual 80 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

experiences or phenomena. The initiatives have Since the discipline began in earnest as a given added legitimacy and validity to Public service-oriented field of study in the Philippines, Administration as an “applied” discipline where it was natural for it to focus on generating the rigors, the realities or even the harshness of “knowledge that can be used to improve the practice are given significance and import in the performance of government agencies and development of theory.7 personnel as an urgent and immediate need” If the research production at the then UP-CPA, (Cariño, 1972, p. 294). While these are useful and and later, the NCPAG, were to be the gauge, convivial in bringing about a better understanding research in Public Administration in the of an agency, a process, a procedure or a policy, Philippines can be assumed, on the whole, as fairly they tend to be “case” or “agency” specific, which satisfactory. It is also dynamic and applied, means that they can be considered valid only generally driven not only by the challenges of the under specific conditions and that acceptable affairs of government, but of the more extensive generalizations that can be formulated into agenda of good governance, which provides that meaningful and valid theories may be the management of public affairs and the inappropriate or untenable. formulation of public policies are not the exclusive Basic research, on the other hand, represents domains or monopoly of government, but of the those studies that seek to enrich theory that, in various stakeholders in society. Cariño’s views serve to “increase the stock of knowledge [that] make meaningful RESEARCH PROGRAMS AT THE UP-CPA, generalizations about public administration which 1952-1972 would be applicable not only in the Philippine setting but, hopefully, in all other societies as well” The early research program of Public (Cariño, 1972, p. 294). The discipline wrestled and Administration as based in UP-CPA concerned agonized with this choice and sought to balance facets of government operations, practices and them accordingly. Cariño maintains, however, in processes, ranging from such traditional sub- her inventory of types or orientation of research specialized areas as organization and projects between the years 1952 and 1972 that the management, personnel administration, fiscal basic research output produced by the UP-CPA administration, local government autonomy and “compares favorably with most units of the administration, policy studies, public enterprise, University and even with similar institutes and program administration. They dealt with elsewhere” (Cariño, 1972, p. 295). With some researches and studies on practices, processes, degree of confidence and perhaps unrestrained procedures, manning levels, budgetary and audit modesty, Cariño, referring to research reports practices, and that of reorganization, where UP- published at the UP-CPA, continues: CPA faculty and staff have consistently been …Its major publications and journal articles have involved and participated. been used as texts in its classes and in those of These are readily juxtaposed with the other Philippine schools. Several members of its advocacy of national development. These areas staff have published locally and abroad and have represent early initiatives that have endured to the gained recognition in the field of their scholarship present day in the research agenda of the and productivity… (Cariño, 1973, p. 295). discipline. Cariño’s exhaustive study of researches But she is quick here to point out that the accomplished at the UP-CPA observes that dilemma is “real,” because basic research demands researches done in these early halcyon days of the a longer period to accomplish, requires discipline suggested the basic tension between “dedication, interest and concentration” while academic and service types of studies. applied researches are “usually of short duration, 81 Public Administration in the Philippines: Meeting the Challenges of Government and Governance

for the sponsor is desirous of quick answers and organization-centered (Reyes, 1995a). In essence, ready solutions” (Cariño, 1972, p. 295). This is a this focus reflects the applied stream of researches problem that continues to haunt the discipline even earlier pursued by the UP-CPA as suggested by in the contemporary period. Theory building may Cariño (1972). not have been given the attention it rightly The outward-looking orientation, on the other deserves. The following comment expresses this hand, refers to the discipline’s consciousness of the point quite succinctly: impact of services of the bureaucracy to its public …Public Administration in the Philippines today or citizen-consumers. This is an examination of the can only appreciate vicariously the efforts invested values, the benefits and responsiveness of by the scholars of the field in other countries in institutions to the public they seek to serve. This defining and examining the intellectual heritage point of view grew during the turbulent years of of their discipline. Sad to say, Public protest that took hold of American society in the Administration (in the Philippines) as a field of late sixties and reached the Philippines in the late study exhibits richness in experience but is seventies, which then was also mired in turmoil blunted by its complacency to assess how far it expressed in student unrest and continuing has gone to advance the frontiers of the alienation against the government. discipline… This perspective was accompanied by popular Indeed Public Administration as a discipline banner themes of public sector reform, relevance in the Philippines has definitely experienced rapid of Public Administration, social equity, and similar and remarkable strides in curricular development, propositions that sought to transform public training, applied research, and continuing administration not just as an agent of involvement in professional affairs. However, it implementation of public policy, nor as a value- has not enriched its theoretical foundations, neutral institution compartmentalized into resurrecting, time and again, perhaps as a way of habitual obedience to a political authority, but also assuaging guilt, such token but labored as a defender of the larger public interest. The call discussions of knotty but basic questions as ‘is towards redefining the discipline came strong as there a Philippine Public Administration’…. advocacies of restoring the “public” in Public (Reyes, 1995a, p. 19).8 Administration started to hold sway with the influence of such normative propositions as the PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AT THE UP-CPA: New Public Administration movement in the FROM INWARD-LOOKING TO OUTWARD- sixties or the fairly recent and relatively quixotic LOOKING refounding proposition from the United States. Both would respond to the challenges for reform But one important and salutary development not only of public administration practice but for that characterizes the development of the field in the discipline itself. the Philippines is the shift—a paradigm shift if you These initiatives argued, among others, that will—from an inward-looking perspective to an such traditional values as efficiency, effectiveness, outward-looking orientation. The inward-looking and economy or the 3Es which took hold of the focus looks into the phenomena of administrative discipline for decades, are inadequate moral functioning, their dynamics, processes, resources standards because they are more preoccupied with and operations, as well as their problems in the workings of the bureaucracy and fail to efficiency and effectiveness in dispensing their appreciate the situation or the point of view of the functions and in delivering public services. It has public. These movements prescribed the addition a predominantly institutional concern because of the 3Rs which stand for the values of investigation and study is made at the level of the responsiveness, representativeness, and bureaucracy or of institutions. It is therefore responsible public administration.9 82 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

The outward-looking orientation is client- publication incurred the wrath and enmity of centered and it does not focus solely on the powerful political and executive officials. For the operations of the bureaucracy or its problems, but discipline, the important matter is that new on the larger ecology of public administration knowledge must be generated towards which involves the public, the target clientele, or understanding, appreciating, and recommending the citizen-consumers and how they react or are appropriate measures and policies in curbing or benefited by government services (Reyes, 1995a). addressing venalities in government. A 1995 survey of over 800 studies and CONTINUING TRENDS IN PUBLIC publications at the UP-CPA from 1952 to 1992 ADMINISTRATION RESEARCH indicates that Public Administration literature from 1952 to 1972 reflected the dominance of the inward-looking perspective. But from 1973, this The discipline today has enriched its horizons appears to have shifted to the outward-looking by treading into the expanded domain of orientation as studies began to consider the impact governance, and is now focused not only on the of government operations and service delivery study of the affairs of the executive branch or of programs on clientele (Reyes, 1995a, 1995b). the bureaucracy, but on the larger society that The research projects thus evolved from such makes up the ecology of the subject matter it standard bureaucracy-oriented areas as the purports to study. The discipline has weaned itself functions and affairs of national agencies, the from the limited and constricting study and relationship between local and national discussions of traditional areas, even if it continues government, the problems and challenges of to hold these as important facets of its concern. regional and local government units and similar Public Administration in the Philippines has concerns, to those that advocated for more expanded to the dimensions of “governance” responsive public institutions, for greater which encompasses the spheres of the private decentralization, for better service delivery sector and of civil society or non-government systems, and for the reform of government in organizations or what Cariño, in updating her 1972 general. In fact public sector reform persists as a study of researches at the NCPAG, refers to as “the recurring agenda in the study of Public governance tradition” (Cariño, 2007, p. 698). Administration not only in the Philippines but in Citing the forays of the study of Public other countries as well, both developed and Administration into volunteer sector management developing (Reyes, 2009). and what may be regarded as an unconventional The recurring issue of public sector reform subject matter in Public Administration, Cariño brings to the fore contentious and controversial goes on to explain that, subjects that covered government inefficiency, red A major element of governance is that it tape, and graft and corruption which were given transcends the state and includes activities of the such cosmetic, and arguably, “scholarly” labels as private sector and civil society. In the Philippines, “negative bureaucratic behavior” or “deviant our venture into voluntary sector management bureaucratic practices.” This area has remained has rested on the same idea: that public and persists as a “constant” in the research agenda administration must study all mechanisms—not of the discipline mainly because, for years, just government—that purport to serve the public corruption has been studied and analyzed, interest. This has also led to a rethinking of the measures to contain them offered, and policies and role of the state, a subject that for many years was laws enacted to curb them. And yet for years, simply treated as received wisdom in the discipline corruption has endured. (Cariño, 2007, pp. 691-692). It does not matter if the researches, the findings The area of governance is now invigorated by and recommendations, as well as their subsequent new and challenging concerns, notably the values Public Administration in the Philippines: Meeting the Challenges of Government and Governance 83

and prescriptions that support and facilitate the world also highlighted the need for reform and pursuit of good governance. Governance is treated even suggested a call for the rise of what has been as distinct from government and covers a whole termed as the “bail-out state.”10 menagerie of principles and advocacies that range CONCLUSION from accountability, transparency, participation, predictability, the upholding of the rule of law, to ethics in government and governance, among All told, the discipline of Public others. Administration in the Philippines today confronts To these can be added likewise a wholesome a veritably vast and large teaching and research and troublesome collection of issues and concerns agenda that in some way encroaches or overlaps such as the import of volunteerism; the non-profit with that of other disciplines in the social sciences. or third sector management and civil society at This is a healthy sign and not simply a passing large, as mentioned earlier; the impact of aberration. For one, it allows and opens several globalization and the needed adjustments to windows of opportunity in the field, as the eminent accommodate its demands; issues on human Public Administration scholar Dwight Waldo once rights; the problems of power and energy; the issue remarked. of environmental degradation and climate change; Public Administration in the Philippines and to some extent, that of gender mainstreaming, thrives today as a vibrant and dynamic academic as well as current developments in information enterprise because of the commitment of scholars, and communication technology expressed in such academics, researchers, students, and practitioners mechanisms as e-government and e-governance. from within and outside the discipline. Its The discipline, at least at the NCPAG, has even environment is not entirely hostile but neither is it meandered into such areas as spatial information exactly convivial or hospitable. Like other fields management (SIM) and geographic information of studies in the country, it is subject to constraints systems (GIS), and the study of political in resources, materials, manpower, support, and institutions which are generally not regarded facilities, among others. Funding for research can as part of the traditional area of Public be limited particularly to those that pertain to basic Administration. The discipline has ventured into research. But the discipline has been recognized researches and studies on the enduring conflict as playing an important role and contributing to between democratic and bureaucratic values, the the study and appreciation of the vicissitudes and problematic of popular participation and vagaries of public service, and of governance. It citizenship, and nature of the state. has endured as a disciplinary field of study because The analysis of the nature of the state is an it is a product of crisis and its role is to meet the intriguing one, especially in the light of rising challenges of the adversities and burdens of its era. trends towards what has been termed as the It is a discipline that has adapted well to the “minimalist” state, or in Public Administration ecology of its times. parlance, the notion of the “hollow state,” which The challenge is overpowering, and to some refers to the yielding of some government extent, mystifying because the frontiers of the functions to the private and nonprofit sectors. unknown in administrative and political systems These propositions veer away from concepts of big remain vast and overwhelming. Scholars, government or the “interventionist state” which researchers, students, and the entire community began to lose currency in the eighties with band- of professionals belonging to the discipline of wagon calls for reform in government and for Public Administration have confronted the riddles privatization. The financial crisis that brought and dilemmas of their field for the past fifty-eight havoc in the financial and mortgage system in the years. United States and spread quickly throughout the 84 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

NOTES 1 As in previous essays, this paper adopts for the sake of conceptual convenience, the distinction started by Waldo in 1968 where the discipline or the field of study is denoted by capital letters while the processes, practice and the profession are put in lower case. Thus “Public Administration” refers to the discipline or field of study, while “public administration” to the processes, practices and the dynamics. See Waldo, 1968, “Public Administration.” in Marian Irish (Ed.), Political science: Advance of the discipline; and Waldo, 1975. “Education for Public Administration.” In Mosher (Ed.), American public administration: Past, present, future, p. 181 (fn). See also Stillman, 2000, p. 17 (fn), and Reyes, 1995, p. 57, endnotes. 2 The Bell Mission Report also studied and made recommendations on various aspects of the Philippine economy including agriculture, industry, internal and external finances, domestic and foreign trade, as well as public administration. The members of the mission included Daniel W. Bell as Chief of Mission, Edward M. Bernstein as Chief Economist, August L. Strand for agricultural survey, and Francis McQuillin for industry and power. See Alfonso, 1972, p. 275fn. 3 Ocampo, (1993, p. 12), citing the UP Annual Report of 1972-73: 1, points out however that the IPA became the Graduate School of Public Administration in June, 1966 and subsequently renamed as the College of Public Administration in October of the same year. The name Graduate School of Public Administration could have been changed into College of Public Administration because in 1966, undergraduate programs in Public Administration were still being offered until its abolition in 1968. It was restored again in 1986 (Cariño, 1993, p. 34). For the interested reader, the specifics of these curricular changes are discussed in Alfonso, 1972 for the earlier period and later in Ocampo, 1993 and Cariño, 1993. 4 It could be conceded that IPA is the first institution of higher learning in Public Administration in the Philippines. However, it may not be entirely accurate to lay claim to its being “the first in Asia,” as Cariño maintains. A study made by the UP-CPA Research Team on indigenization for development lists and claims that an “Ecole Royale d’ Administration“ was established under the sponsorship of France in Vietnam in 1917 for the purpose of conducting middle level executive training. Again, a National School of Administration was also created in Vietnam under the aegis of the French government in 1952. See CPA Research Team, (1984, p. 8); and CPA Research Team under Occasional Paper No. 2 (1983, p. 10). 5 De Guzman did not identify nor provide details as to these institutions offering Public Administration degrees as of 1986. It is, however, safe to assume that he based the data on the membership of schools, universities, and colleges to the Association of Schools of Public Administration in the Philippines, Inc. which he helped organize in 1979. 6 The origins and purposes of EROPA are also discussed in Ramos, 1958. 7 Cariño provides incisive critiques on researches in Public Administration in the UP College of Public Administration and its later incarnation, the National College of Public Administration and Governance, which will be given treatment in succeeding discussion. See Cariño, 2007; 1972. Unfortunately, this paper is in no position to provide an inventory or listing of research projects in the discipline—a rather daunting task—whether in the NCPAG or in other institutions. The account presented here is based on topics and papers generally presented in ASPAP and PSPA Conferences as well as those in the general assembly meetings of EROPA. Certainly, this project would involve a more focused investigation demanding intensive and extensive field work that will be based on empirical data. 8 This is in reference to the theme “is there a Philippine Public Administration” which was the subject matter of a colloquium at the UP-CPA in 1986 participated in by Raul P. de Guzman and Onofre D. Corpuz, two recognized stalwarts in the discipline (see de Guzman, 1986; and Corpuz, 1986). This theme was again the subject of another colloquium held at the NCPAG in June 2008 in celebration of the Centennial Year of the University of the Philippines. This latter Colloquium also coincided with the General Assembly meeting and Conference of ASPAP, Inc. and PSPA. The papers presented in the second Colloquium were published in the Philippine Journal for Public Administration, April-October, 2008 issue, Vol. 52, Nos. 2-4. 9 These are reform initiatives in the discipline which continue to persist even to the present day. They also well reflect the dynamism and activism of the field in seeking to improve its appreciation of the discipline’s relationship with its public. The ideas in New P.A. are found in the collection of papers edited by Marini, 1971, while those of refounding are in Wamsley, et.al. 1990; Wamsley and Wolf, 1996; and Frederickson and Smith, 2003. See also Cariño, 2008, 2003; Ricote, 2005; and Brillantes and Fernandez, 2008. 10 The interested reader may refer to Reyes, 2009 for a brief background on the impact and effects of the financial crisis. Also discussed here briefly are the challenges of public sector reform. See also Frederickson and Smith, 2003. Public Administration in the Philippines: Meeting the Challenges of Government and Governance 85

REFERENCES Alfonso, C.S. (1972). The graduate program in public administration in the University of the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Public Administration, 16(3), 275-288. Bell, D. (1950). The Bell report: US economic survey mission report. Manila: Philippine Book Company. Brillantes, A.B. Jr., & Fernandez, M.T. (2008). Is there a Philippine public administration? Or better still, for whom is Philippine public administration? Philippine Journal of Public Administration, 245-307. Cariño, L.V. (2008). State, market, civil society in Philippine public administration. Philippine Journal of Public Administration, 139-166. Cariño, L.V. (2007). From traditional public administration to the governance tradition: Research in NCPAG, 1952- 2002. In Ma. Concepcion P. Alfiler and Eleanor E. Nicolas (Eds.), Public administration plus governance, assessing the past, addressing the future (pp. 685-706). Quezon City : UP-NCPAG. Cariño, L.V. (2003). Contributions of the perspective of public administration. In V. A. Bautista et al. (Eds.) Introduction to public administration in the Philippines: A reader (2nd ed.), (pp. 20-25). Quezon City: UP-CPA and UPNCPAG. Cariño, L.V. (1993). The second twenty years of the College of Public Administration: From a charismatic organization to an institution.” In Raul P. de Guzman (Ed.), Institution building for the study and practice of public administration (Lecture Series in Honor of Professor Carlos P. Ramos) (pp. 17-40). Quezon City: UP - CPA. Cariño, L.V. (1972). To advance administrative knowledge: Research in the College of Public Administration, 1952- 1972. Philippine Journal of Public Administration, 16(3), 289-297. Corpuz, O.D. (1986). Is there a Philippine public administration? Philippine Journal of Public Administration, 30(4), 368-374, as reprinted in V. A. Bautista, et.al. (Eds.), Introduction to public administration in the Philippines: A reader (1st Ed., 1993; 2nd Ed., 2003). Quezon City: UP-CPA and UPNCPAG. Corpuz, O.D. (1957). The bureaucracy in the Philippines. Manila: Institute of Public Administration. CPA Research Team (1984). Indigenization for development: The case of Southeast Asia. Philippine Journal of Public Administration, 28(1-2), 1-64. CPA Research Team (1983). Methodological aspects of adaptations of public administration for endogenous development in the socio-cultural contexts of the South East Asian Region. UP-CPA Occasional Paper No. 2. Manila: UP-CPA and EROPA. De Guzman, R.P. (1986). Is there a Philippine public administration? Philippine Journal of Public Administration Vol. 30, no. 4 (October) pp. 375-382, as reprinted in V. A. Bautista et al. (Eds.), Introduction to public administration in the Philippines: A reader (1st Ed., 1993; 2nd Ed., 2003). Quezon City: UP-CPA and UPNCPAG. Frederickson, H.G. & Smith, K.B. (2003). The public administration theory primer. Westview Press: Boulder, Colorado. Lederle, J. & Heady, F. (1955). Institute of public administration, University of the Philippines. Public Administration Review (15)1, 3-16. Marini, F. (Ed.) (1971). Toward a new public administration: The Minnowbrook perspective. Scranton: Chandler. Nieves, M.M. (1972). A survey of schools of public administration in the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Public Administration, (16)3, 337-358. Ocampo, R.B. (1993). The CPA. story: 1952-1973. In Raul P. de Guzman (Ed.), Institution building for the study and practice of public administration (Lecture Series in Honor of Professor Carlos P. Ramos) (pp. 1-16). Quezon City: UP College of Public Administration. Ramos, C.P. (1958). The regional conference on public administration, Philippines, 1958. Philippine Journal of Public Administration, (2)2, 93-97. Ramos, C.P. (1957). Programs and goals of the Institute of Public Administration, University of the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Public Administration, (1)1, 1-4. Reyes, D.R. (2010). The history and context of the development of public administration in the Philippines. In Evan Berman (Ed.), Handbook of public administration in Southeast Asia. London and New York: Taylor and Francis. Reyes, D.R. (2009, October). Public sector reform and the agenda of good governance: Lessons in times of adversity. A paper prepared for the 22nd General Assembly and Conference of the Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration, Inc. (EROPA), Seoul, Korea. Reyes, D.R. (1999). Public administration in the Philippines: History, heritage and hubris. In Virginia A. Miralao (Ed.), The Philippine social sciences in the life of the nation, vol. 1 (pp. 234-260). Quezon City: Philippine Social Science Council. 86 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

Reyes, D.R. (1995a). Life begins at forty: An Inquiry on administrative theory in the Philippines and the structure of scientific revelations. In P.D. Tapales, N.N. Pilar, L.D. Romblon (Eds.), Public administration by the Year 2000: Looking back into the future (pp. 18-73). Quezon City: UP-CPA Reyes, D.R. (1995b). A search for heritage: An analysis of trends and content of public administration literature at the UP College of Public Administration, 1952-1992. Unpublished doctoral dissertation submitted to the UP College of Public Administration, Quezon City, Philippines. Reyes, D.R. (1979). The identity crisis in public administration revisited: Some definitional issues and the Philippine setting. Philippine Journal of Public Administration, (23)1, 1-19. Ricote, E. (2008). Philippine public administration as a field of study: Enduring and emerging areas, challenges, and prospects. Philippine Journal of Public Administration (52)2-4, 167-194. Ricote, E. (2005). Indigenization as ‘refounding’ in Philippine public administration and governance. Philippine Journal of Public Administration, (49)3-4, 264-278. Shalom, S.R. (1986). The United States and the Philippines: A study of neocolonialism. Quezon City: New Day Publishers. Stillman, R. III (2000). The study of public administration in the United States: The eminently practical science. In Stillman II (Ed.), Public administration: Concepts and cases, 7th ed. (pp. 17-30). New York: Houghton Mifflin. Waldo, D. (1975). Education for public administration. In Frederick Mosher (Ed.), American public administration: Past, present, future (pp. 181-232). Alabama: The University of Alabama Press. Waldo, D. (1968). Public Administration. In Marian Irish (Ed.), Political science: Advance of the discipline. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Wamsley, G.L. and Wolf, J.E. (Eds.) (1996). Refounding democratic public administration: Modern paradoxes, postmodern challenges. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Wamsley, G., Bacher, R., Godsell, C., Kronenberg, P., Rohn, J., Stirers, C. White, O, & Wolf J. (Eds.) (1990). Refounding public administration. London, New Delhi and Newbury Park: Sage Publications. Public Administration in the Philippines: Meeting the Challenges of Government and Governance 87

Annex A Schools Offering Public Administration Programs 1971-1972

Name and Location Programs Year Placement of Program within Offered Started the School University of the Philippines, Manila M.P.A.* 1952 College of Public Administration B.A.P.A. 1952 P.A.C.** 1957 D.P.A. 1968 Araneta University Extension, Caloocan City B.S.P.A. 1958 Institute of Public M.P.A.* 1965 Administration Centro Escolar University, Manila M.P.A.* 1965 Graduate School A.B. (Maj. P.A.) 1967 College of Arts and Sciences D.P.A. 1969 Philippine Women’s University, Manila M.P.A.*** 1965 School of Graduate Studies Feati University, Manila M.P.A.*** 1965 Graduate Institute University of Santo Tomas, Manila M.A. (Maj. P.A.) 1965 Graduate School University of Manila, Manila A.B. (Maj. P.A.) 1965 College of Liberal M.P.A.* 1966 Arts, Graduate School Manuel L. Quezon University, Manila M.P.A.*** 1966 School of Graduate Studies Lyceum of the Philippines, Manila B.S.P.A. 1966 School of Humanities and Sciences

Luzon Colleges, Dagupan City M.P.A.*** 1967 School of Graduate Studies, B.S.P.A. 1969 Dept. of Public Administration Lyceum of Baguio, Baguio City B.S.P.A. 1967 College of Public Administration University of Baguio, Baguio City B.A.P.A. 1967 College of Arts & Sciences University of Pangasinan, Dagupan City B.S.P.A. 1968 College of Liberal Arts Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila, Manila B.P.A. 1969 College of Business Economics and Public Affairs Mindanao State University, Marawi City B.S.P.A. 1971 College of Community Development L.P.A.**** 1971 and Public Administration Source: Bureau of Private Schools, Directory of Authorized Private Schools and Courses, 1970-71, as cited in Nieves, 1972: 339.

*Master of Public Administration **Certificate in Public Administration ***Master in Public Administration ****Licentiate in Public Administration 88 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

ANNEX B List of Schools, Colleges and Universities Currently Offering Public Administration Programs in the Philippines

Regional School/College/University Mapping/Ownership/ Program/ Major(s)/Specialization(s) Numeric Course/Class Code 1 University of Luzon Private-Non Sectarian BS Public Administration Development , College MPA Planning and Management, Local DPA Government Administration, General Curriculum and Police Administration Mariano Marcos State University – State University- MA in PA College of Education – Laoag City Sattelite Campus Northern Christian College Private-Non Sectarian MPA College Northwestern University Private-Non Sectarian MA in PA University Pangasinan Colleges of Private-Non Sectarian MPA Public Administration Science and Technology College PhD Saint Louis College, Private-Non Sectarian BA Public Administration San Fernando City College MPA University of Northern Philippines State University MPA Governmental Administration, Local DPA Government, Police Administration

Virgen Milagrosa University Private-Non Sectarian MPA Foundation and VMU Institute University of Medical Foundation Metro Dagupan Colleges Private-Non Sectarian BA Public Administration General Program, College MPA Public Safety Management (Police, Fire, Jail), Local Government Management, Development Management, Social Work and Community Development, School Administration and Management, and Instructional Management (Early Childhood Education, Special Education, Science and Technology, Technology and Home Economics, English, Filipino, Social Sciences) Lyceum Northwestern University Private Non-sectarian MPA University 2 Aldersgate College Private Non-sectarian MPA College Cagayan Colleges of Tuguegarao Private Non-sectarian BS Public Administration College MPA DPA Cagayan State University State University BA Public Administration Cagayan State University – Aparri State University Satellite MPA Campus Isabela State University State University BS Public Management AB Public Administration University of La Salette Private Sectarian University BS Public Administration MPA DPA Northeastern College Private Non-sectarian MPA College Nueva Viscaya State University – State University Satellite BS Public Cooperatives Bambang Campus MPA Local Government Our Lady of Pilar College of Private Sectarian College BS Public Administration Cauayan MPA Saint Ferdinand College – Iligan Private Non-sectarian BS Public Administration College MPA Public Administration in the Philippines: Meeting the Challenges of Government and Governance 89

Regional School/College/University Mapping/Ownership/ Program/ Major(s)/Specialization(s) Numeric Course/Class Code University of Saint Louis Private Sectarian College BA Public Administration MPA DPA Saint Mary’s University Private Sectarian University BS MPA Public Administration Saint Paul University Private Sectarian University Diploma Public Management BS Public Administration, ETEEAP MPA DPA Cagayan State University – State University Satellite MPA Caritan Campus DPA Public Health International School of Asia Private Non-sectarian BS Public Administration and the Pacific College 3 Angeles University Foundation Private Non-sectarian BS Public Administration University PhD Public Administration Baliuag University Private Non-sectarian MPA University Bulacan State University State University MPA DPA Colleges of the Republic Private Non-sectarian MA Public Administration College Columban College – Private Sectarian College MPM Olongapo City MPA Eulogio R. Dizon College of Nueva Ecija Private Non-sectarian MPA College East Central Colleges Private Sectarian College MPA Guagua National Colleges Private Non-sectarian MPA College Pamantasan ng Araullo Private Non-sectarian PhD Public Management University Ramon Magsaysay Technological State University MPA University-Ramon Magsaysay Polytechnic College University of Regina Carmelli Private Non-sectarian MPA University San Jose Christian Colleges Private Non-sectarian MPA College Tarlac State University State University MPA Health Management DPA University of the Assumption Private Sectarian University MPA Virgen De Los Remedios College Private Non-sectarian MPM – Olongapo City College Saint Louise College of San Jose Private Non-sectarian BS Public Administration Del Monte Kalayaan College of Bataan Private Non-sectarian AB Public Administration 4B Abada College Private Non-sectarian College BS Public Administration Divine Word College of Calapan Private Sectarian College MPA Holy Trinity College – Puerto Princesa City Private Sectarian College MPA Marinduque State College State College MPA Occidental Mindoro National College State College MPA Palawan State University – State University Palawan College of Arts and Trades Satellite Campus MPA Western Philippines University State University MPA 90 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

Regional School/College/University Mapping/Ownership/ Program/ Major(s)/Specialization(s) Numeric Course/Class Code Palawan State University State University MPA Romblon State College State College MPA Palawan State University – State University Satellite MPA Brookes Pt. Campus Palawan State University Quezon State University Satellite MPA Campus 4A Golden Gate Colleges Private Non-sectarian College MPA Laguna College Private Non-sectarian College MPA Laguna Northwestern College Private Non-sectarian College MPA Lyceum of Batangas Private Non-sectarian College MPA Manuel S. Enverga University Private Non-sectarian AB Public Administration Foundation – Lucena University BS Public Administration MPA Manuel S. Enverga University Private Non-sectarian College BS Public Administration Foundation – Catanauan Batangas State University State University AB Public Administration MPA DPA University of Rizal – Tanay State University BA Public Administration San Pablo Colleges Private Non-sectarian College BA Public Administration San Pedro College of Business Private Non-sectarian College MA Government Management of Administration Southern Luzon Polytechnic State College BA Public Administration College Tomas Claudio Memorial Private Non-sectarian MPA College College Union College of Laguna Private Non-sectarian BA Public Administration College MPA Organization and Management University of the Philippines – State University Satellite Master of Cooperative Management, Los Baños Campus Public Affairs Education Management, Local Governance and Development, Strategic Planning and Public Policy University of Batangas Private Non-sectarian MPA University PhD Public Administration University of the Philippines – State University Satellite MPM Local Government and Open University Campus Regional Administration Polytechnic University of the State University Satellite MPA Philippines – Sto. Tomas Campus Southern Luzon Polytechnic State University Satellite BA Public Administration College – Judge Guillermo Campus Eleazar Polytechnic College University of Rizal System State University Satellite BA Public Administration –Angono Campus University of Rizal System – State University Satellite MPA Pililia Campus University of Rizal System – State University Satellite BA Public Administration Rodriguez Campus MPA Southern Luzon Polytechnic State University Satellite College – Lucena Campus BA Public Administration Southern Luzon Polytechnic State University Satellite BA Public Administration College – Polilio Campus Cavite West Point College Private Non-sectarian College BS Public Administration University of Rizal System State University Satellite – Binangonan Campus MPA Laguna Northwestern College Private Non-sectarian MPA Corinthian Center College City College of Laguna Local College BS Public Administration Public Administration in the Philippines: Meeting the Challenges of Government and Governance 91

Regional School/College/University Mapping/Ownership/ Program/ Major(s)/Specialization(s) Numeric Course/Class Code 5 Annunciation College -Balogo Private Sectarian College MPA Annunciation College - Private Sectarian College MPA Magsaysay Avenue Aquinas University of Legazpi Private Sectarian University MPA Public Administration PhD Ateneo De Naga University Private Sectarian University MPA Bicol University – Main Campus State University MA Public Administration PhD Camarines Norte State College – State Colllege BA Public Administration Main Campus MPA Catanduanes State College State College Diploma Public Administration BA Public Administration MPA Divine Word College of Legazpi Private Sectarian College MPA Public Management, Development Management, Executive Leadership Development and Environment Management Naga College Foundation Private Non-sectarian MPA College Osmeña Colleges Private Non-sectarian MPA Administration Supervision College Partido College Private Non-sectarian MPA College Partido State University State University MA in Local Governance Public Affairs Republic Colleges Private Non-sectarian MA Public Administration College University of Northeastern Private Non-sectarian MPA Public Administration Philippines University PhD 6 Aklan State University State University MPA Carlos C. Hilado Memorial State College MPA State College – Talisay Central Philippine University Private Non-sectarian BA Public Administration University MPA Colegio De La Purisima Private Non-sectarian MPA Concepcion College Iloilo State College of Fisheries State College MPA La Carlota City College Local College MPA Negros State College of Agriculture State College MPA Northern Iloilo Polytechnic State College MPA State College Capiz State University – Main State University MPA Capiz State University – Pontevedra State University MPA University of Iloilo Private Non-sectarian MPA University University of Negros Occidental Private Non-sectarian -Recoletos University MPA University of Saint La Salle Private Non-sectarian MA Government Service University University of San Agustin Private Non-sectarian BA Public Administration University MPA West Negros College Private Non-sectarian MPA College 92 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

Regional School/College/University Mapping/Ownership/ Program/ Major(s)/Specialization(s) Numeric Course/Class Code 7 Balite Institute of Technology Private Non-sectarian MPA College Bayawan College Private Non-sectarian MPA College Bohol Institute of Technology – Private Non-sectarian MPA Tagbilaran College Bohol Institute of Technology – Private Non-sectarian MPA Talibon College Cebu Normal University State University MPA DPA Cebu State College of Science State College MPA and Technology Negros Oriental State University State University Certificate Governmental ManagementHuman MPM Resource Management, Local Government Administration Cebu State College of Science State University Satellite and Technology – Tuburan Campus MPA Holy Name University Private Sectarian University MPA Foundation University Private Non-sectarian MPA University DPA Siquijor State College State College MA Public Management Silliman University Private Sectarian University MPA Southwestern University Private Non-sectarian MPA University DPA University of Bohol Private Non-sectarian MPA University University of Southern Philippines Private Non-sectarian MPA Foundation University University of the Visayas Private Non-sectarian MPA University 8 College of Maasin Private Sectarian College MPA Naval Institute Technology State College MPM Samar State Polytechnic College State College MPM Tiburcio Tancinco Memorial State College MPM Institute of Science and Technology Tomas Oppus Normal College State College MPA University of Eastern Philippines State University MPA Western Leyte College Private Non-sectarian MAEd Public Administration College Asia College of Advance Studies Private Non-sectarian AB Public Administration in Arts, Sciences and Technology College Leyte School of Professionals Private Non-sectarian BSPA Public Governance College University of the Philippines – State University Satellite Tacloban City Campus Campus MPM 9 Andres Bonifacio College Private Non-sectarian College MPA Ateneo De Zamboanga University Private Sectarian University MPA Basilan State College State College Certificate Government Management MPA Organizational Management DPA Saint Columban College Private Sectarian College MPA Saint Vincent College Private Sectarian College MPM Southern Mindanao College Private Non-sectarian BA Public Administration College MPA Public Administration in the Philippines: Meeting the Challenges of Government and Governance 93

Regional School/College/University Mapping/Ownership/ Program/ Major(s)/Specialization(s) Numeric Course/Class Code Western Mindanao State University State University Cert. in Fiscal Administration, Organization and Government, Management, Personnel Administration Management and Program Development and MPA Administration DPA Zamboanga Arturo Eustaquio Private Non-sectarian MPA Colleges Foudation College Pagadian College of Criminology Private Non-sectarian BA Public Administration and Sciences College 10 Bukidnon State College State College MPA Cagayan De Oro College Private Non-sectarian MA Governmental Management College Medina College-Ozamis City Private Non-sectarian MA Public Administration College Mindanao Polytechnic State College State College MPA Misamis University Private Non-sectarian MPA University Valencia Colleges Private Non-sectarian MA Governmental Management College Xavier University Private Sectarian University MPA DPA Iligan Medical Center College Private Non-sectarian BA College MPM Public Administration 11 Ateneo de Davao University Private Sectarian University MPA Cor Jesu College Private Sectarian College MPA UM Tagum College Private Non-sectarian BS College MPA Public Administration University of Mindanao Private Non-sectarian MA Public Administration University University of Southern Philippines (Main) State University MPA University of Southern Philippines – State University Satellite Mintal Campus BS Public Administration 12 Holy Trinity College of General Santos City Private Non-sectarian College BS Public Administration Mindanao State University – State University Satellite Certificate Governmental ManagementLocal General Santos City Campus MPA Government Administration, Organization and Management, Public Fiscal Administration, Public Personnel Administration Notre Dame of Marbel University Private Sectarian University MPA Cotabato City State Polytechnic State College MPA College De La Vida College Private Non-sectarian MPA Government Administration College University of Southern Mindanao – State University Satellite Master of Public Administration North Cotabato College of Arts Campus Public Affairs and Trades Management Notre Dame University Private Sectarian University BA MPA Saint Benedict College Private Non-sectarian MPA College University of Southern Mindanao State University Master of Public Affairs Management 94 PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCES: CAPACITIES, DIRECTIONS, AND CHALLENGES

Regional School/College/University Mapping/Ownership/ Program/ Major(s)/Specialization(s) Numeric Course/Class Code 13 AMA Computer College-Makati Private Non-sectarian MPA College Ateneo Graduate School of Business Private Sectarian College MPM Central Colleges of the Philippines Private Non-sectarian MPA College Centro Escolar University Private Non-sectarian MPA University DPA Emilio Aguinaldo College Private Non-sectarian MPA College Eulogio “Amang” Rodriguez State College MPA Institute of Science and Technology DPA Far Eastern University Private Non-sectarian MA Government Administration University Greenville College Private Non-sectarian AB College MPA DPA Public Administration Gregorio Araneta University Private Non-sectarian BS Foundation University MPA Public Administration Jose P. Rizal University Private Non-sectarian Diploma Local Governance University MPA Caloocan City University Local University BA Public Administration MPA DPA Lyceum of the Philippines Private Non-sectarian MPA College City of Malabon University Local University MA Public Administration Manuel L. Quezon University Private Non-sectarian MPA University DPA National College of Business Private Non-sectarian College MPA and Arts (Fairview) Our Lady of Fatima University Private Non-sectarian University MA Public Administration Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Local University BA Public Administration Maynila MA Government Management (with DPM Executive Special Program) Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Makati Local University MPA Local Governance Philippine College of Health Private Non Sectarian and Sciences College MPA Philippine State College of Aeronautics (Main) State College MPA Philippine Women’s University – Private Non Sectarian MPA Manila University Philippine Women’s University – Private Non Sectarian MPA Quezon City College Polytechnic University of the State University BS Public Administration and Governance Philippines MPA DPA Rizal Technological University State University MA Public Administration PhD Public Administration Trinity College of Quezon City Private Sectarian College Certificate Public Administration MPA University of Manila Private Non Sectarian MPA University DPA University of the East Private Non Sectarian MPA Public Administration University University of the Philippines – State University BA Diliman MPA DPA Public Administration in the Philippines: Meeting the Challenges of Government and Governance 95

Regional School/College/University Mapping/Ownership/ Program/ Major(s)/Specialization(s) Numeric Course/Class Code University of Sto. Tomas Private Sectarian University MPA Public Administration PhD City College of Manila Local College BA Public Administration Kalayaan College Private Non-sectarian AB Public Administration College Development Academy of the Special HEI MPM Philippines 14 Baguio Central University Private Non-sectarian BS Public Administration University MPA Public Administration Baguio Colleges Foundation Private Non-sectarian BS College MA Public Administration Benguet State University State University Certificate Public Administration Diploma Public Administration MPA Cordillera Career Development Private Non-sectarian BS Public Administration College College MPA Ifugao State College of State College MPA Agriculture and Forestry – Lamut Kalinga-Apayao State College State College MPA Mountain Province State State College MPA Polytechnic College Saint Louis College of Bulanoa Private Sectarian College MPA Saint Louis University Private Sectarian MS Public Management University University of Baguio Private Non-sectarian MPA University Kalinga-Apayao State College – State College Satellite BA Public Administration Dagupan Campus Benguet Central College Private Non-sectarian BS Public Administration College 15 Mindanao State University – State University Satellite BS Public Administration Maguindanao Campus MPA Notre Dame of Jolo College Private Sectarian College MPA Government Management Sulu State College State College MPA Southwestern Mindanao Islamic Private Non-sectarian MPA Institute College Jamaitul Philippine Al-Islamia Private Non-sectarian MA Public Administration College Mindanao State University – Marawi State University BS Public Administration MPA 16 Agusan Institute of Technology Private Non-sectarian MPA College Northern Mindanao State Institute State College MPA of Science and Technology Saint Jude Thaddeus Institute of Private Non-sectarian BS Public Administration Technology College Saint Paul University System – Private Sectarian College MPA Surigao City Urios College Private Sectarian College MPA Surigao Del Sur Polytechnic State College BA Public Administration State College MPA

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

A Case Study on the Land Use and Planning System in Philippine Public Administration

The executive institutions in the Philippines have development plans that usually become the backbone of the policy of the executive administration. This is the same with the administration of Benigno Aquino III (PNoy), whose development plan consists of the Philippine Development Plan of 2011 – 2016 (PDP). But before a development plan is implemented, it first goes – in theory – into a thorough process of study and assessment before it is approved by the administration for implementation. This is where the study of the paper is aimed at; the paper is focused on the socio-economic planning system of the Philippine government, giving emphasis on the step-by-step process of how development plans are made in the Philippines from the National to Local levels.

Related Papers

Ronald Orale

Like in other countries land use planning is imperative because of the scarcity of land. Land use planning aims to find a balance among competing and sometimes contradictory uses. In the Philippines, all local government units (LGUs) from the province, city, and municipality are mandated to formulate its Comprehensive Land Use Plans (CLUPs). This paper assesses the capacity of the planning team of the LGUs in the CLUP preparation. It takes the case of the Province of Samar, one of the hardest hit provinces during Super Typhoon Yolanda "Haiyan." Its methodology includes primary data gathering through interview using a structured questionnaire among the planning teams of one provincial, two cities and 21 municipalities out of 27 LGUs in the preparation of comprehensive land use plan. It is supported by secondary data from the Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board, and the Provincial Land Use Committee. The study result showed that capacity building is desperately needed by CLUP planners as LGUs are unable to craft this required document. CLUP planners are not equipped to deal with the issues of CLUP formulation, not just regarding know-how but also regarding staffing, equipment, and database. These weaknesses of the LGUs may have contributed to the high poverty incidence in Samar; failing to plan is planning to fail. It is recommended that the government provide a packaged technical assistance on the whole cycle of CLUP preparation with corresponding funding to fully capacitate the cities and municipalities.

Elmer Mercado, EnP, fpiep

Synthesis note of the updated Land Sector Development Framework (LSDF) of the Philippines that was initially completed in 2010 and have been updated several times in 2015 and 2017. The enhanced LSDF Strategic Framework and Road Map 2019-2040 provides not only an updating of the priorities of land administration and governance in the Philippines but expands the reforms and programs to cover both private and public lands, tenure rights and claims, land conflict and disputes and resolutions, land management in public and private lands, land valuation (of public and private lands) and market development.

Saidamin Bagolong

A review and evaluation of the different public land management regimes and approaches being implemented in the Philippines. The paper looks into the overlaps and conflicting tenurial land management policies and jurisdiction that has resulted to continuing land conflicts among different stakeholders and interest groups, specially among marginal communites, upland dweller and indigenous peoples in the Philippines as well as public and private land rights interests. The paper presents a broad strategy and approach with short-medium-long-term recommendations to improve public land management regimes in the Philippines.

Angelica Denise Magallanes

This research paper aims to understand the reason why Philippine Land Reform is still an issue up until now and how the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) helped the farmers and how was the process of the program. It will show the importance of land reform of the country as well as how it contributes in the agricultural sector. It will also give a comparison of what happened to the past agrarian reform of the former administrations and what the farmers gain from this program. II. A. Statement of the Problem

Maribeth Jadina

On the second day of the 2016 EROPA Conference, a total of 23 papers dealing with the three conference sub-themes (Innovative, Inclusive and Integrity-Based) were presented in 11 concurrent sessions. Most of the presentations looked into best practices and innovations in public service delivery from different local governments and national government agencies, which could serve as benchmark for other state and governance institutions to emulate. Cause-and-effect studies linking good governance with institutional factors as well as public service and leadership values were also presented. A few presentations dealt with case studies highlighting successes and challenges in public sector collaboration in the context of information and communications technology (ICT) developments. Finally, studies that seek to improve ethical standards in public service, particularly in terms of compliance and enforcement, were also featured during the sessions.

ernie guiang

This is an input paper on the on-going updating of the Philippines' land sector development framework 2030 which identifies key policy reforms to improve and address the complexities and conflicts in the land administration and management system in the country.

Archie Articulo

 The Philippine Administrative System must be understood as a synthesis of a never-ending dialectical process, involving the interplay of several factors and forces: our historical experiences, our cultural realities, our belief-systems, our ideology, and our collective aspirations. It is an evolving and on-going existential project by the Government, involving the creation, modification, and destruction of institutions, rule-making, etc., for the sole purpose of continuously trying to improve the socio-economic conditions of the people. The ultimate goal of PAS has always been our collective development. The PAS, in other words, is always a means to a higher end.  In this lecture, we will explore the dynamics and structures of power that influence, operationalize, and fuel Philippine Administrative System (PAS) as a field of study and praxis: 1) Structures and functions, to include internal systems and processes, of the various components and parts of the Philippine Government: 1.1. The Executive 1.2. The Legislative 1.3. The Judiciary 1.4. Constitutional Commissions 1.5. Constitutionally Mandated Special Bodies 1.6. Government Owned and Controlled Corporations 1.7. Chartered Institutions (created by Law) 1.8. Local Government Units (LGUs) 2) Power relations between and among the branches of the Government, focusing on law making and institution building.

Atty Erwin Tiamson , Elmer Mercado, EnP, fpiep

This is a proposed 30-year strategic land sector reform framework to develop the Philippine's age-old land administration and management regimes that continued to be based on laws issued in the late 1930's. This proposed framework aims to 'upgrade' the country's land laws into the digital and internet age as well as into the growing land pressure of the country from its almost 10 million people in the 1930's with its more than 100 million population as of 2015.

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED PAPERS

Land and Property Laws

Enp Gus Agosto

Raizza (RPC) Corpuz

Dioscoro Melana

RePEc: Research Papers in Economics

Rosario Manasan

Ariel Autida

Daniel Talion

Miguel Antonio Barretto Garcia

Habitat International

Charles Choguill

Nobuhiko Fuwa

Journal Article

Yammie P . Daud

Administración & Desarrollo

Juan David Huertas Ramos

Trish Castro

Aquinnah Keemeone

Alex S Regado

Marilina Lea Pal

Nathalie Beaulieu

Juan Mayo Ragragio

Journal of Agrarian Change

Saturnino Borras

eric trabasas

Jon Leo Licayan

Philippine Journal of Development

Fernando Aldaba

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

Corruption and Implementation: Case Studies in Philippine Public Administration

Authors/Editors: Vicente Chua Reyes, Jr.

Publisher: UP NCPAG

Edition: –

Binding: Paperbound

The book features two case studies reflecting the successes and failures of education programs in the Philippines.  In particular, it provides an assessment of the Textbook Delivery Program (TDP) (2000-2002) and the Program on Basic Education (PROBE) (1996-2001), both implemented by the Department of Education (DepEd). Findings show how corruption affects the quality of service delivery and eventual success/failure of Philippine education programs.

Price: PhP 350.00

Discount/Promo:

Availability: In Stock

Please contact the Publications Office at 926-1443 for purchase inquiries.

Copyright © 2024 | NCPAG

Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC) 2024

Published by the Food Security Information Network (FSIN) in support of the Global Network against Food Crises (GNAFC), the GRFC 2024 is the reference document for global, regional and country-level acute food insecurity in 2023. The report is the result of a collaborative effort among 16 partners to achieve a consensus-based assessment of acute food insecurity and malnutrition in countries with food crises and aims to inform humanitarian and development action.  

FSIN and Global Network Against Food Crises. 2024. GRFC 2024 . Rome.

When citing this report online please use this link:

https://www.fsinplatform.org/report/global-report-food-crises-2024/

Advanced search